Study Guide: Terms to Know

The Monarchy

Aeneas: was a Trojan hero. He is a character in Greek mythology and is mentioned in Homer's
Iliad, and receives full treatment in Roman mythology as the legendary founder of what would
become Ancient Rome, most extensively in Virgil's Aeneid. He became the first true hero of
Rome.

Romulus: Romulus and Remus are the twin brothers and central characters of Rome's
foundation myth. Rhea Silvia conceives the twins by the god Mars, or by the demi-god Hercules;
once the twins are born, Amulius has them abandoned to die in the river Tiber. They are saved
by a series of miraculous interventions: the river carries them to safety, a she-wolf (in Latin,
lupa) finds and suckles them, and a woodpecker feeds them. A shepherd and his wife find them
and foster them to manhood, as simple shepherds. The twins, still ignorant of their true origins,
prove to be natural leaders. Each acquires many followers. When they discover the truth of their
birth, they kill Amulius and restore Numitor to his throne. Rather than wait to inherit Alba
Longa, they choose to found a new city. Romulus wants to found the new city on the Palatine
Hill; Remus prefers the Aventine Hill.[2] They agree to determine the site through augury but
when each claims the results in his own favor, they quarrel and Remus is killed.[3] Romulus
founds the new city, names it Rome, after himself, and creates its first legions and senate. Rome
becomes a dominant force, but Romulus himself becomes increasingly autocratic, and disappears
or dies in mysterious circumstances.

Lucretia: her rape by the Etruscan king's son and consequent suicide were the immediate cause
of the revolution that overthrew the monarchy and established the Roman Republic. The
beginning of the Republic is marked by the first appearance of the two consuls elected on a
yearly basis

Brutus: Marcus Junius Brutus (early June 85 BC – 23 October 42 BC), often referred to as
Brutus, was a politician of the late Roman Republic. After being adopted by his uncle he used
the name Quintus Servilius Caepio Brutus, but eventually returned to using his original name.
[1]
He is best known in modern times for taking a leading role in the assassination of Julius
Caesar.

The Early Republic

Consuls: Consul (abbrev. cos.; Latin plural consules) was the highest elected office of the
Roman Republic and an appointive office under the Empire. It can be stated for certain that at
some point after the expulsion of the monarchy, the leadership of the state was invested in the
office of praetor (later consul), which was held by teo individuals, elected for a year’s term. The
praetors held symbols of leadership that were different from the monarch’s, but they did have the
king’s power of imperium.
Battle of Lake Regillus: The Battle of Lake Regillus was a legendary Roman victory over the
Latin League shortly after the establishment of the Roman Republic. The Latins were led by an
elderly Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the seventh and last King of Rome, who had been expelled
in 509 BC, and his son-in-law, Octavius Mamilius, the dictator of Tusculum. The battle marked
the final attempt of the Tarquins to reclaim their throne.

Struggle of the Orders: The Conflict of the Orders, also referred to as the Struggle of the
Orders, was a political struggle between the Plebeians (commoners) and Patricians
(aristocrats) of the ancient Roman Republic lasting from 494 BCE to 287 BCE, in which the
Plebeians sought political equality with the Patricians. It played a major role in the development
of the Constitution of the Roman Republic. The conflict began while Rome was at war with two
neighboring tribes and all the Plebeians left the city (the first secessio plebis). The result of this
first secession was the creation of the office of Plebeian Tribune, and with it the first acquisition
of real power by the Plebeians.

Patricians: The term patrician (Latin: patricius, Greek: πατρίκιος, patrikios) originally referred
to a group of ruling class families in ancient Rome, including both their natural and adopted
members. In the late Roman Empire, the class was broadened to include high administrative
officials, and after the fall of the Western Empire it remained a high honorary title in the
Byzantine Empire. Medieval patrician classes were once again formally defined groups of
leading burgess families in many medieval Italian republics, such as Venice and Genoa, and
subsequently "patrician" became a vaguer term used for aristocrats and the higher bourgeoisie in
many countries.

Plebeians: In ancient Rome, the plebs was the general body of free Roman citizens who were not
patricians, as determined by the census. Shopkeepers, crafts people, and skilled or unskilled
workers might be plebeian (/plɨˈbiːən/; Latin: plebeius).[1] From the 4th century BC or earlier,
some of the most prominent and wealthy Roman families, as identified by their gens name, were
of plebeian status (see Roman naming conventions).

