PERFORM MECHATRONIC SYSTEM INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

CHAPTER 1: OBSERVE OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY

1.1 Personal protective equipment (PPE) is used according to OSHA 2007

Introduction
This learning outcome focuses on the usage of personal protective equipment (PPE), usage of
tools and equipment, storage and maintenance of tools and equipment, conduction of
workspace housekeeping, and the organization of workplace.

Definition of Key Terms

Personal protective equipment (PPE): PPE refers to the equipment which protects the user
from health hazards or safety risks at work. It includes safety shoes, safety helmets, footwear,
goggles and many more.
The Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) 2007: It is an Act of law that provides
for the health, safety and welfare of persons employed, and all persons lawfully present at
workplaces and related matters. When it is necessary to protect employees from job-related
injuries, illnesses, and fatalities.
Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs): Refer to a set of step-by-step instructions
compiled by an organization to help workers carry out complex routine operations. SOPs aim
to achieve efficiency, quality output and uniformity of performance, while reducing
miscommunication and failure to comply with industry regulations.

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

INTRODUCTION

Typically known as PPE, personal protective equipment is a range of standardized gears worn
to reduce chances and minimize the impact of injury causing situations while on the line of
duty.

TYPES OF PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

Inclusive of a wide collection of attires that are designed using quality materials and cutting-
edge technologies, these essential tools protect each and every inch of your employees if
worn properly.
Generally, personal protective equipment comes in different types and models to protect
various sections of the body. Common types of PPE include:

a. Head Safety PPE

Typically, there are a number of tools you can employ to combat head injuries and they
include:

 Helmets
 Bump caps
 Accessories
 Hard hats
 Guards
b. Personal Protection Equipment Against Eye Injuries

There are a number of PPE to employ to protect your employees against eye injuries. They
include:

 Eye shields
 Face shields
 Over specs
 Safety goggles
 Visors
c. PPE for the Ears

Another vital type of personal protection gears is those designed to protect the ears from
getting damaged especially when working in highly noisy environments. Generally, earplugs
are some of the commonly used tools employed. The main reason why most individuals
prefer earplugs is that of their sheer comfort. For convenience, however, earmuffs should be
ideal as they can be quickly removed or worn. For that reason, earmuffs and communication
sets are perfect protective equipment for noisy workplaces that demands some level of
flexibility when working as a team.

Other ideal types of ear PPE include:

 Ear defenders
 Noise meters
 Acoustic foam
  Earmuffs
 ear canal caps
 earplugs
d. Respiratory PPE

While some workplaces put your employees at the risk of getting injured by falling objects as
well as damage of sensitive body organs like the eyes and ears, others feature inhalable
elements like irritating chemical fumes and pathogen carrying dust.

In addition to that, smoke and hazardous powders are also a major cause of respiratory-
related infections. For that reason, supplying your workforce with ideal equipment that will
protect your taskforce from inhaling these toxic particles emanating from gases and fumes is
essential. To achieve this, there are a number of tools that you can employ.

Other ideal PPE to protect your respiratory system include:

 Lightweight respirators
 Powder respirators
 Gas detectors
 Filter respirators
 Gas monitors
e. PPE Against Hand Injury

While other body parts gain contact with hazardous materials accidentally, employees’ hands
are tasked to manipulate perilous environments and materials.

Essentially gloves protect hands against a lengthy set of injurious situations like

 Extreme vibrations
 Sharp edges
 Hot surfaces
 Splashing chemicals and other corrosive materials

Industrial safety signs

Industrial safety signs are a commonplace across many industries. They take a variety of
forms, but all industrial safety signs are designed to promote safety by informing workers,
operators, and passersby of potential dangers in certain areas, near equipment, or in proximity
to hazardous materials. Industrial safety signs are used for several purposes. There are
different types of industrial safety sign. Examples of Industrial Safety Signs include:

 Danger Signs: Indicate immediate hazards that will result in injury or death if not
avoided.
 Warning Signs: Indicate a hazard level that falls somewhere between caution and
danger, indicating a risk that could result in serious injury or death if not avoided.
 Caution Signs: Represent the lowest hazard level, indicating potentially hazardous
situations that may result in minor to moderate injury if not avoided.
 Biological Hazard Signs: Used to indicate either the actual or potential presence of a
biohazard, identifying objects (tools, equipment, containers, etc.) that either are or
could possibly be contaminated with “viable hazardous agents” that pose a risk or
potential risk to a person’s well being.
 Notice Signs: Used to communicate general information relevant to equipment, a
building, area, or machine. These signs are related to practices that are not related to
385 personal injury.
 General Safety Signs: Used to communicate important safety instructions and
procedures, such as rules and practices for first aid, sanitation, housekeeping, medical
equipment, etc.
 Fire Safety Signs: As mentioned previously, industrial safety signs are often used to
label the location of emergency equipment, such as fire extinguishers. These signs
don’t include directions for operating safety equipment; instead, they simply mark the
location of emergency equipment to make life-saving tools easy to access in case of a
crisis.

Safety Symbols: While safety symbols can stand alone on a sign (provided they’re sufficient
to convey the message), they’re often used in conjunction with other sign types to provide a
pictorial depiction to accompany written text and notifications. These symbols encompass
everything from required or prohibited actions to consequences and directions, as well as the
effects of interacting with hazards such as chemical exposure. Additionally, safety symbols
can be used in sequence to illustrate a sequence of events in a visual manner.

Surround Shapes: Surround shapes include hazard alerting, mandatory actions, prohibition,
and information, and they’re often used to quickly convey the primary purpose of a safety
sign, while other elements provide more detail regarding the specific messages. The
prohibition surround shape is required for signs that communicate prohibited actions. Most
people recognize this shape as a circle (red or black) with a diagonal slash.

Safety standards refer to measures designed to ensure the safety of products, activities or
processes, etc. to the involved personnel and end users of products. They may be advisory or
compulsory, usually laid down by regulatory boards.

Safety operations: The Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) defines hot work as any
work that involves burning, welding, using fire or spark producing tools that produces a
source ignition. Due to the potential dangers associated with hard work, one must understand
the role of being safe and also ensure safety of others. One must understand how to prevent
injuries and damage to facilities. The following are some of the guidelines provided by
OSHA to ensure safety:

 The best place to perform hot work is to do it in a designated area, a

permanent fire safe area that is free of combustibles.
 The machine operator should always ensure that all equipment is in good
working order and be alert for any unsafe conditions.
 If anything unsafe happens, the machine operator is obliged to stop the process
immediately.
 Individuals operating in areas where a fire could start, he or she should have
the proper fire extinguishing equipment, ensure it is ready to use and know
how they work.
 Where appropriate Personal Protective Equipment when performing different
machining operations, this include head, eye and face protection, hearing
protection, ear protection, etc. 386

First Aid refers to the emergency or immediate care you should provide when a person is
injured or ill until medical treatment is available. There are procedures followed when
administering first aid. First aid should only e administered by authorized individuals. The
first step in any emergency is the recognition of the problem and providing help. Every
workshop should have a First Aid Kit. Some of the common items found in a first aid kit are:
bandages, roller bandages and tape, (Sterile) Gauze, Antiseptic wipes and swabs, Absorbent
compresses, antibiotic cream, burn ointment, mask for breathing (rescue breathing/CPR),
chemical cold pack etc.
Firefighting is the act of extinguishing destructive fires. A firefighter fights these fires and
prevents destruction of life, property and the environment. To extinguish a fire, it is necessary
to remove one or more of the four components of combustion, fuel, oxygen, heat and a
chemical chain reaction. Removing any of these components of the fire tetrahedron will stop
the other elements from interacting and not allow combustion to continue. One can extinguish
fire through cooling the burning material, excluding oxygen from the fire, removing fuel
from the fire, using flame inhibitors, using fire extinguishers, etc. A good workshop should
have firefighting equipment’s that are in good condition and effective. The technicians in the
workshop should know how to use and maintain the different firefighting equipment. People
performing hot work should do it in an area that is non-combustible, fireresistive construction
and free of combustibles and flammables. The people handling hot work should wear
personal protective gears that are resistive to fire.

Housekeeping refers to the management of duties and chores involved in the running of a
workshop, such as cleaning, arranging, maintenance, purchases, wiring, and storage. A
workshop should always be cleaned. The different machinery in the workshop should be
frequently checked and maintenance should be performed. The wiring of a workshop should
be done appropriately to ensure proper operation and to avoid accidents. Cleaning should be
frequently done to ensure the health of individuals using the workshop and durability of the
machinery.

