Topic: Computer Data Conversion

Computer Data Conversion

Data conversion is the conversion of computer data from one format to another. Throughout a computer environment,
data is encoded in a variety of ways. For example, computer hardware is built on the basis of certain standards, which
requires that data contains, for example, parity bit checks. Similarly, the operating system is predicated on certain
standards for data and file handling. Furthermore, each computer program handles data in a different manner.
Whenever any one of these variables is changed, data must be converted in some way before it can be used by a
different computer, operating system or program.

REGISTERS: Registers are used to quickly accept, store and transfer data and instructions that are being used
immediately by the CPU. There are different types of registers, accumulator, program counter, memory data register,
memory buffer register. Registers are temporary storage area for instructions or data. They are not a part of memory;
rather they are special additional storage locations that offer the advantage of speed. It works under the direction of the
control unit to accept, hold, and transfer instructions or data and perform arithmetic or logical comparisons at high
speed. Most operations are done on the register; the processor can’t directly perform arithmetic in memory. For
example, if you want to add 1 to a memory address, the processor will normally do this by loading the initial value from
memory into a register, adding 1 to the register, and then saving the value back to memory.

TYPES OF REGISTER

(a) MDR (Memory Data Register): This is the register of a computer’s control unit that contains the data to be stored in
the computer storage (e.g RAM), or the data after a fetch from the computer storage. It acts like a buffer and holds
anything that is copied from the memory ready for the processor to use it.

The MDR is a two – way register because when data is fetched from memory and placed into the MDR, it is written to in
one direction. When there is a write instruction, the data to be written is placed into the MDR from another CPU register,
which then puts the data into memory.

(b) CIR (Current Interrupt Register): It captures the value that is winning the interrupt arbitration. The CIR is updated at
the beginning of an interrupt acknowledge bus cycle or in response to an update CIR command. The contents remain in
the CIR until another interrupt acknowledge cycle or update CIR Command occurs.

(c) User – Accessible Register: The most common division of user – accessible registers is into data registers and address
registers.

(d) Data Registers: They are used to hold numeric values such as integer and floating – point values.

(e) GPRs (General Purpose Registers): They can store both data and addresses.

(f) FPRs (Floating Point Registers): They st ore floating point numbers in many

architectures.

(g) Constant Registers holds read – only values such as one, or pi.

(h) Special Purpose Registers: They hold program state

(i) Instruction Registers store the instruction currently being executed.

(j) Model – Specific Register (also known as machine – specific register) store data and settings related to the processor
itself.

(k) Control and status register: It has three types which are program counter, instruction register and status word (PSW).
ADDRESS: Is the code that identifies where a piece of information is stored. A memory address is an identifier for a
memory location, at which a computer program or a hardware device can store data and later retrieve it. In modern byte
– addressable computers, each address identifies a single byte of storage; data too large to be stored in a single byte may
reside in multiple bytes occupying a sequence of consecutive addresses. Some microprocessors were designed to be
word – addressable, so that the addressable storage unit was larger than a byte. The efficiency of addressing of memory
depends on the size of the address bus.

In a computer program, an absolute address, (sometimes called an explicit address or specific address), is a memory
address that uniquely identifies a location in memory. This is different from a relative address, which is not unique and
specifies a location only in relation to somewhere else (the base address). For example, a computer said to be “32 bits”
usually treats memory addresses as 32 – bit integers; a byte addressable 32 – bit computer can address 232 =
4,294,967,296 bytes of memory or 4 gigabyte.

BUS: Is a collection of wires through which data is transmitted from one part of a computer to another. A bus, in
computing is a set of physical connections (cables, printed circuits etc.) which can be shared by multiple hardware
components in order to communicate with one another. The purpose of bus is to reduce the number of pathways
needed for communication between the components, by carrying out all communications over a single data channel.

BUS
BUS: A bus is a communication system that transfers data between components inside a computer or between
computers. This expression covers all related hardware components (wire optical fiber) and ware including
communication protocols. A bus is a transmission path on which signals are dropped off or picked up at every device
attached to the line. A bus, in computing is a set of physical connections (cables, printed circuits etc.) which can be
shared by multiple hardware components in order to communicate with one another. The purpose of bus is to reduce
the number of pathways needed for communication between the components, by carrying out all communications over
a single data channel.