Tribunes of the plebs: The Tribune of the Plebes (tribunus plebis) was a magistracy established
in 494 BC. It was created to provide the people with a direct representative magistrate along with
the magistrates of the senate. The office was sacrosanct (legally protected from physical harm),
and provided ius auxiliandi, or the right to rescue any plebeian from the hands of a patrician
magistrate. Interfering with the authority of a tribune could result in capital punishment. By 449
BC the powerful right of intercession was acquired (ius intercessionis or to veto any act or
proposal of any magistrate). Originally two tribunes were elected, but along with the right of
veto this was increased to ten. They were the only magistrate capable of convening the plebeian
assembly and therefore held the right to propose legislation to the people.
Veii: Veii was the richest city of the Etruscan League, on the southern border of Etruria. It was
alternately at war and in alliance with Rome for over 300 years. It eventually fell to the Roman
general Camillus's army in 396 BC. Veii continued to be occupied after its capture by the
Romans

The Latin War: The (Second) Latin War (340–338 BC)[note 1] was a conflict between the Roman
Republic and its neighbors the Latin peoples of ancient Italy. It ended in the dissolution of the
Latin League, and incorporation of its territory into the Roman sphere of influence, with the
Latins gaining partial rights and varying levels of citizenship.

Municipia: cities in Italy that had many rights and obligations of citizens, but lacked the right to
vote.

Colonies: type of roman city founded by the romans in newly conquered territories, often settled
by veterans.

Pyrrhus of Epirus: greek king who went to war with both the romans and carthage. . He was one
of the strongest opponents of early Rome. Pyrrhus was proclaimed king of Sicily.

Roman Conquest of the Mediterranean

Carthage: huge naval and commercial power and fought with rome in the punic wars.

Punic Wars: the wars that the romans fought against carthage during the period of the republic.

Hannibal: Carthaginian general who terrorized the roman countryside during the second punic
wars

Battle of Cannae: The Battle of Cannae (/ˈkæni/ or /ˈkæneɪ/), a major battle of the Second Punic
War, took place on 2 August 216 BC in Apulia in southeast Italy. The army of Carthage under
Hannibal decisively defeated a larger army of the Roman Republic under the consuls Lucius
Aemilius Paullus and Gaius Terentius Varro. It is regarded as one of the greatest tactical feats in
military history and has been regarded as the worst defeat in Roman history.

(Publius Cornelius) Scipio Africanus: Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus (236–183 BC), also
known as Scipio the African, Scipio the Elder, Scipio Africanus-Major, and Scipio the
Great[1] was a general in the Second Punic War and statesman of the Roman Republic. He was
best known for defeating Hannibal at the final battle of the Second Punic War at Zama, a feat
that earned him the agnomen Africanus, the nickname "the Roman Hannibal", as well as
recognition as one of the finest commanders in military history.
Battle of Zama: The Battle of Zama, fought around October 19, 202 BC, marked the end of the
Second Punic War. A Roman army led by Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus defeated a
Carthaginian force led by the commander Hannibal. Soon after this defeat on their home ground,
the Carthaginian senate sued for peace, which was given to them by the Roman Republic on
rather humiliating terms, ending the 17-year war.

Macedonian Wars: The Macedonian wars were a series of conflicts fought by Rome in the
eastern Mediterranean, the Adriatic, and the Aegean. They resulted in Roman control or
influence over the eastern Mediterranean basin, in addition to their hegemony in the western
Mediterranean after the Punic wars. Third Macedonian war(172-168bc) (turn Macedon
dependent on Rome). Forth Macedonian war(146 bc) Macedonia becomes roman province.

Roman-Syrian War: The Roman–Syrian War (192–188 BC), also known as the War of
Antiochos or the Syrian War, was a military conflict between two coalitions led by the Roman
Republic under Scipio Africanus Major and the Seleucid Empire under Antiochus the Great. The
fighting took place in Greece, the Aegean Sea and Asia Minor. The war was the consequence of
a "cold war" between both powers, which had started in 196 BC. In this period Romans and
Seleucids had tried to settle spheres of influence by making alliances with the Greek minor
powers. The fighting ended with a clear victory of the Romans. In the Treaty of Apamea the
Seleucids were forced to give up Asia Minor, which fell to Roman allies. As a main result of the
war the Roman Republic gained the hegemony over Greece and became the only remaining
major power around the Mediterranean Sea.

Rome’s Social Problems

Tiberius Gracchus: Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (Latin: TI·SEMPRONIVS·TI·F·P·N·GRACCVS;

b. abt 163 BC - 162 BC d.133 BC)[1] was a Roman Populares politician of the 2nd century BC
and brother of Gaius Gracchus. As a plebeian tribune, his reforms of agrarian legislation sought
to transfer wealth from the wealthy, patricians and otherwise, to the poor and caused political
turmoil in the Republic. These reforms threatened the holdings of rich landowners in Italy. He
was murdered, along with many of his supporters, by members of the Roman Senate and
supporters of the conservative Optimate faction.