IMPORTANCE OF PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

In any workplace, employee safety is imperative. Some of the incentives towards investing in
personal protective equipment are:

 Improves workday quality by keeping all your workforce in the best working
condition
 Protects vital and irreparable body organs like the eyes
 Protects your workforce from long-term illnesses that may result in early retirement
 Increases productivity by reducing cases of employee absenteeism due to injury
 Through protecting your employees from getting injured, these vital tools save your
business from unnecessary budget-draining medical bills
 By wearing ideal protective gear, chances of injury greatly reduced thus reducing
your expenses on mandatory insurance plans
 Boost employee motivation and willingness to work as their safety is assured
 BEST PRACTICES FOR PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

Some of the dos and don’ts of personal protective equipment include:

 Consider Perfectly Fitting Gear- Besides safety, while working employee comfort
is essential not only for better results but also concentration and professionalism.
Whether wearing safety boots or eye shields, make sure that they are comfy and does
not cause additional inconvenience.
 Avoid Loose Sleeves- Especially when operating machinery, loose sleeves may get
caught in the moving parts thus resulting in injury. For that reason, consider folding
up all the loose sleeves on your overalls as well as other safety clothing.
 Avoid Safety Boots with Lases- Classically, laced boots were fashionable.
Apparently, however, since it was realized that most factory workers ended up getting
up tripping over them, consider safety boots that are not designed with lases.

Other PPE Best Practices Include:

 If possible, wear double gloves for additional protection
 Full face masks are recommended as it protects your whole face against corrosive
elements
 Consider a highly impermeable gown
 For enhanced flexibility, consider rubber boots to closed shoes
 After chemical spillage, it is good to consider a full PPE change

1.2 Tools and equipment are stored and maintained correctly according to
manufacturer’s specifications

TOOL AND EQUIPMENT CARE AND MAINTENANCE

INTRODUCTION

Tools and equipment require proper care and maintenance, not only for longevity but also to
remain useful and safe for the task at hand. Here are some care and maintenance practices for
tools and equipment.

MAINTENANCE TIPS AND ACTIVITIES

 a) Proper storage

Proper storage entails shielding tools from harsh weather conditions, damage and theft. It is
particularly crucial for metallic tools to be kept away from moisture to avoid rusting.

Having a cabinet where these tools and equipment are stored will be vital to ensuring a secure
storage area. Also, greasing, lubricating or oiling metallic tools and equipment is essential to
prevent rust from forming while keeping the tools in the best condition for future tasks.

Why Proper Tool Storage Matters

You invest a lot in your tools, so you want them to last as long as possible. Proper storage
protects your tools and equipment from breaking, rusting, or having other damage that makes
them stop working prematurely. Adequate tool storage also helps keep everything organized
so it's easier to find the things you need when you are mid-project.

Ideal Tool Conditions

Whether you create a DIY tool organizer or buy tool storage solutions, the location and
conditions are a priority. Tools should stay in a dry, clean area to make them last as long as
possible. Humidity can cause rust to develop, which can make tools stop working properly.
Dirt can also get inside tools and cause them to malfunction prematurely. Avoid areas with
extreme temperature swings, which can be hard on your equipment.

If you don't have a dry spot to store your tools, consider adding a dehumidifier to the storage
area to cut down on moisture. Tossing silica gel packets inside enclosed tool storage
containers can also cut down on damaging moisture.

Tool Storage Options

It's common to have a combination of tool storage systems, especially if you have a large
collection of tools. Some of the storage solutions include:

 Portable toolbox: A handheld toolbox is ideal for your frequently used tools since
you can easily take them with you. Choose one with built-in organization, such as a
toolbox with a removable tray.
 Tool bag: A similar option is a tool bag with soft sides. While it doesn't offer the
rigid sides of a toolbox, it zips to keep your tools away from dirt and is portable.
 Tool chest: If you have a workshop, a large rolling tool chest offers lots of drawers
and compartments to keep tools enclosed and protected from dirt and debris. Many
models have locking drawers to reduce theft.
 Pegboards: Another popular workshop or garage option is a tool pegboard with
various brackets and bins that you can rearrange. This lets you customize the storage
and keeps tools easily accessible. It doesn't protect them from dirt and debris, though,
so you'll need to regularly dust them off and keep them clean.
  Wall racks: For garden tools and other large equipment, a wall-mounted tool rack is
an easy way to keep the items off the floor, organized, and easily accessible.
 Cabinets: Enclosed cabinetry offers a permanent storage solution in your workshop
area. The doors provide some protection from dust and debris to help keep tools clean.
 Open shelving: For larger items, open shelving is a storage option. This option
doesn't provide any protection from dust.

Tips for Storing Tools

Always clean tools before storing them to keep them in optimal condition. Wiping off dust,
grease, and other debris prevents them from getting jammed or corroded in storage. Ensure
the tools are completely dry before putting them away.

Keeping the original packaging also makes storage easier. Many power tools come with cases
that provide protection against impact and offer convenient storage. They might come with
foam inserts with cut-outs that perfectly fit the tool for extra protection.

Using tools and equipment for their right task

Using a tool for the task it is intended helps to keep it in its best shape. This reduces
unnecessary damage and protects the user. It is also important to check whether the tools are
in the right condition before using them.

b) Cleaning after use

Storing dirty tools without cleaning them can cause them to deteriorate. Routine cleaning
reduces the chances of rust and can reduce the rate of wear and tear.

c) Inspect tools regularly

Regular inspection of tools is beneficial since it provides an opportunity to see if tools may
need repair or replacing. Inspections can help to prevent a situation where a last-minute trip
to the store to purchase a new tool or spare parts delays a project.

d) Keep Tools Lubricated

Lubrication is an often-neglected maintenance step that can really drag down tool
performance, causing issues like chafing that can cause parts to quickly deteriorate. Most
likely, each of your tools will have a section in their owner’s manual explaining proper
lubrication practices. Follow the recommended steps to ensure that your power tools remain
the well-oiled machines they are meant to be.

e) Sharpened Bits and cutting edges = Longer Tool Life

Eventually, the sharpened tips of your saw blades and drill bits get worn down and dulled.
When you use a dull bit or blade in a tool, you’re essentially forcing that tool to work even
harder. By regularly sharpening bits and blades, you make it easier for your power tools to
work through materials, putting less stress on the tool’s motor and extending its life.

f) Parts Replacement

A tool failing is not always a sign that it should be thrown out or replaced with a newer
model. Sometimes, all that needs to happen to get a tool back in working condition is the
replacement of an essential part, like a drive belt or a carbon brush. Many manufacturers have
sections on their website dedicated to selling replacement parts; and if you’re not comfortable
replacing the parts yourself, some home improvement stores like The Home Depot offer tool
repair services.

g) Pay attention to the chords.

Frayed wires are not only incredibly dangerous, they threaten the lifespan of your tools. Mind
the chords while operating any electrical equipment and protect them with ramps and covers
on job sites

h) Read and follow manuals

The manuals that come with equipment, especially power tools, have important and useful
guidelines. They instruct and advise on the best way to keep equipment in optimal condition.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF MAINTENANCE

i. Preventive maintenance

According to Wikipedia Preventive maintenance (PM) is "a routine for periodically

inspecting" with the goal of "noticing small problems and fixing them before major ones
develop." Ideally, "nothing breaks down." The main aim of preventive maintenance is to
make to next maintenance activity without any breakdown and failures of machines and
equipment. It includes activities such as partial or complete servicing at specified periods, oil
changes, lubrication, etc.

ii. Predictive maintenance

This maintenance activity is also done in advance which means to solve issues in advance.
This activity is more like a precaution to escape problems. The main objective of predictive
maintenance is to determine the condition of equipment & machines in order to know when
maintenance activity can be done.

This is one of the promising ways of cost-saving. It also helps is estimating of degradation
stage of an asset, equipment, and machine. (Both of the above are proactive maintenance
activity takes place after a particular period of time such as 30 days or 45 days especially
predictive maintenance).

iii. Corrective maintenance

This is a reactive activity in nature. It is executed, when any defect or fault occurs in an asset,
machine or equipment. Corrective maintenance restores the equipment depending on the
fault. It includes various steps after failed equipment such as diagnosis, cause of failure then
ordering replacement part & installing new part then testing functionality and continuation of
the process.

The corrective maintenance can be divided into two parts immediate corrective maintenance
and deferred corrective maintenance. In the Immediate corrective maintenance process, one
has to take quick action right after the failure.

On the other hand, deferred corrective maintenance, in this process the maintenance activity
is scheduled for later, there can be many reasons behind it. Such as, replacement parts might
not be available, it may take a long time or technicians are required on some other high
priority cases.

iv. Routine maintenance

The main objective of routine maintenance activity is cleaning, oiling, lubricating, replacing
batteries & changing the oil. Routine maintenance activity can take place on a weekly or half
month basis. It depends on the equipment work.

As a professional equipment maintenance practice, one should keep an emphasis on

maintenance rather than repairment. In simple words, to keep your equipment in good
working condition, routine maintenance should be done on a regular basis.

v. Emergency maintenance

This activity is a reactive equipment maintenance activity. The main objective of emergency
maintenance is to prevent a threat to lives, the property of a company. Emergency
maintenance can be applied to keep the facility operational and safe. Emergency maintenance
is mostly used in chemical plants, tenant buildings, etc.