Early computer buses were parallel electrical wires with multiple connections, but the term is now used for physical
arrangement that provides the same logical functionality as a parallel electrical bus. Modern computer buses can use
both parallel and serial connections and can be wired in either a multitrip and electrical parallel and or falsy main
topology or connected by switch hubs as in the case of USB.

CHARACTERISTICS OF BUS

1. A bus is characterized by the amount of information that can be transmitted at once.

2. Width is used to refer to the number of bits that a bus can transmit at once.

3. Frequency is the speed of the bus, which is the number of data packets sent or received per second. It is expressed in
Hertz (Hz).
4. Cycle is the each time that data is sent or received.

5. Transfer speed is the amount of data which it can transport per unit of time. It is the product of width and frequency.

TYPES OF BUS

1. Control Bus

2. Address Bus

3. Data Bus

A bus enables a computer processor to communicate with the memory or video card. A bus is capable of being a parallel
or serial bus and today all computers utilize the two types of bus an internal or local bus and an external bus also called
expansion bus.

The internal bus, also known as internal data bus, memory bus, system bus or Front-Side-Bus, connects all the internal
components of a computer, such as CPU and memory, to the motherboard. Internal data buses are also referred to as a
local bus, because they are intended to connect to local devices.

BUS SUB-ASSEMBLY

Each bus is generally constituted of 50 to 100 physical lines, divided into three sub-assemblies which are:

(i) Address bus (sometimes called memory bus) transports memory addresses which the processor wants to access in
order to read or write data. It is unidirectional bus.

(ii) Data bus transfers instructions coming from or going to the processor. It is bidirectional bus.

(iii) Control bus (or command bus) transports orders and synchronisation signals coming from the control unit and
travelling to all other hardware components. It is bidirectional bus, as it also transmits response signals from the
hardware.

PRIMARY BUS

There are two buses within a computer;

Internal bus (also known as front – side bus (FSB)) allows the processor to communicate with the system’s central
memory (RAM).

Expansion bus (also known as input/output bus) allows various motherboard components to communicate with one
another. However, it is mainly used to add new devices using what are called expansion slots connected to the
input/output.
BUS

Functions of Buses in Computers

The functions of buses can be summarized as below: 1. Data sharing – All types of buses found on a computer must be
able to transfer data between the computer peripherals connected to it.

The data is transferred in in either serial or parallel, which allows the exchange of 1, 2, 4 or even 8 bytes of data at a
time. (A byte is a group of 8 bits). Buses are classified depending on how many bits they can move at the same time,
which means that we have 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit or even 64-bit buses.

2. Addressing – A bus has address lines, which match those of the processor. This allows data to be sent to or from
specific memory locations.

3. Power – A bus supplies power to various peripherals that are connected to it.

4. Timing – The bus provides a system clock signal to synchronize the peripherals attached to it with the rest of the
system.

The expansion bus facilitates the easy connection of additional components and devices on a computer for example the
addition of a TV card or sound card.

Bus Terminologies

Computers can be viewed to be having just two types of buses: 1. System bus:- The bus that connects the CPU to main
memory on the motherboard. The system bus is also called the front-side bus, memory bus, local bus, or host bus. 2. A
number of I/O Buses, (Acronym for input/output), connecting various peripheral devices to the CPU -these are
connected to the system bus via a ‘bridge’ implemented in the processors chipset. Other names for the I/O bus include
“expansion bus”, “external bus” or “host bus”.

Expansion Bus Types

These are some of the common expansion bus types that have ever been used in computers:

• ISA – Industry Standard Architecture

• EISA – Extended Industry Standard Architecture

• MCA – Micro Channel Architecture

• VESA – Video Electronics Standards Association

• PCI – Peripheral Component Interconnect

• PCMCIA – Personal Computer Memory Card Industry Association (Also called PC bus)

• AGP – Accelerated Graphics Port

• SCSI – Small Computer Systems Interface.