Gaius Gracchus: Gaius Sempronius Gracchus (154 BC – 121 BC) was a Roman Popularis
politician in the 2nd century BC and brother of the reformer Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus. His
election to the office of tribune in the years 123 BC and 122 BC and reformative policies while
in office prompted a constitutional crisis and his death at the hands of the Roman Senate in 121
BC.
(Gaius) Marius: Gaius Marius[1] (157 BC – January 13, 86 BC) was a Roman general and
statesman. He held the office of consul an unprecedented seven times during his career. He was
also noted for his important reforms of Roman armies, authorizing recruitment of landless
citizens, eliminating the manipular military formations, and reorganizing the structure of the
legions into separate cohorts. Marius defeated the invading Germanic tribes (the Teutones,
Ambrones, and the Cimbri), for which he was called "the third founder of Rome."[2] His life and
career were significant in Rome's transformation from Republic to Empire.

Social War: The Allied War ("Social" from socii ("allies"); also called the Italian War, the
War of the Allies or the Marsic War) was a war waged from 90 to 88 BC between the Roman
Republic and several of the other cities in Italy, which prior to the war had been Roman allies for
centuries. (Rome’s allies revolted)

(Lucius Cornelius) Sulla: Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix[1] (c. 138 BC – 78 BC), known
commonly as Sulla, was a Roman general and statesman. He had the distinction of holding the
office of consul twice, as well as reviving the dictatorship. Sulla was awarded a grass crown, the
most prestigious and rarest Roman military honor, during the Social War.

Mithridates: KING OF A SMALL REGION NEAR THE BLACK SEA WHO FOUGHT WITH
ROME IN WHAT ARE CALLED THE MITHRADITIC WARS

The Fall of the Roman Republic

(Gnaeus) Pompeius: Gnaeus Pompeius (ca. 75 BC – April 12, 45 BC), also known as Pompey
the Younger (sometimes spelled Cneius, Gneius), was a Roman politician and general from the
late Republic (1st century BC). Gnaeus Pompeius was the elder son of Pompey the Great
(Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus) by his third wife, Mucia Tertia. Both he and his younger brother
Sextus Pompey grew up in the shadow of their father, one of Rome's best generals and not
originally a conservative politician who drifted to the more traditional faction when Julius Caesar
became a threat. When Caesar crossed the Rubicon in 49 BC, thus starting a civil war, Gnaeus
followed his father in their escape to the East, as did most of the conservative senators. Pompey's
army lost the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC, and Pompey himself had to run for his life, only to be
murdered in Egypt on September 29 of the same year.

(Marcus Licinius) Crassus: Marcus Licinius Crassus (Latin: M·LICINIVS·P·F·P·N·CRASSVS[1])

(ca. 115 BC – 53 BC) was a Roman general and politician who played a key role in the
transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire. Amassing an enormous fortune
during his life, Crassus is considered the wealthiest man in Roman history, and among the richest
men in all history. Crassus began his public career as a military commander under Lucius
Cornelius Sulla during his civil war. Following Sulla's assumption of the dictatorship, Crassus
amassed an enormous fortune through real estate speculation. Crassus rose to political
prominence following his victory over the slave revolt led by Spartacus, sharing the Consulship
with his rival Pompey the Great. A political and financial patron of Julius Caesar, Crassus joined
Caesar and Pompey in the unofficial political alliance known as the First Triumvirate. Together
the three men dominated the Roman political system. The alliance would not last indefinitely due
to the ambitions, egos, and jealousies of the three men. While Caesar and Crassus were lifelong
allies, Crassus and Pompey disliked each other and Pompey grew increasingly envious of
Caesar's spectacular successes in the Gallic Wars. The alliance was re-stabilized at the Lucca
Conference in 56 BC, after which Crassus and Pompey again served jointly as Consuls.
Following his second Consulship, Crassus was appointed as the Governor of Roman Syria.
Crassus used Syria as the launchpad for a military campaign against the Parthian Empire, Rome's
long-time Eastern enemy. Crassus' campaign was a disastrous failure, resulting in his defeat and
death at the Battle of Carrhae. Crassus' death permanently unraveled the alliance between Caesar
and Pompey. Within four years of Crassus' death, Caesar would cross the Rubicon and begin a
civil war against Pompey and the Optimates.

Spartacus: Spartacus (Greek: Σπάρτακος, Spártakos; Latin: Spartacus[1]) (c. 109–71 BC) was a
Thracian gladiator, who, along with the Gauls Crixus, Oenomaus, Castus and Gannicus, was one
of the slave leaders in the Third Servile War, a major slave uprising against the Roman Republic.
Little is known about Spartacus beyond the events of the war, and surviving historical accounts
are sometimes contradictory and may not always be reliable. All sources agree that he was a
former gladiator and an accomplished military leader.

(Marcus Tullius) Cicero: one of Rome's greatest orators and prose stylists, Stops catiline
conspiracy (attempted revolution led by catiline in 63 bc that was expose by Cicero.