1.3 Tools and equipment are used correctly according to designated purpose
PROPER USE OF TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
Care and maintenance of these tools are sometimes handed down generation to
generation, and they are cleaned and oiled to keep clean and carefully stored in your
basement or garage workshop.
Unfortunately, there are still injuries associated with the use of hand tools, and
according to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), there are
five basic safety rules that can help prevent hazards when using hand tools:
 Keep all tools in good condition with regular maintenance.
 Use the right tool for the job.
 Examine each tool for damage before use and do not use damaged tools.
 Operate tools according to the manufacturers’ instructions.
 Provide and use properly the right personal protective equipment.
 Using the wrong tool can be dangerous. Using a chisel as a screwdriver or a
screw driver as a chisel may cause the tip of the tool to break and fly off,
hitting the user or another person. Only use tools for their designated purpose.
 Always maintain tools properly. If the wooden handle on a tool such as an ax
or hammer is loose, splintered, or cracked, the head of the tool may fly off and
strike the user or another person.
  Repair or replace damaged or worn tools. A wrench with its jaws sprung might
easily slip, causing hand injuries. If the wrench flies, it may strike the user or
another person.
 Impact tools such as chisels, wedges, and drift pins are unsafe if they have
mushroomed heads. The heads might shatter when struck, sending sharp
fragments flying.
 Bladed Tools

Bladed tools present the risks of cutting, slicing, snipping, and stabbing.
 To prevent injuries when using bladed tools, always use bladed tools with the
blades and points aimed away from yourself and other people.
 Direct bladed tools away from aisle areas.
 Store bladed tools properly; use the sheath or protective covering if there is
one.
 Keep blades sharp and inspect them regularly. Dull blades are difficult to use
and control and can be far more dangerous than well-maintained blades.
 Safety knives are available to reduce the risks associated with traditional razor
tools.
 Keep blades sharp and inspect them regularly. Dull blades are difficult to use
and control and can be far more dangerous than well-maintained blades.
 Safety knives are available to reduce the risks associated with traditional razor
tools.
 Impact Tools

Inspect an impact tool before using it. Look for mushroomed heads, cracks, chips, or
other signs of damage or weakness.
 Always wear proper eye protection when using impact tools.
 Fire is a potential hazard that is often overlooked when working with hand
tools. Sparks from striking impact tools can ignite fumes, oxygen, paper, or
solvents being used in the area. Avoid using impact tools near combustible
materials or vapours.
Minimizing Hand Tool Risks
 Injuries cause by hand tools include cuts, burns, scrapes, sprains, eye injuries,
hearing loss, broken bones, and pulmonary (lung) disorders.
  The use of certain hand tools creates a lot of airborne dust and particles. The
use of sandpaper, planes, files, and saws, for example, may create sawdust or
drywall powder. Short-term exposure may cause minor irritation while long-
term exposure may cause chronic bronchitis, pneumonia, or other pulmonary
disorders. Wear filtering masks and eye protection when you are using a tool
that creates dust.
 Before operating any power tool for the first time, always read the manual to
familiarize yourself with the tool. If the manual is missing, contact the
manufacturer for a replacement.
1.4 Workspace housekeeping is maintained according to Standard operating
procedures (SOPs)
WORKPLACE HOUSEKEEPING

Workplace housekeeping may be defined as activities undertaken to create or maintain an

orderly, clean, tidy and safe working environment. Effective housekeeping can eliminate
many workplace hazards and help get work done safely and properly.

BENEFITS OF GOOD HOUSEKEEPING:

To avoid any kind of workplace hazard, they must be maintained orderly throughout the day.
Although it’s quite a tedious job, it reaps too many benefits, some of them can be jotted down
as under:

 It helps in lesser handling owing to regular maintenance.

 Lesser slipping and tripping as the workplace become a better manageable zone due
to less clutter and spilling.
 Lesser fire hazards.
 The exposure to dangerous and hazardous substances reduced marginally.
 Improved control of materials and tools.
 Better and efficient maintenance and cleaning of the types of equipment.
 The overall hygiene of the workplace improved.
 Better utilization of available space.
 Less property damages.
 Improved morale.
 Improved productivity.

ELEMENTS OF WORKPLACE HOUSEKEEPING:

For a housekeeping procedure or plan to be effective, it needs to cover the following aspects/
elements:

a. Dust and Dirt Removal: - Many jobs have an open exposure to dirt, dust, etc. In
such cases, due steps should take to remove such impurities from the atmosphere. If
it’s not possible to clean the dirt and dust manually then in that case, proper
machinery or ventilation plants should install to make the environment clean and
fresh. By using such kind of high-capacity cleanliness machinery which comes with
special fittings, aids in cleaning walls, machinery, ledges, etc, it is always easy to
maintain a clean environment. There are available special kinds of vacuum cleaners
as well which helps in removing the hazardous material; they should use when and
where required.
b. Employee Facilities: - There are many numbers of facilities which provide to the
employees. Washrooms, lockers, etc are some of them. It should make clear that the
washrooms are cleaned multiple times in each shift, also it is important to make sure
that there is an adequate supply of toiletries in the washrooms. In the case where the
employee exposes to hazardous materials, adequate facilities should provide which
includes showers, changing rooms, washing facilities. The employer should provide
the necessary facilities and take proper care of their employees. It should see to and
made sure that in the case where there is an exposure to toxic materials; there should
be no smoking or drinking. A separate cafeteria/canteen should provide in such cases
which should timely clean.
c. Surfaces: - Floors, walls, etc should keep neat and clean to avoid any kind of
unforeseen danger. Where the floor conditions are poor, there stand chances for many
kinds of unforeseen accidents. It is mandatory and important to clean up the spilled
oil, water or any other kind of liquid immediately. Where there has been cleaning
done recently, there should be signage put up warning the employees about the wet
floor. In the case where regular cleaning cannot do, in that case, the flooring should
make anti-skid. The walls should colour light in colour as it helps in reflecting light.
d. Maintain Light Fixtures: - The lighting source should clean from time to time as a
cleaner source led to better lightning. The dirtier the lightning source is, the dingier
the workplace would look.
e. Stairways and the Aisles: - The aisles and staircases are one of the places wherein
no unnecessary materials should dump. These places should keep neat and clean as
 messing up here means disruption in the free movement of the employees. Also, in
the case of emergency, if these places stay cluttered and piled up then it could lead to
a major problem as those who affected would not able to move freely. Also, in the
case of blind corners in aisles and staircase or the corridors, mirrors must use to
ensure safe movement.
f. Spill Control: - Regular cleaning and maintenance should implement to avoid the
hazards which can arise from spill damage. It should be taken care of that the
employee is using drip pans, safety guards, etc wherever necessary.
g. Equipment and tools: - The tools and equipment should properly mark and stored. It
should see that after the use of the tools and types of equipment, they safely returned.
A regular inspection, repair, and cleanliness are some of the aspects to which
attention should be paid.
h. Maintenance: - Maintaining buildings and equipment is one of the most important
elements of good housekeeping. It should be taken care of that the equipment,
buildings, machinery, etc are in good and operational condition. Time to time repair
and maintenance requires and should make to keep them in proper condition. It
should be made sure that there are no broken windows, defective plumbing, damaged
doors, etc. as all this makes the workplace a neglected place and vibrates negativity
around.
i. Waste Disposal: - Waste disposal or scrap management is yet another important
element of waste management. The unnecessary material or the scrap should dispose
of properly according to the regulated manner. Certain standards set up by lawmakers
which need to adhere to at the time of disposing of the waste. For many kinds of
waste, there are scrap management companies that buy off the scrap from the
industries.
j. Storage: - Proper storage is one of the aspects which should look into to maintain a
clean and healthy work environment. It should take care that there remains no
unnecessary spillage, or clutter at the workplace, as all this leads to unforeseen
accidents. It is very important to store the stack drums and cartons on a solid
foundation; they should also tie to avoid falling. The flammable, toxic and hazardous
materials which can cause accidents should separately store and the area should mark
as dangerous. The normal entry of others should prohibit.

1.5 Workplace is planned according to design specifications.

 CHAPTER 2: DESIGN A CONTROL SYSTEM

a) Models of control systems: Differential equation model, Transfer function model, State
space model Analysis of models and determination of their properties: Control system
models are useful for analysis and design of control systems. Analysis of control system
means finding the output when we know the input and mathematical model. Algorithms
are used to analyze control systems. You can use applications like MatLab, which are
used to design Complex control systems.
b) Selection of control variables (outputs/inputs): Controlled variables are the variables,
which quantify the performance or quality of the final product, which are also called
output variables. The following methods used in the selection of control variables of
control systems:
 Accessibility: this qualitative technique focuses on Input/output selection based
on cause and-effect graphs. Such a graph shows the relationships between
various variables and can be generated for linear and nonlinear systems.
 State controllability and state observability: This section deals with linear plant
models P in the state-space
 Right half-plane zeros: Distinct Input-Output (IO) sets may give rise to distinct
numbers and distinct locations of (multivariable) system zeros,
 Input-output controllability
c) Selection of controller type and its configuration: Most controllers work in discrete,
process, and hybrid control applications to varying degree. Controllers are chosen
according to the area they are meant to perform in. Below is a list of controllers:
 Proportional Controllers: Proportional controllers are simply gain values. These
are essentially multiplicative coefficients, usually denoted with a K. A P
controller
 Derivative Controllers: The derivative controllers are implemented to account
for future values, by taking the derivative, and controlling based on where the
signal is going to be in the future.
 Integral Controllers: the output of integral controllers (also called the actuating
signal) is directly proportional to the integral of the error signal.
  PID Controllers: PID controllers are combinations of the proportional,
derivative, and integral controllers. Because of this, PID controllers have large
amounts of flexibility.
d) Designs of controllers are used to improve the performance of control systems. The
proportional-integral-derivative controllers are combinations of the proportional,
derivative, and integral controllers. The two fundamental steps in designing a controller
are:
 Specify the controller structure.
 Determine the value of the design parameters within that structure.

