EARTH AND SPACE
The Dynamic
Earth
TECTONIC PLATES AND
THEIR MOVEMENTS
Introduction to
Plate Tectonics
The Earth's outer shell (lithosphere)
is broken into large, rigid tectonic
plates.
These plates float on the semi-fluid
asthenosphere (upper mantle).
Plate movements cause rocks to be deformed
due to compressional stress at convergent
boundaries, tensional stress at divergent
boundaries, or shear stress at transform
boundaries. Due to these stresses, rocks
experience changes in volume and shape
Types of 1. Compressive forces squeeze and shorten
a body.
Tectonic
2. Tensional forces stretch a body and pulls
it apart
Forces
3. Shearing forces push different parts of a
body in opposite directions
When subjected to stress,
rocks can deform by
either breaking (fracture)
or bending (fold).
Types of Plate Boundaries
Divergent Convergent Transform
Boundaries Boundaries Boundaries
Plates move apart Plates collide Plates slide past
each other
Divergent Plate
Boundaries
Where two plates move away from each other.
Effects
Forms rift valleys (e.g., East
African Rift)
Creates mid-ocean ridges (e.g.,
Mid-Atlantic Ridge)
Causes volcanic activity and
shallow earthquakes.
Convergent Plate
Boundaries
Where two plates move toward each other.
Effects
Earthquakes
Volcanoes
Trenches
Convergent Plate Boundaries
Oceanic- Continental-
Oceanic-Oceanic
Continental Continental
Forms island arcs Forms volcanic Forms fold
(e.g., Japan) mountains (e.g., mountains (e.g.,
Andes) Himalayas)
Transform Plate
Boundaries
Where two plates slide past each other
horizontally.
Effects
Causes earthquakes
(e.g., San Andreas Fault
in California)
No volcanic activity (no
magma involved).
Convergent Plate Boundaries
Oceanic- Continental-
Oceanic-Oceanic
Continental Continental
Forms island arcs Forms volcanic Forms fold
(e.g., Japan) mountains (e.g., mountains (e.g.,
Andes) Himalayas)
2 Types of fault
Dip-slip faults involve the vertical
movement of the blocks of rock. These
movements are described based on
the direction of the motion of the
hanging wall with respect to the
footwall. A hanging wall is the block
of rock that rests on the fault plane
while a footwall is the one below the
fault plane
Dip-slip Fault
Dip-slip faults can either be a normal
or a reverse fault.
A normal fault is caused by tensional
stress. It is characterized by the
Normal Fault
hanging wall moving downward with
respect to the footwall.
A reverse fault, wherein the hanging
wall moves upward, is formed by
Reverse Fault
compressional stress.
Strike-slip fault
Strike-slip Fault Strike-slip fault
involves a horizontal movement of
blocks of rock and is caused by shear
stress
FOLDS
Deep within the crust, where pressure
and temperature are high, rocks are
plastic-like; thus, they do not break
but they tend to bend or fold. When
rocks in this area are compressed,
they become thicker. When rocks
become thinner, they are pulled
apart.
TYPES OF FOLDS
When blocks of rock are bent
upwards, they form anticline
structures. Synclines are formed when
blocks of rock bend downwards. A
slightly bent rock from the parallel
undeformed layers forms monoclines
TYPES OF FOLDS
Anticline is a fold that is convex up and has
its oldest beds at its core. The term is not to
be confused with antiform, which is a
purely descriptive term for any fold that is
convex up.
Therefore, if age relationships between
various strata are unknown, the term
antiform should be used
TYPES OF FOLDS
A syncline is a fold with younger layers
closer to the center of the structure.
Synclines are typically a downward fold,
termed a synformal syncline (i.e. a trough);
but synclines that point upwards, or
perched, can be found when strata have
been overturned and folded (an antiformal
syncline).
TYPES OF FOLDS
Monocline is a local warping in horizontal
strata. Rock beds lying at two level
separated by steep inclined limbs. It is form
by vertical movement and generally found
fault below monocline. a step-like fold in
rock strata consisting of a zone of steeper
dip within an otherwise horizontal or
gentlydipping sequence.