(Lucius Sergius) Catiline: Lucius Sergius Catilina, known in English as Catiline(/ˈkætəlaɪn/;

108–62 BC), was a Roman Senator of the 1st century BC who is best known for the Second
Catilinarian Conspiracy, a supposed attempt to overthrow the Roman Republic, and in particular
the power of the aristocratic Senate. (SCC: The Second Catilinarian Conspiracy was a plot,
devised by Catiline with the help of a group of aristocrats and disaffected veterans, to overthrow
the Roman Republic. In 63 BC, Cicero exposed the plot which forced Catiline to flee from
Rome.)

(Gaius) Julius Caesar: Gaius Julius Caesar[2] (Classical Latin: [ˈɡaː.i.ʊs ˈjuː.lɪ.ʊs ˈ[Link]],[3] July
100 BC[4] – 15 March 44 BC)[5] was a Roman general, statesman, Consul, and notable author of
Latin prose. He played a critical role in the events that led to the demise of the Roman Republic
and the rise of the Roman Empire. In 60 BC, Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey formed a political
alliance that was to dominate Roman politics for several years. Their attempts to amass power
through populist tactics were opposed by the conservative ruling class within the Roman Senate,
among them Cato the Younger with the frequent support of Cicero. Caesar's conquest of Gaul,
completed by 51 BC, extended Rome's territory to the English Channel and the Rhine. Caesar
became the first Roman general to cross both when he built a bridge across the Rhine and
conducted the first invasion of Britain. These achievements granted him unmatched military
power and threatened to eclipse the standing of Pompey, who had realigned himself with the
Senate after the death of Crassus in 53 BC. With the Gallic Wars concluded, the Senate ordered
Caesar to lay down his military command and return to Rome. Caesar refused, and marked his
defiance in 49 BC by crossing the Rubicon with a legion, leaving his province and illegally
entering Roman territory under arms.[6] Civil war resulted, from which he emerged as the
unrivaled leader of Rome. After assuming control of government, Caesar began a program of
social and governmental reforms, including the creation of the Julian calendar. He centralised the
bureaucracy of the Republic and was eventually proclaimed "dictator in perpetuity". But the
underlying political conflicts had not been resolved, and on the Ides of March (15 March) 44 BC,
Caesar was assassinated by a group of senators led by Marcus Junius Brutus. A new series of
civil wars broke out, and the constitutional government of the Republic was never restored.
Caesar's adopted heir Octavian, later known as Augustus, rose to sole power, and the era of the
Roman Empire began.

First Triumvirate: The First Triumvirate was the political alliance of Gaius Julius Caesar,
Marcus Licinius Crassus, and Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus.[1] Unlike the Second Triumvirate, the
First Triumvirate had no official status whatsoever; its overwhelming power in the Roman
Republic was strictly unofficial influence, and was in fact kept secret for some time as part of the
political machinations of the Triumvirs themselves. It was formed in 60 BC and lasted until
Crassus' death in 53 BC.

Rubicon River: Any promagistrate who entered Italy at the head of his troops forfeited his
imperium and was therefore no longer legally allowed to command troops. Exercising imperium
when forbidden by the law was a capital offence, punishable by death. Furthermore, obeying the
commands of a general who did not legally possess imperium was also a capital offence. If a
general entered Italy whilst exercising command of an army, both the general and his soldiers
became outlaws and were automatically condemned to death. Generals were thus obliged to
disband their armies before entering Italy.

Battle of Pharsalus: The Battle of Pharsalus was a decisive battle of Caesar's Civil War. On 9
August 48 BC at Pharsalus in central Greece, Gaius Julius Caesar and his allies formed up
opposite the army of the republic under the command of Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus ("Pompey
the Great"). Pompey had the backing of a majority of the senators, of whom many were
optimates, and his army significantly outnumbered the veteran Caesarian legions. The two
armies confronted each other over several months of uncertainty, Caesar being in a much weaker
position than Pompey. The former found himself isolated in a hostile country with only 22,000
men and short of provisions, while on the other side of the river he was faced by Pompey with an
army about twice as large in number. Pompey wanted to delay, knowing the enemy would
eventually surrender from hunger and exhaustion. Pressured by the Senators present and by his
officers, he reluctantly engaged in battle and suffered an overwhelming defeat, ultimately fleeing
the camp and his men, disguised as an ordinary citizen.
Augustus and the Julio-Claudians\

Mark Antony: Marcus Antonius, commonly known in English as Mark Antony (Latin:
M·ANTONIVS·M·F·M·N)[note 1] (January 14, 83 BC – August 1, 30 BC), was a Roman politician and
general. As a military commander and administrator, he was an important supporter and loyal
friend of his mother's cousin Julius Caesar. After Caesar's assassination, Antony formed an
official political alliance with Octavian (the future Augustus) and Lepidus, known to historians
today as the Second Triumvirate. The triumvirate broke up in 33 BC. Disagreement between
Octavian and Antony erupted into civil war, the Final War of the Roman Republic, in 31 BC.
Antony was defeated by Octavian at the naval Battle of Actium, and in a brief land battle at
Alexandria. He and his lover Cleopatra committed suicide shortly thereafter. His career and
defeat are significant in Rome's transformation from Republic to Empire.