The controller structure identifies the inputs, outputs, and mathematical form of the control
algorithm. Each controller structure contains one or more adjustable design parameters.
Given a controller structure, the control system designer must select a value for each
parameter so that the overall system (consisting of the plant and the controller) satisfies
performance requirements.

e) Selection and inspection of controller components

Controllers have the following components: processor or central processing unit (CPU), rack
or mounting, input assembly, output assembly, power supply, programming unit, and device,
or PC/software. For a controller to be able to function properly, all its components need to be
functional and compatible with each other. Inspection is the activity of examining product
component, sub-assemblies, or materials out of which it is made, and to determine whether
hey follow to design specifications. This is done through the inspection procedure. There are
different methods of doing inspection. Automated inspection is the automation of one or
more steps involved in the inspection procedure. Quality inspection are measures aimed at
checking, measuring, or testing of one or more product characteristics and to relate the results
to the requirements to confirm compliance.

f) Customization is a modification made to a product or service to suit a specific purpose.

Customization helps to make a product to meet all its functionality needs. The following
are the steps followed when performing customization:
 Determine which components to customize
 Define customization plan
 Select components to customize
 Define problem
  Specify available solutions
 Define solution
 Perform customization tasks
 Test functionality
 Improve on faulty areas

vi. Hardware and software in control systems A feedback control system consists of
five basic components: input, process being controlled, output, sensing elements, and
controller and actuating devices.
vii. Simulation of controlled mechatronic system: Simulation is the reproduction of the
behavior of a system using a computer to simulate the outcomes of a mathematical
model associated with said system. Simulations may be performed manually. Most
often, however, the system model is written either as a computer program (for an
example click here) or as some kind of input into simulator software. Simulation of
controlled mechatronics system is performed using simulation software. This is done
using software like MATLAB and Simulink.
viii. Testing and calibration of controlled mechatronic system Calibration refers to the act
of evaluating and adjusting the precision and accuracy of measurement equipment. It is
intended to eliminate or reduce bias in an instrument's readings over a range for all
continuous values. There are different types of calibration:
 Pressure calibration
 Temperature and humidity calibration
 Mechanical calibration
 Electrical calibration
A design manual is a convenient guide for procedures, and design values that are presently
recommended for product designers. It contains all the technical drawing and all the
information about designing the product.

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL SYSTEM

Definition: A combination of various elements connected as a unit to direct or regulate itself
or any other system in order to provide a specific output is known as a Control system. We
know controlling is basically known as the act of regulating or directing.
So, control system is used to direct the functioning of a physical system to carry out
the desired objective.
COMPONENTS OF A CONTROL SYSTEM
Majorly the control system is divided into two major domains:

1. Plant or process: the system that is to be controlled. From a controls perspective, a

plant or process is a black box that transforms an input to an output. It is usually not
difficult to recognize the plant itself, but identifying what to use as control input and
output can be challenging.
2. Controller: The internal or external element of the system that controls the process is
known as the controller.
3. The input or control input is a quantity that we can adjust directly. By adjusting the
input, we hope to influence the output in a favorable way. This signal is usually given
through an external source. So, the externally provided signal for the desired operation
is known as input.
4. The output or process output is the quantity we want to control: we want the output to
track the reference value (the setpoint)
5. Disturbances: Sometimes even on providing required input, the system fails to generate
the desired output. So the signal that causes variation in the desired output is known as
disturbances.
Now, disturbances can be of two types depending on its origin. If the disturbance is
generated from the system itself then it is known as internal disturbances.
While if the disturbance is generated from somewhere outside the system and
unknowingly acting as another input to the system causing an adverse effect on the
output. Then it is known as external disturbances.
6. Feedback: If either the output or some part of the output is returned to the input side
and utilized as part of the system input, then it is known as feedback
Features of a control system

1. Sensitivity: Sensitivity is the ability to show instant variation in output

whenever there exists any change in input. There are external parameters like
temperature change or other atmospheric conditions that hinder the actual
performance of the system. So a control system must be sensitive only to the
actually applied input and not to other external parameters.
 2. Stability: The system must be stable while providing the output without
showing fluctuation with time.
3. Bandwidth: The permissible frequency range of the system specifies its
bandwidth. And so to have a good frequency response the system must possess
high bandwidth.
4. Noise: Unwanted signals that hinders the performance of the system adversely
is known as noise. A good control system must show the least susceptibility
towards the noise.
5. Accuracy: The system must produce accurate output, so as to have least
chances of error in the achieved output value.
6. Speed: Speed defines the processing time of the system within which the
specified output is achieved. So, the speed of the system must be high enough
to deliver the output timely.

TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEM

Based on some parameters, we can classify the control systems into the following ways.
a. Continuous time and Discrete-time Control Systems
 Control Systems can be classified as continuous time control systems and
discrete time control systems based on the type of the signal used.
 In continuous time control systems, all the signals are continuous in time. But,
in discrete time control systems, there exists one or more discrete time signals.
b. SISO and MIMO Control Systems
 Control Systems can be classified as SISO control systems and MIMO control
systems based on the number of inputs and outputs present.
 SISO (Single Input and Single Output) control systems have one input and one
output. Whereas, MIMO (Multiple Inputs and Multiple Outputs) control
systems have more than one input and more than one output.
c. Open Loop and Closed Loop Control Systems

Control Systems can be classified as open loop control systems and closed loop control
systems based on the feedback path.
1. Open Loop Control System
In the open-loop system, the applied input or the controlling factor is independent of the
system output.
Open-loop control system is sometimes termed as a non-feedback system. This is so because
no comparison is done between input and output of the system for controlling actions.
The figure below represents the block diagram of the open-loop system:

Advantages of Open Loop System:

 Simple in construction.
 Economic.
 More stable.
 Easy maintenance.
Disadvantages of Open Loop System:
 Inaccurate and unreliable.
 It is affected by internal and external disturbances; the output may differ from the
desired value.
 It needs frequent and careful calibrations for accurate results.
 Open loop systems are slow because they are manually controlled.
 There is no feedback control. The control systems are rather unsophisticated.

Example: Immersion rod

An immersion rod is used for heating of water. When the input is provided i.e., the external
supply is given then the rod starts heating the water. But there is no way provided by which
the rod can sense the required level of heating i.e., feedback is not present.
Thus it is an example of an open-loop control system.
2. Closed-Loop Control System
In a closed-loop system, the applied input or controlling factor depends on the output of the
system. It is also known as feedback control system because in such systems comparison
between input and achieved output is done to get the desired output signal.
Let us have a look at the block diagram of the closed-loop system:
Example: Air conditioners
Air conditioners are used for regulating the temperature of a room. So these control systems
make use of thermostats as a feedback unit.
The actual temperature of the room is first measured and accordingly the temperature is
adjusted to get the desired value of room temperature.
Advantages of Closed Loop System:
 These systems can be used in hazardous or remote areas, such as chemical plants,
fertilizer plants, areas with high nuclear radiations, and places at very high or very low
temperatures.
 Increased productivity.
 Relief of human beings from hard physical work and economy in operating cost.
 Improvement in the quality and quantity of the products.
 They are more reliable than human operators.
 A number of variables can be handled simultaneously by closed loop control systems.
 In such systems there is reduced effect of non-linearity’s and distortions.
 Closed loop systems can be adjusted to optimum control performance.
 Such system senses environmental changes, as well as internal disturbances and
accordingly modifies the error.
 Satisfactory response over a wide range of input frequencies.

Disadvantages of Closed Loop Control System:

 It is more complex and expensive.
 Installation and adjustment are intricate.
 Maintenance is difficult as it involves complicated electronics. Moreover, trained persons
are required for maintenance.
 Due to feedback, system tries to correct the error time to time.
 Tendency to over correct the error may cause oscillations without bound in the system.
 It is less stable as compared to open loop system.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN OPEN LOOP AND CLOSED LOOP CONTROL

SYSTEMS

The differences between the open loop and the closed loop control systems are mentioned in
the following table.

Open Loop Control Systems Closed Loop Control Systems

Control action is independent of the desired Control action is dependent of the desired
output. output.

Feedback path is not present. Feedback path is present.

These are also called as non-feedback These are also called as feedback control
control systems. systems.

Easy to design. Difficult to design.

These are economical. These are costlier.

Inaccurate. Accurate.

FEEDBACK

If either the output or some part of the output is returned to the input side and utilized as part
of the system input, then it is known as feedback. Feedback plays an important role in order
to improve the performance of the control systems. In this chapter, let us discuss the types of
feedback & effects of feedback.

Types of Feedback

There are two types of feedback −

 Positive feedback
  Negative feedback
a. Positive Feedback
The positive feedback adds the reference input, R(s) and feedback output. The following
figure shows the block diagram of positive feedback control system.