Octavian/Augustus: Augustus (Latin: Imperator Caesar Divi F. Augustus,[note 1] 23 September 63

BC – 19 August 14 AD) was the founder of the Roman Empire and its first Emperor, ruling from
27 BC until his death in 14 AD. (Man who defeated mark Anthony and Cleopatra and became
Augustus founder of the Principate.

Second Triumvirate: The Second Triumvirate is the name historians give to the official political
alliance of Octavian (later known as Augustus), Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, and Mark Antony,
formed on 26 November 43 BC with the enactment of the Lex Titia, the adoption of which
marked the end of the Roman Republic. The Triumvirate existed for two five-year terms,
covering the period 43 BC – 33 BC. Unlike the earlier First Triumvirate, the Second Triumvirate
was an official, legally established institution, whose overwhelming power in the Roman state
was given full legal sanction and whose imperium maius outranked that of all other magistrates,
including the consuls.

Battle of Actium: The Battle of Actium was the decisive confrontation of the Final War of the
Roman Republic, a naval engagement between Octavian and the combined forces of Mark
Antony and Cleopatra on 2 September 31 BC, on the Ionian Sea near the city of Actium, in the
Roman province of Epirus vetus in Greece. Octavian's fleet was commanded by Marcus
Vipsanius Agrippa, while Antony's fleet was supported by the ships of Queen Cleopatra of
Ptolemaic Egypt. Octavian's victory enabled him to consolidate his power over Rome and its
dominions. He adopted the title of Princeps ("first citizen") and some years later was awarded the
title of Augustus ("revered") by the Roman Senate. This became the name by which he was
known in later times. As Augustus, he retained the trappings of a restored Republican leader, but
historians generally view this consolidation of power and the adoption of these honorifics as the
end of the Roman Republic and the beginning of the Roman Empire.
First Settlement and Second Settlement: FS: in 27 bc, Octavian gained the name augustus and
claimed to have restored the republic, but in fact brought that form of government to an end.

The FIRST SETTLEMENT, January, 27 B.C.

Personal constitutional power:

 In ROME: consul ( imperium ) [43, 33,] 31, 30, 29, 28, 27, 26, 25, 24, 23, [5, 2] B.C.

 Outside Rome: proconsul ( imperium proconsulare )

His province was to include: (See: Ronald Syme, The Roman Revolution (1939) pp. 325-
326.

Hispania Tarraconensis
Hispania Baetica
Tres Galliae
Gallia Narbonensis
Syria
Cyprus
Cilicia Campestris

Personal influence:

 auctoritas: see Res Gestae Divi Augusti, chapter 34.

 Princeps Senatus: the senior senator in the Roman Senate
 campaigning personally for his choices as magistrates every year
 using his amicitia ('friendship') as well as the threat of the loss of it to keep people
cooperative (cf. the case of Cornelius Gallus, the Prefect of Egypt)

The SECOND SETTLEMENT, June-July, 23 B.C.

 resignation of the consulship (After 23, Augustus only held the office twice, in 5 B. C.
and 2 B.C., to preside over the introduction of his adopted sons into public life.)
 In ROME: the grant of tribunicia potestas (the status and privileges, but not the burdens
of the office, of a Tribune of the People). This gave Augustus the right to veto any
actions of any magistrate(s), Senate, or Assemblies that did not suit him.
 Special grants (to compensate for the powers lost with the renunciation of the annual
consulship):

the right ot a seat on the Consuls' platform at the front of the Senate House
-the right of speaking first at a Senate Meeting ( ius primae relationis )
-the right to summon a meeting of the Senate
-the cura annonae, care of Rome's grain supply (which brought patronage over the Plebs)

 In the Provinces: imperium maius proconsulare

-the right to govern his own provinces and armies

-the right to interfere in any other governor's province when Augustus deemed it necessary (cf.
the Cyrene Edicts)

Praetorian Guard: the emperor’s personal security force, stationed in Rome.

Tiberius: Tiberius (/taɪˈbɪəriəs/; Latin: Tiberius Caesar Divi Augusti filius Augustus;[1][2] 16
November 42 BC – 16 March 37 AD) was Roman Emperor from 14 AD to 37 AD. Born
Tiberius Claudius Nero, a Claudian, Tiberius was the son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia
Drusilla. His mother divorced Nero and married Augustus in 39 BC, making him a step-son of
[Link] would later marry Augustus' daughter Julia the Elder (from his marriage to
Scribonia) and even later be adopted by Augustus, by which act he officially became a Julian,
bearing the name Tiberius Julius Caesar. The subsequent emperors after Tiberius would
continue this blended dynasty of both families for the next forty years; historians have named it
the Julio-Claudian dynasty. In relations to the other emperors of this dynasty, Tiberius was the
stepson of Augustus, grand-uncle of Caligula, paternal uncle of Claudius, and great-grand uncle
of [Link] was one of Rome's greatest generals, conquering Pannonia, Dalmatia, Raetia,
and temporarily Germania; laying the foundations for the northern frontier. But he came to be
remembered as a dark, reclusive, and sombre ruler who never really desired to be emperor; Pliny
the Elder called him tristissimus hominum, "the gloomiest of men."[3]After the death of Tiberius’
son Drusus Julius Caesar in 23, he became more reclusive and aloof. In 26, against better
judgement, Tiberius exiled himself from Rome and left administration largely in the hands of his
unscrupulous Praetorian Prefects Lucius Aelius Sejanus and Quintus Naevius Sutorius Macro.
Caligula, Tiberius' grand-nephew and adopted grandson, succeeded the emperor upon his death.

Gaius (Caligula): "Caligula" (Latin: Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus;[1]) was the
popular nickname of Gaius (31 August 12 AD – 22 January 41 AD), Roman emperor from 37
AD to 41 AD. Caligula was a member of the house of rulers conventionally known as the Julio-
Claudian dynasty. Caligula's father Germanicus, the nephew and adopted son of Emperor
Tiberius, was a very successful general and one of Rome's most beloved public figures. The
young Gaius earned the nickname Caligula (meaning "little soldier's boot", the diminutive form
of caliga, hob-nailed military boot) from his father's soldiers while accompanying him during his
campaigns in [Link] Germanicus died at Antioch in 19 AD, his wife Agrippina the
Elder returned to Rome with her six children where she became entangled in an increasingly
bitter feud with Tiberius. This conflict eventually led to the destruction of her family, with
Caligula as the sole male survivor. Unscathed by the deadly intrigues, Caligula accepted the
invitation to join the emperor on the island of Capri in 31 AD, where Tiberius himself had
withdrawn five years earlier. With the death of Tiberius in 37 AD, Caligula succeeded his great
uncle and adoptive grandfather.

Claudius: Claudius (Classical Latin: [ˈklawdɪʊs], Latin: Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus
Germanicus;[1][2] 1 August 10 BC – 13 October AD 54) was Roman emperor from 41 to 54. A
member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, he was the son of Drusus and Antonia Minor. He was
born at Lugdunum in Gaul and was the first Roman Emperor to be born outside Italy. Because he
was afflicted with a limp and slight deafness due to sickness at a young age, his family ostracized
him and excluded him from public office until his consulship, shared with his nephew Caligula
in 37. Claudius' infirmity probably saved him from the fate of many other nobles during the
purges of Tiberius and Caligula's reigns; potential enemies did not see him as a serious threat.
His survival led to his being declared Emperor by the Praetorian Guard after Caligula's
assassination, at which point he was the last man of his family. Claudius was also mentioned by
Luke the Evangelist in Acts 11:28[3] and Acts 18:2[4] of the New Testament. Despite his lack of
experience, Claudius proved to be an able and efficient administrator. He was also an ambitious
builder, constructing many new roads, aqueducts, and canals across the Empire. During his reign
the Empire conquered Thrace, Noricum, Pamphylia, Lycia and Judea, and began the conquest of
Britain. Having a personal interest in law, he presided at public trials, and issued up to twenty
edicts a day. He was seen as vulnerable throughout his reign, particularly by elements of the
nobility. Claudius was constantly forced to shore up his position; this resulted in the deaths of
many senators. These events damaged his reputation among the ancient writers, though more
recent historians have revised this opinion. Many authors contend that he was murdered by his
own wife. After his death in 54, his grand-nephew and adopted son Nero succeeded him as
Emperor.