The concept of transfer function will be discussed in later chapters. For the time being,
consider the transfer function of positive feedback control system is,

Where,
 T is the transfer function or overall gain of positive feedback control system.
 G is the open loop gain, which is function of frequency.
 H is the gain of feedback path, which is function of frequency.
b. Negative Feedback
Negative feedback reduces the error between the reference input, R(s) and system output.
The following figure shows the block diagram of the negative feedback control system.
Transfer function of negative feedback control system is,

Where,
 T is the transfer function or overall gain of negative feedback control system.
 G is the open loop gain, which is function of frequency.
 H is the gain of feedback path, which is function of frequency.

The derivation of the above transfer function is present in later chapters.

Effects of Feedback

Let us now understand the effects of feedback.

 Effect of Feedback on Overall Gain
 From Equation 2, we can say that the overall gain of negative feedback closed
loop control system is the ratio of ' G ' and (1+GH ). So, the overall gain may
increase or decrease depending on the value of (1+GH ).
 If the value of (1+GH ) is less than 1, then the overall gain increases. In this
case, ' GH ' value is negative because the gain of the feedback path is negative.
 If the value of (1+GH ) is greater than 1, then the overall gain decreases. In
this case, ' GH ' value is positive because the gain of the feedback path is
positive.

In general, ' G ' and ' H '

are functions of frequency. So, the feedback will increase the overall gain of the system in
one frequency range and decrease in the other frequency range.
 Effect of Feedback on Sensitivity

Sensitivity of the overall gain of negative feedback closed loop control system (T) to the
variation in open loop gain (G) is defined as

(Equation 3)

Where, ∂T is the incremental change in T due to incremental change in G.

We can rewrite Equation 3 as

(Equation 4)

Do partial differentiation with respect to G on both sides of Equation 2.

(Equation 5)

From Equation 2, you will get

(Equation 6)

Substitute Equation 5 and Equation 6 in Equation 4.

So, we got the sensitivity of the overall gain of closed loop control system as the reciprocal
of (1+GH ). So, Sensitivity may increase or decrease depending on the value of (1+GH ).
 If the value of (1+GH ) is less than 1, then sensitivity increases. In this case,
' GH ' value is negative because the gain of feedback path is negative.
 If the value of (1+GH ) is greater than 1, then sensitivity decreases. In this
case, ' GH ' value is positive because the gain of feedback path is positive.

In general, ' G ' and ' H ' are functions of frequency. So, feedback will increase the sensitivity
of the system gain in one frequency range and decrease in the other frequency range.
Therefore, we have to choose the values of ' GH ' in such a way that the system is insensitive
or less sensitive to parameter variations.
 Effect of Feedback on Stability
 A system is said to be stable, if its output is under control. Otherwise, it is said
to be unstable.
 In Equation 2, if the denominator value is zero (i.e., GH = -1), then the output
of the control system will be infinite. So, the control system becomes unstable.
Therefore, we have to properly choose the feedback in order to make the control system
stable.
 Effect of Feedback on Noise

To know the effect of feedback on noise, let us compare the transfer function relations with
and without feedback due to noise signal alone.

Consider an open loop control system with noise signal as shown below.

The open loop transfer function due to noise signal alone is

(Equation 7)
It is obtained by making the other input R(s)R(s) equal to zero.

Consider a closed loop control system with noise signal as shown below.

The closed loop transfer function due to noise signal alone is

 (Equation 8)
It is obtained by making the other input R(s) equal to zero.

Compare Equation 7 and Equation 8,

In the closed loop control system, the gain due to noise signal is decreased by a factor
of (1+GaGbH ) provided that the term (1+GaGbH ) is greater than one.

Comparison Chart for Positive and Negative feedback

Basis for Comparison Positive Feedback Negative Feedback

Also called as Regenerative feedback Degenerative feedback

Relation between input and In phase Out of phase

output

Overall gain Greater than the gain of the Smaller than the gain of the
system where feedback is not system where feedback is
present. absent.

Effective input Sum of applied input and fed Difference of applied input and
back signal. fed back signal

Transfer function of
system with respective
feedback

Stability Less Comparatively more

Phase shift 0° or 360° 180°

 Basis for Comparison Positive Feedback Negative Feedback

Feedback is taken from Non-inverting terminal of op- Inverting Terminal of op-amp

amp

Sensitivity Low High

Use In oscillators. In amplifiers.

CONTROLLERS
What is a Controller?
In control systems, a controller is a mechanism that seeks to minimize the difference between
the actual value of a system (i.e. the process variable) and the desired value of the system (i.e.
the setpoint). Controllers are a fundamental part of control engineering and used in all
complex control systems.
Before we introduce you to various controllers in detail, it is essential to know the uses of
controllers in the theory of control systems. The important uses of the controllers include:
1. Controllers improve the steady-state accuracy by decreasing the steady state
error.
2. As the steady-state accuracy improves, the stability also improves.
3. Controllers also help in reducing the unwanted offsets produced by the system.
4. Controllers can control the maximum overshoot of the system.
5. Controllers can help in reducing the noise signals produced by the system.
6. Controllers can help to speed up the slow response of an overdamped system.

TYPES OF CONTROLLERS
There are two main types of controllers:
a. Discontinuous controllers- In discontinuous controllers, the manipulated variable
changes between discrete values. Depending on how many different states the
manipulated variable can assume, a distinction is made between two position, three
 position, and multi-position controllers. Compared to continuous controllers,
discontinuous controllers operate on very simple, switching final controlling
elements.
b. Continuous controllers- The main feature of continuous controllers is that the
controlled variable (also known as the manipulated variable) can have any value
within the controller’s output range. Now in the continuous controller theory, there
are three basic modes on which the whole control action takes place, which are:
1. Proportional controllers.
2. Integral controllers.
3. Derivative controllers.
We use the combination of these modes to control our system such that the process variable is
equal to the setpoint (or as close as we can get it). These three types of controllers can be
combined into new controllers:
1. Proportional and integral controllers (PI Controller)
2. Proportional and derivative controllers (PD Controller)
3. Proportional integral derivative control (PID Controller)

TYPES OF CONTINUOUS CONTROLLERS

1. Proportional Controllers
All controllers have a specific use case to which they are best suited. We cannot just insert
any type of controller at any system and expect a good result – there are certain conditions
that must be fulfilled. For a proportional controller, there are two conditions and these are
written below:
a) The deviation should not be large; i.e. there should not be a large deviation
between the input and output.
b) The deviation should not be sudden.
Now we are in a condition to discuss proportional controllers, as the name suggests in a
proportional controller the output (also called the actuating signal) is directly proportional to
the error signal.
Advantages of Proportional Controller
Now let us discuss some advantages of the proportional controller.
 The proportional controller helps in reducing the steady-state error, thus
makes the system more stable.
  The slow response of the overdamped system can be made faster with the help
of these controllers.
Disadvantages of Proportional Controller
Now there are some serious disadvantages of these controllers and these are written as
follows:
 Due to the presence of these controllers, we get some offsets in the system.
 Proportional controllers also increase the maximum overshoot of the system.
Control System with Proportional Controller
‘K’ is called a proportional controller (also called error amplifier). Characteristics equation of
this control system can be written as:
s3+3s2+2s+K=0
2. Integral Controllers
As the name suggests in integral controllers the output (also called the actuating signal) is
directly proportional to the integral of the error signal. Now let us analyze integral controller
mathematically.
Advantages of Integral Controller
Due to their unique ability, Integral Controllers can return the controlled variable back to the
exact set point following a disturbance that’s why these are known as reset controllers.
Disadvantages of Integral Controller
It tends to make the system unstable because it responds slowly towards the produced error.
3. Derivative Controllers
We never use derivative controllers alone. It should be used in combinations with other
modes of controllers because of its few disadvantages which are written below:
 It never improves the steady-state error.
 It produces saturation effects and also amplifies the noise signals produced in
the system.
Now, as the name suggests in a derivative controller the output (also called the actuating
signal) is directly proportional to the derivative of the error signal.
Advantages of Derivative Controller
The major advantage of a derivative controller is that it improves the transient response of the
system.
4. Proportional and Integral Controller
As the name suggests it is a combination of proportional and an integral controller the output
(also called the actuating signal) is equal to the summation of proportional and integral of the
error signal.
Advantages and disadvantages are combinations of the advantages and disadvantages of
proportional and integral controllers.
Through the PI controller, we are adding one pole at origin and one zero somewhere away
from the origin (in the left-hand side of complex plane).
As the pole is at the origin, its effect will be more, hence PI controller may reduce the
stability; but its main advantage is that it reduces steady-state error drastically, due for this
reason it is one of the most widely used controllers.
5. Proportional and Derivative Controller
As the name suggests it is a combination of proportional and a derivative controller the
output (also called the actuating signal) is equals to the summation of proportional and
derivative of the error signal.
Advantages and disadvantages are combinations of advantages and disadvantages of
proportional and derivative controllers.
Generally, it is said, PD controller improves transient performance and the PI
controller improves the steady-state performance of a control system.
6. Proportional plus Integral plus Derivative Controller (PID Controller)
A PID controller is generally used in industrial control applications to regulate temperature,
flow, pressure, speed, and other process variables.
The transfer function of the PID Controller can be found as:

It can be observed that one pole at origin is fixed, remaining parameters Td, K, and Ki decide
the position of two zeros.
General Guidelines for Designing a PID Controller
When you are designing a PID controller for a given system, general guidelines to obtain the
desired response are as follows:
1. Obtain the transient response of closed-loop transfer function and determine
what needs to be improved.
2. Insert the proportional controller, Design the value of ‘K’ through Routh-
Hurwitz or suitable software.
 3. Add an integral part to reduce steady-state error.
4. Add the derivative part to increase damping (damping should be between 0.6-
0.9). The derivative part will reduce overshoots & transient time.
5. Sisotool, available in MATLAB can also be used for proper tuning and to
obtain a desired overall response.
6. Please note, above steps of tuning of parameters (designing of a control
system) are general guidelines. There are no fixed steps for designing
controllers.
Fuzzy Logic controllers
Fuzzy Logic controllers (FLC) are used where systems are highly non-linear. Generally most
of the physical systems/Electrical systems are highly non-linear. Due to this reason, Fuzzy
Logic controllers are a good choice among researchers.
An accurate mathematical model is not needed in FLC. It works inputs based on past
experiences, can handle non-linearities and can present disturbance insensitivity greater than
most other non-linear controllers.
FLC is based on fuzzy sets, i.e. classes of objects in which the transition from membership to
non-membership is smooth rather than abrupt.
In recent developments, FLC has outperformed other controllers in complex, nonlinear, or
undefined systems for which good practical knowledge exists. Therefore, the boundaries of
fuzzy sets can be vague and ambiguous, making them useful for approximation models.
The important step in the fuzzy controller synthesis procedure is to define the input and
output variables based on previous experiences or practical knowledge.
This is done accordingly with the expected function of the controller. There are no general
rules to select those variables, although typically the variables chosen are the states of the
controlled system, their errors, error variation, and error accumulation.

CONTROL SYSTEMS MATHEMATICAL MODELS

The control systems can be represented with a set of mathematical equations known
as mathematical model. These models are useful for analysis and design of control systems.
Analysis of control system means finding the output when we know the input and
mathematical model. Design of control system means finding the mathematical model when
we know the input and the output.
The following mathematical models are mostly used.
 Differential equation model
 Transfer function model
 State space model

Let us discuss the first two models in this chapter.

a. Differential Equation Model

Differential equation model is a time domain mathematical model of control systems. Follow
these steps for differential equation model.
 Apply basic laws to the given control system.
 Get the differential equation in terms of input and output by eliminating the
intermediate variable(s).
Example
Consider the following electrical system as shown in the following figure. This circuit
consists of resistor, inductor and capacitor. All these electrical elements are connected
in series. The input voltage applied to this circuit is vi and the voltage across the capacitor is
the output voltage vo.

Mesh equation for this circuit is

d vo
Substitute, the current passing through capacitor i=c in the above equation.
dt
The above equation is a second order differential equation.

b. Transfer Function Model

Transfer function model is an s-domain mathematical model of control systems.

The Transfer function of a Linear Time Invariant (LTI) system is defined as the ratio of
Laplace transform of output and Laplace transform of input by assuming all the initial
conditions are zero.
If x (t) and y (t ) are the input and output of an LTI system, then the corresponding Laplace
transforms are X (s) and Y (s).
Therefore, the transfer function of LTI system is equal to the ratio of Y (s) and X (s) .

The transfer function model of an LTI system is shown in the following figure.

Here, we represented an LTI system with a block having transfer function inside it. And this
block has an input X (s) & output Y (s).
Example

Previously, we got the differential equation of an electrical system as

Apply Laplace transform on both sides.

Where,
 vi(s) is the Laplace transform of the input voltage vi
 vo(s) is the Laplace transform of the output voltage vo

The above equation is a transfer function of the second order electrical system. The transfer
function model of this system is shown below.
Here, we show a second order electrical system with a block having the transfer function
inside it. And this block has an input Vi(s) and an output Vo(s).

MODELLING OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

In this chapter, let us discuss the differential equation modelling of mechanical systems.
There are two types of mechanical systems based on the type of motion.
 Translational mechanical systems
 Rotational mechanical systems

a. Modelling of Translational Mechanical Systems

Translational mechanical systems move along a straight line. These systems mainly consist
of three basic elements. Those are mass, spring and dashpot or damper.

If a force is applied to a translational mechanical system, then it is opposed by opposing

forces due to mass, elasticity and friction of the system. Since the applied force and the
opposing forces are in opposite directions, the algebraic sum of the forces acting on the
system is zero. Let us now see the force opposed by these three elements individually.
 Mass

Mass is the property of a body, which stores kinetic energy. If a force is applied on a body
having mass M, then it is opposed by an opposing force due to mass. This opposing force is
proportional to the acceleration of the body. Assume elasticity and friction are negligible.
Where,
 F is the applied force
 Fm is the opposing force due to mass
 M is mass
 a is acceleration
 x is displacement
 Spring

Spring is an element, which stores potential energy. If a force is applied on spring K, then it
is opposed by an opposing force due to elasticity of spring. This opposing force is
proportional to the displacement of the spring. Assume mass and friction are negligible.
Where,
 F is the applied force
 Fk is the opposing force due to elasticity of spring
 K is spring constant
 x is displacement
 Dashpot

If a force is applied on dashpot B, then it is opposed by an opposing force due to friction of

the dashpot. This opposing force is proportional to the velocity of the body. Assume mass
and elasticity are negligible.
Where,
 Fb is the opposing force due to friction of dashpot
 B is the frictional coefficient
 v is velocity
 x is displacement

b. Modelling of Rotational Mechanical Systems

Rotational mechanical systems move about a fixed axis. These systems mainly consist of
three basic elements. Those are moment of inertia, torsional spring and dashpot.

If a torque is applied to a rotational mechanical system, then it is opposed by opposing

torques due to moment of inertia, elasticity and friction of the system. Since the applied
torque and the opposing torques are in opposite directions, the algebraic sum of torques
acting on the system is zero. Let us now see the torque opposed by these three elements
individually.
 Moment of Inertia

In translational mechanical system, mass stores kinetic energy. Similarly, in rotational

mechanical system, moment of inertia stores kinetic energy.

If a torque is applied on a body having moment of inertia J, then it is opposed by an opposing

torque due to the moment of inertia. This opposing torque is proportional to angular
acceleration of the body. Assume elasticity and friction are negligible.

Where,
 T is the applied torque
 Tj is the opposing torque due to moment of inertia
 J is moment of inertia
 α is angular acceleration
  θ is angular displacement
 Torsional Spring

In translational mechanical system, spring stores potential energy. Similarly, in rotational

mechanical system, torsional spring stores potential energy.

If a torque is applied on torsional spring K, then it is opposed by an opposing torque due to

the elasticity of torsional spring. This opposing torque is proportional to the angular
displacement of the torsional spring. Assume that the moment of inertia and friction are
negligible.

Where,
 T is the applied torque
 Tk is the opposing torque due to elasticity of torsional spring
 K is the torsional spring constant
 θ is angular displacement
  Dashpot

If a torque is applied on dashpot B, then it is opposed by an opposing torque due to

the rotational friction of the dashpot. This opposing torque is proportional to the angular
velocity of the body. Assume the moment of inertia and elasticity are negligible.

Where,
 Tb is the opposing torque due to the rotational friction of the dashpot
 B is the rotational friction coefficient
 ω is the angular velocity
 θ is the angular displacement

Electrical Analogies of Mechanical Systems

Two systems are said to be analogous to each other if the following two conditions are
satisfied.
 The two systems are physically different
 Differential equations modelling of these two systems are same

Electrical systems and mechanical systems are two physically different systems. There are
two types of electrical analogies of translational mechanical systems. Those are force voltage
analogy and force current analogy.

a. Force Voltage Analogy

In force voltage analogy, the mathematical equations of translational mechanical

system are compared with mesh equations of the electrical system.

Consider the following translational mechanical system as shown in the following figure.

The force balanced equation for this system is

Consider the following electrical system as shown in the following figure. This circuit
consists of a resistor, an inductor and a capacitor. All these electrical elements are connected
in a series. The input voltage applied to this circuit is V volts and the current flowing through
the circuit is I Amps.

Mesh equation for this circuit is

dq
Substitute, i= in Equation 2.
dt

By comparing Equation 1 and Equation 3, we will get the analogous quantities of the
translational mechanical system and electrical system. The following table shows these
analogous quantities.

Translational Mechanical System Electrical System

Force(F) Voltage(V)

Mass(M) Inductance(L)

Frictional Coefficient(B) Resistance(R)

 Spring Constant(K) Reciprocal of Capacitance (1c)(1c)

Displacement(x) Charge(q)

Velocity(v) Current(i)

Similarly, there is torque voltage analogy for rotational mechanical systems. Let us now
discuss about this analogy.
b. Torque Voltage Analogy

In this analogy, the mathematical equations of rotational mechanical system are compared
with mesh equations of the electrical system.

Rotational mechanical system is shown in the following figure.

The torque balanced equation is

By comparing Equation 4 and Equation 3, we will get the analogous quantities of rotational
mechanical system and electrical system. The following table shows these analogous
quantities.

Rotational Mechanical System Electrical System

Torque(T) Voltage(V)

Moment of Inertia(J) Inductance(L)

 Rotational friction coefficient(B) Resistance(R)

Torsional spring constant(K)

Reciprocal of Capacitance ( C1 )
Angular Displacement(θ) Charge(q)

Angular Velocity(ω) Current(i)

c. Force Current Analogy

In force current analogy, the mathematical equations of the translational mechanical

system are compared with the nodal equations of the electrical system.

Consider the following electrical system as shown in the following figure. This circuit
consists of current source, resistor, inductor and capacitor. All these electrical elements are
connected in parallel.

The nodal equation isss

dΨ
Substitute, V = in Equation 5.
dt
By comparing Equation 1 and Equation 6, we will get the analogous quantities of the
translational mechanical system and electrical system. The following table shows these
analogous quantities.

Translational Mechanical System Electrical System

Force(F) Current(i)

Mass(M) Capacitance(C)

Frictional coefficient(B)
Reciprocal of Resistance ( 1R )
Spring constant(K)
Reciprocal of Inductance ( 1L )
Displacement(x) Magnetic Flux(ψ)

Velocity(v) Voltage(V)

Similarly, there is a torque current analogy for rotational mechanical systems. Let us now
discuss this analogy.
d. Torque Current Analogy

In this analogy, the mathematical equations of the rotational mechanical system are
compared with the nodal mesh equations of the electrical system.

By comparing Equation 4 and Equation 6, we will get the analogous quantities of rotational
mechanical system and electrical system. The following table shows these analogous
quantities.

Rotational Mechanical System Electrical System

 Torque(T) Current(i)

Moment of inertia(J) Capacitance(C)

Rotational friction coefficient(B)

Reciprocal of Resistance ( 1R )
Torsional spring constant(K)
Reciprocal of Inductance ( 1L )
Angular displacement(θ) Magnetic flux(ψ)

Angular velocity(ω) Voltage(V)

In this chapter, we discussed the electrical analogies of the mechanical systems. These
analogies are helpful to study and analyze the non-electrical system like mechanical system
from analogous electrical system.

CONTROL SYSTEMS - BLOCK DIAGRAMS

Block diagrams consist of a single block or a combination of blocks. These are used to
represent the control systems in pictorial form.

Basic Elements of Block Diagram

The basic elements of a block diagram are a block, the summing point and the take-off point.
Let us consider the block diagram of a closed loop control system as shown in the following
figure to identify these elements.
The above block diagram consists of two blocks having transfer functions G(s) and H(s). It is
also having one summing point and one take-off point. Arrows indicate the direction of the
flow of signals. Let us now discuss these elements one by one.
 Block

The transfer function of a component is represented by a block. Block has single input and
single output.

The following figure shows a block having input X(s), output Y(s) and the transfer function
G(s).

Y (s )
Transfer Function, G(s)=
X (s)

Output of the block is obtained by multiplying transfer function of the block with input.
 Summing Point
The summing point is represented with a circle having cross (X) inside it. It has two or more
inputs and single output. It produces the algebraic sum of the inputs. It also performs the
summation or subtraction or combination of summation and subtraction of the inputs based
on the polarity of the inputs. Let us see these three operations one by one.

The following figure shows the summing point with two inputs (A, B) and one output (Y).
Here, the inputs A and B have a positive sign. So, the summing point produces the output, Y
as sum of A and B.

i.e., Y = A +B .

The following figure shows the summing point with two inputs (A, B) and one output (Y).
Here, the inputs A and B are having opposite signs, i.e., A is having positive sign and B is
having negative sign. So, the summing point produces the output Y as the difference of A
and B.

Y = A +(−B)= A−B.

The following figure shows the summing point with three inputs (A, B, C) and one output
(Y). Here, the inputs A and B are having positive signs and C is having a negative sign. So,
the summing point produces the output Y as

Y = A + B + (−C) = A + B − C.
  Take-off Point

The take-off point is a point from which the same input signal can be passed through more
than one branch. That means with the help of take-off point, we can apply the same input to
one or more blocks, summing points.

In the following figure, the take-off point is used to connect the same input, R(s) to two more
blocks.

In the following figure, the take-off point is used to connect the output C(s), as one of the
inputs to the summing point.
 CONTROL SYSTEMS - BLOCK DIAGRAM ALGEBRA

Block diagram algebra is nothing but the algebra involved with the basic elements of the
block diagram. This algebra deals with the pictorial representation of algebraic equations.

Basic Connections for Blocks

There are three basic types of connections between two blocks.

a. Series Connection

Series connection is also called cascade connection. In the following figure, two blocks
having transfer functions G 1(s ) and G 2(s ) are connected in series.

For this combination, we will get the output Y (s) as

Y (s)=G 2(s)Z ( s)

Where, Z (s)=G1(s) X (s)

⇒ Y ( s)=G2(s)[G 1(s ) X (s )]=G 1(s )G 2(s) X (s )

⇒Y (s)={G 1(s )G 2(s)} X (s)

Compare this equation with the standard form of the output equation,

Y (s)=G(s) X (s).
Where, G(s)=G 1(s)G 2(s).

That means we can represent the series connection of two blocks with a single block. The
transfer function of this single block is the product of the transfer functions of those two
blocks. The equivalent block diagram is shown below.

Similarly, you can represent series connection of ‘n’ blocks with a single block. The transfer
function of this single block is the product of the transfer functions of all those ‘n’ blocks.
b. Parallel Connection

The blocks which are connected in parallel will have the same input. In the following
figure, two blocks having transfer functions G 1(s ) and G 2(s ) are connected in parallel. The
outputs of these two blocks are connected to the summing point.

For this combination, we will get the output Y (s) as

Y (s)=Y 1(s)+Y 2(s)

Where, Y 1(s )=G 1(s )X (s) and Y 2(s)=G 2( s) X (s )

⇒Y (s)=G1(s) X (s)+G 2(s ) X (s )={G 1(s)+G2 (s)} X (s)

Compare this equation with the standard form of the output equation,

Y (s)=G(s) X (s).
Where, G(s)=G 1(s)+G2 (s).

That means we can represent the parallel connection of two blocks with a single block. The
transfer function of this single block is the sum of the transfer functions of those two
blocks. The equivalent block diagram is shown below.

Similarly, you can represent parallel connection of ‘n’ blocks with a single block. The
transfer function of this single block is the algebraic sum of the transfer functions of all those
‘n’ blocks.
c. Feedback Connection

As we discussed in previous chapters, there are two types of feedback — positive feedback
and negative feedback. The following figure shows negative feedback control system. Here,
two blocks having transfer functions G(s) and H (s) form a closed loop.

The output of the summing point is -

E(s)=X (s)−H (s)Y (s)

The output Y (s) is -

Y (s)=E (s )G(s)

Substitute E(s) value in the above equation.

Y (s)={ X ( s)−H (s) Y (s) }G( s)}

Y (s){1+G(s)H (s )}= X (s )G(s)}

 Y (s ) G(s)
⇒ =
X (s) 1+ G(s ) H (s)

G(s)
Therefore, the negative feedback closed loop transfer function is
1+ G(s )H (s)

This means we can represent the negative feedback connection of two blocks with a single
block. The transfer function of this single block is the closed loop transfer function of the
negative feedback. The equivalent block diagram is shown below.

Similarly, you can represent the positive feedback connection of two blocks with a single
block. The transfer function of this single block is the closed loop transfer function of the
G(s)
positive feedback, i.e.,
1−G(s)H (s )

d. Block Diagram Algebra for Summing Points

There are two possibilities of shifting summing points with respect to blocks −
 Shifting summing point after the block
 Shifting summing point before the block

Let us now see what kind of arrangements need to be done in the above two cases one by one.
i. Shifting Summing Point After the Block

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Here, the summing point is
present before the block.
Summing point has two inputs R(s) and X (s). The output of it is {R (s )+ X (s)}.

So, the input to the block G(s) is {R (s )+ X ( s)} and the output of it is –

Y (s)=G(s){R (s)+ X (s)}

⇒ Y ( s)=G(s )R(s)+G(s) X ( s)(Equation 1)

Now, shift the summing point after the block. This block diagram is shown in the following
figure.

Output of the block G(s) is G(s) R (s ).

The output of the summing point is

Y (s)=G(s) R(s)+ X (s)(Equation 2)

Compare Equation 1 and Equation 2.

The first term G(s) R (s )' is same in both the equations. But there is difference in the second
term. In order to get the second term also same, we require one more block G(s). It is having
the input X (s) and the output of this block is given as input to summing point instead
of X (s). This block diagram is shown in the following figure.
 ii. Shifting Summing Point Before the Block

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Here, the summing point is
present after the block.