Nero: Nero (Latin: Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus;[2] 15 December 37 – 9 June 68)
[3]
was Roman Emperor from 54 to 68, and the last in the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Nero was
adopted by his great-uncle Claudius to become his heir and successor, and succeeded to the
throne in 54 following Claudius' death. During his reign, Nero focused much of his attention on
diplomacy, trade, and enhancing the cultural life of the Empire. He ordered theaters built and
promoted athletic games. During his reign, the redoubtable general Corbulo conducted a
successful war and negotiated peace with the Parthian Empire. His general Suetonius Paulinus
crushed a revolt in Britain. Nero annexed the Bosporan Kingdom to the Empire and began the
First Roman–Jewish War. In 64 AD, most of Rome was destroyed in the Great Fire of Rome,
which many Romans believed Nero himself had started in order to clear land for his planned
palatial complex, the Domus Aurea. In 68, the rebellion of Vindex in Gaul and later the
acclamation of Galba in Hispania drove Nero from the throne. Facing assassination, he
committed suicide on 9 June 68 (the first Roman emperor to do so)[4] His death ended the Julio-
Claudian Dynasty, sparking a brief period of civil wars known as the Year of the Four Emperors.
Nero's rule is often associated with tyranny and extravagance.[5] He is known for many
executions, including that of his mother,[6] and the probable murder by poison of his stepbrother
Britannicus.

Year of Four Emperors: The Year of the Four Emperors was a year in the history of the Roman
Empire, AD 69, in which four emperors ruled in a remarkable succession. These four emperors
were Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian. The suicide of emperor Nero, in 68, was followed
by a brief period of civil war, the first Roman civil war since Mark Antony's death in 30 BC.
Between June 68 and December of 69, Rome witnessed the successive rise and fall of Galba,
Otho and Vitellius until the final accession of Vespasian, first ruler of the Flavian dynasty, in
July 69. This period of civil war has become emblematic of the cyclic political disturbances in
the history of the Roman Empire. The military and political anarchy created by this civil war had
serious repercussions, such as the outbreak of the Batavian rebellion. (The Jewish Revolt was
already in progress.)

The Flavians and the Five Good Emperors

Vespasian: espasian (/vɛsˈpeɪʒiən/ or /vɛsˈpeɪziən/; Latin: Titus Flavius Caesar Vespasianus
Augustus;[note 1] 17 November 9 – 23 June 79[1]) was Roman Emperor from AD 69 to AD 79.
Vespasian founded the Flavian dynasty that ruled the Empire for a quarter century.

Nerva: On 18 September 96, Domitian was assassinated in a palace conspiracy involving

members of the Praetorian Guard and several of his freedmen. On the same day, Nerva was
declared emperor by the Roman Senate. This was the first time the Senate elected a Roman
Emperor. As the new ruler of the Roman Empire, he vowed to restore liberties which had been
curtailed during the autocratic government of Domitian. Nerva's brief reign was marred by
financial difficulties and his inability to assert his authority over the Roman army. A revolt by
the Praetorian Guard in October 97 essentially forced him to adopt an heir. After some
deliberation Nerva adopted Trajan, a young and popular general, as his successor. After barely
fifteen months in office, Nerva died of natural causes on 27 January 98. Upon his death he was
succeeded and deified by Trajan.

Trajan: Trajan (English pronunciation: /ˈtreɪdʒən/; Latin: Imperator Caesar Nerva Traianus
Divi Nervae filius Augustus;[1] 18 September 53 – 9 August 117 AD) was Roman emperor from
98 AD until his death. Officially declared by the Senate as optimus princeps ("the best ruler"),
Trajan is remembered as a successful soldier-emperor who presided over the greatest military
expansion in Roman history, leading the empire to attain its maximum territorial extent by the
time of his death. He is also known for his philanthropic rule, overseeing extensive public
building programs and implementing social welfare policies, which earned him his enduring
reputation as the second of the Five Good Emperors who presided over an era of peace and
prosperity in the Mediterranean world.
Hadrian: Hadrian (Latin: Publius Aelius Hadrianus Augustus[note 1][2][note 2] 24 January, 76 AD – 10
July, 138 AD) was Roman Emperor from 117 to 138. He re-built the Pantheon and constructed
the Temple of Venus and Roma. He is also known for building Hadrian's Wall, which marked
the northern limit of Roman Britain. Hadrian was regarded by some as a humanist and was
philhellene in most of his tastes. He is regarded as one of the Five Good Emperors.

Marcus Aurelius: Marcus Aurelius (/ɔːˈriːliəs/; Latin: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus;[1]
[notes 1]
26 April 121 AD – 17 March 180 AD) was a Roman Emperor from 161 to 180. He ruled
with Lucius Verus as co-emperor from 161 until Verus' death in 169. He was the last of the Five
Good Emperors, and is also considered one of the most important Stoic philosophers.

Commodus: Commodus (Latin: Marcus Aurelius Commodus Antoninus Augustus;[1] 31 August,

161 AD – 31 December, 192 AD), was Roman Emperor from 180 to 192. He also ruled as co-
emperor with his father Marcus Aurelius from 177 until his father's death in 180. His accession
as emperor was the first time a son had succeeded his father since Titus succeeded Vespasian in
79. He was also the first Emperor to have both a father and grandfather as the two preceding
Emperors. Commodus was the first (and until 337 the only) emperor "born in the purple", i.e.,
during his father's reign. Commodus was assassinated in 192.

Septimius Severus: Severus founded the Severan dynasty, the last dynasty of the empire before
the Crisis of the Third Century.

The Late Empire

Barracks Emperors: A Barracks emperor (also called a "soldier emperor") was a Roman
Emperor who seized power by virtue of his command of the army. Barracks emperors were
especially common in the period from 235 through 284, during the Crisis of the Third Century.
There were approximately fourteen barracks emperors in 33 years, producing an average reign of
a little over two years apiece. The resulting instability in the imperial office and the near constant
state of civil war and insurrection threatened to destroy the Roman Empire from within and left it
vulnerable to attack from without.

Aurelian: Aurelian (Latin: Lucius Domitius Aurelianus Augustus;[1][2] 9 September 214 or 215 –
September or October 275), was Roman Emperor from 270 to 275. Born in humble
circumstances, he rose through the military ranks to become emperor. During his reign, he
defeated the Alamanni after a devastating war. He also defeated the Goths, Vandals, Juthungi,
Sarmatians, and Carpi. Aurelian restored the Empire's eastern provinces after his conquest of the
Palmyrene Empire in 273. The following year he conquered the Gallic Empire in the west,
reuniting the Empire in its entirety. He was also responsible for the construction of the Aurelian
Walls in Rome, and the abandonment of the province of Dacia.
Diocletian: diocletian, Latin in full Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus, original name Diocles
(born 245 ce, Salonae?, Dalmatia [now Solin, Croatia]—died 316, Salonae), Roman emperor
(284–305 ce), who restored efficient government to the empire after the near anarchy of the 3rd
century. His reorganization of the fiscal, administrative, and military machinery of the empire
laid the foundation for the Byzantine Empire in the East and temporarily shored up the decaying
empire in the West. His reign is also noted for the last great persecution of the Christians.

Tetrarchy: The term Tetrarchy (Greek: "leadership of four [people]") describes any form of
government where power is divided among four individuals, but in modern usage usually refers
to the system instituted by Roman Emperor Diocletian in 293, marking the end of the Crisis of
the Third Century and the recovery of the Roman Empire. This Tetrarchy lasted until c. 313,
when internecine conflict eliminated most of the claimants to power, leaving Constantine in the
East and Licinius in the West.

Constantine: Constantine the Great (Latin: Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus Augustus;[2]
27 February c. 272[1] – 22 May 337), also known as Constantine I or Saint Constantine,[3] was
Roman Emperor from 306 to 337. Constantine was the son of Flavius Valerius Constantius, a
Roman army officer, and his consort Helena. His father became Caesar, the deputy emperor in
the west in 293. Constantine was sent east, where he rose through the ranks to become a military
tribune under the emperors Diocletian and Galerius. In 305, Constantius was raised to the rank of
Augustus, senior western emperor, and Constantine was recalled west to campaign under his
father in Britannia. Acclaimed as emperor by the army after his father's death in 306, Constantine
emerged victorious in a series of civil wars against the emperors Maxentius and Licinius to
become sole ruler of both west and east by 324.

As emperor, Constantine enacted many administrative, financial, social, and military reforms to
strengthen the empire. The government was restructured and civil and military authority
separated. A new gold coin, the solidus, was introduced to combat inflation. It would become the
standard for Byzantine and European currencies for more than a thousand years. The first Roman
emperor to convert to Christianity,

Battle of the Milvian Bridge: The Battle of the Milvian Bridge took place between the Roman
Emperors Constantine I and Maxentius on 28 October 312. It takes its name from the Milvian
Bridge, an important route over the Tiber. Constantine won the battle and started on the path that
led him to end the Tetrarchy and become the sole ruler of the Roman Empire. Maxentius
drowned in the Tiber during the battle.

Edict of Milan: The document known as the Edict of Milan (Edictum Mediolanense) is found in
Lactantius' De Mortibus Persecutorum and Eusebius of Caesarea's History of the Church with
marked divergences between the two.[1] In February 313, Emperor Constantine I, who controlled
the western part of the Roman Empire, and Licinius, who controlled the Balkans, met in Milan
and, among other things, agreed to treat the Christians benevolently
Constantinople: Constantinople (Greek: Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis or
Κωνσταντινούπολη Konstantinoúpoli; Latin: Constantinopolis; Ottoman Turkish: ‫قسطنطینیه‬,
Kostantiniyye; and modern Turkish: İstanbul) was the capital city of the Roman, Byzantine,
Latin, and the Ottoman empires. It was reinaugurated in 324 AD[1] at ancient Byzantium, as the
new capital of the Roman Empire by Constantine the Great, after whom it was named, and
dedicated on 11 May 330.[1] In the 12th century,[2] the city was the largest and wealthiest
European city