Output of this block diagram is -

Y (s)=G(s) R(s)+ X (s)(Equation 3)

Now, shift the summing point before the block. This block diagram is shown in the following
figure.
Output of this block diagram is -

Y (S)=G(s) R(s)+G(s) X ( s)(Equation 4)

Compare Equation 3 and Equation 4,

The first term ‘G(s)R (s )' is same in both equations. But there is difference in the second
term. In order to get the second term also same, we require one more block 1 G(s ). It is
having the input X (s) and the output of this block is given as input to summing point instead
of X (s) . This block diagram is shown in the following figure.

e. Block Diagram Algebra for Take-off Points

There are two possibilities of shifting the take-off points with respect to blocks −
  Shifting take-off point after the block
 Shifting take-off point before the block

Let us now see what kind of arrangements are to be done in the above two cases, one by one.
i. Shifting Take-off Point After the Block

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. In this case, the take-off point is
present before the block.

Here X (s)=R(s) and Y (s)=G(s) R(s)

When you shift the take-off point after the block, the output Y (s) will be same. But there is
difference in X (s) value. So, in order to get the same X (s) value, we require one more
block 1 G(s ). It is having the input Y (s) and the output is X (s) .This block diagram is shown
in the following figure.

ii. Shifting Take-off Point Before the Block

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Here, the take-off point is present
after the block.
Here, X (s)=Y (s)=G(s)R ( s)

When you shift the take-off point before the block, the output Y (s) will be same. But there is
difference in X (s) value. So, in order to get same X (s) value, we require one more
block G(s). It is having the input R(s) and the output is X (s). This block diagram is shown
in the following figure.

CONTROL SYSTEMS - BLOCK DIAGRAM REDUCTION

The concepts discussed in the previous chapter are helpful for reducing (simplifying) the
block diagrams.

Block Diagram Reduction Rules

Follow these rules for simplifying (reducing) the block diagram, which is having many
blocks, summing points and take-off points.
 Rule 1 − Check for the blocks connected in series and simplify.
 Rule 2 − Check for the blocks connected in parallel and simplify.
 Rule 3 − Check for the blocks connected in feedback loop and simplify.
 Rule 4 − If there is difficulty with take-off point while simplifying, shift it
towards right.
 Rule 5 − If there is difficulty with summing point while simplifying, shift it
towards left.
 Rule 6 − Repeat the above steps till you get the simplified form, i.e., single
block.
Note − The transfer function present in this single block is the transfer function of the overall
block diagram.
Example

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Let us simplify (reduce) this block
diagram using the block diagram reduction rules.

Step 1 − Use Rule 1 for blocks G1 and G2. Use Rule 2 for blocks G3 and G4. The modified
block diagram is shown in the following figure.

Step 2 − Use Rule 3 for blocks G1G2 and H1. Use Rule 4 for shifting take-off point after the
block G5G5. The modified block diagram is shown in the following figure.

Step 3 − Use Rule 1 for blocks (G3+G4) and G5. The modified block diagram is shown in
the following figure.
Step 4 − Use Rule 3 for blocks (G3+G4)G5 and H3. The modified block diagram is shown in
the following figure.

Step 5 − Use Rule 1 for blocks connected in series. The modified block diagram is shown in
the following figure.
Step 6 − Use Rule 3 for blocks connected in feedback loop. The modified block diagram is
shown in the following figure. This is the simplified block diagram.

Therefore, the transfer function of the system is

Note − Follow these steps in order to calculate the transfer function of the block diagram
having multiple inputs.
 Step 1 − Find the transfer function of block diagram by considering one input
at a time and make the remaining inputs as zero.
 Step 2 − Repeat step 1 for remaining inputs.
 Step 3 − Get the overall transfer function by adding all those transfer
functions.

The block diagram reduction process takes more time for complicated systems. Because, we
have to draw the (partially simplified) block diagram after each step. So, to overcome this
drawback, use signal flow graphs (representation).

In the next two chapters, we will discuss about the concepts related to signal flow graphs, i.e.,
how to represent signal flow graph from a given block diagram and calculation of transfer
function just by using a gain formula without doing any reduction process.

CONTROL SYSTEMS - SIGNAL FLOW GRAPHS

A signal flow graph is a graphical representation of the control systems. It consists of a
network in which nodes represent system variables. These nodes are connected by direct
branches.
Terminologies Related to the Signal Flow Graph
We will now discuss the common terminologies that are there when the signal flow graph is
discussed. These terminologies are:-
 Node: It is a system variable equal to the sum of all signals arriving at a node. Output
signals do not affect the value of the node.
 Branch: A branch is a line that connects two nodes in the direction of the signal flow.
 Transmittance: Transmittance is gain between nodes, also known as branch gain.
 Input or source node: It is a node that has only outgoing branches.
 Output or sink node: It is a node that has only incoming branches.
 Chain or mixed node: It is a node having both incoming and outgoing nodes.
 Path: It is the traversal from one node to another in the direction of the signal such
that no node is traversed more than once.
 Forward Path: It is the path from the input node to the output node.
 Closed loop: It is the loop that starts from a particular node and ends at the same
node.
 Self loop: It starts from one end and ends at the same node. It has only one branch.
 Path gain: It is the product of all branch gain in a path.
 Loop gain: It is the product of branch gain in a closed loop.

Signal Flow Graphs

Construction of Signal Flow Graph from Linear Equation

Let us consider a system which is described by a set of linear equations
x 2=a 12 x 1+ a12 x 3 +a12 x 4
x 3=a 23 x 2
x 4 =a24 x 2+ a32 x 3 +a 44 x 4
x 5=a 25 x 2+ a45 x 4
Where the input node is x1 and output node is x5
Now constructing the SFG
Step 1: First placing the nodes

Step 2: Graph from 1st Equation

Step 3: Graph from 1st and 2nd equation

Step 4: Graph from 1st, 2nd and 3rd equation

Step 5: Combing all the four equations we get the final signal flow graph

CONVERSION OF BLOCK DIAGRAMS INTO SIGNAL FLOW GRAPHS

Steps to Draw Signal Flow Graph from Block Diagram
We need to follow the steps given below to convert block diagram into signal flow graph.
 Replace the input and output signal by nodes.
 Replace all the summing points by nodes.
 Replace all taking off points by nodes.
 If the branch connecting a summing point and take off point can be combined then it
is represented by a single node.
 If there are more takeoff points from the same signal then all the take off points can
be combined and represented by a single node.
 If the gain of the link connecting two summing points is one then the two summing
points can be combined and replaced by a single node.
Block Diagram to SFG conversion
Mason's Gain Formula
Mason's gain formula is used to find the overall transmittance or gain of the system from
signal flow graph.
k
Σ k=1 Pk Δ k
T=
Δ
Where,
 Pk is the forward path gain of kth path from a specified input node to an output node
 Δ k is the path factor associated with the concerned path and involves all closed loops
in the graph which are isolated from the forward path under consideration.
 Δ = 1 - [sum of all individual loop transmittance] + [sum of loop transmittance
products of all possible pairs of non-touching loops] - [sum of loop transmittance
products of all possible triplets of non-touching loops] + .......
Solved Example
Convert the block diagram into signal flow graph and find the overall transfer function
 Question
Block Diagram
The signal flow diagram of the given block diagram is

Solution
The forward paths are
P1=G1 G3 G 4 P2=−G1 G2
The loop gains are
L1=G3 G4 (−1 )
L2=G1 G3 H 1 (−1 )
L3=G1 G3 H 1 (−1 )
L4 =G1 (−G2 ) (−1 ) G3 H 1 (−1 )
L5=G1 (−G2 )(−1)G3 H 1 (−1)
As we can see that all loops are touching path P1∧P2 . Therefore, the path factors will be
unity.
Δ=1−(L1 + L2+ L3 + L 4+ L5)=1+G3 G4 +2 G1 G 3 H 1 +2 G1 G2 G 3 H 1
using mason's gain formula we get,
C P1 Δ1 + P2 Δ2 G1 G3 G4 −G1 G2
= =
R Δ 1+G3 G4 +2 G1 G3 H 1 +2 G1 G2 G3 H 1
Applications of Conversion of Block Diagrams into Signal Flow Graphs
 Signal Flow Graphs are used to provide a clear representation of signal propagation in
a system.
 It is also used for defining paths in a system which allows for analyzing the system
and overall behavior of the system.
 It is used for design of control system and helps to analyze and implement feedback
loop.
 It is used for creating mathematical models of control system
Advantages of Conversion of Block Diagrams into Signal Flow Graphs
 It provides us with a clear and easy to understand representation of a system in the
form of a graph. These helps in easy identification of different components of the
system.
 It reduces the complexity of a system. This makes it easy to analyze different
components of the system step by step.
 Converting the block diagram to SFG gives us simple representation of the system. It
makes the process of path identification easier.
Disadvantages of Conversion of Block Diagrams into Signal Flow Graphs
 They can't be used for non-linear system making their scope limited to only linear
time-invariant system.
 They are subjected to manual errors because of many components and loops.
 It only provides the flow information and sometimes don't provide other parameters
that are important for some control systems.
 They are sometimes difficult to use in case of complex and large control system.

Static characteristics
These set of characteristics are used to measure quantities which slowly vary with time or
mostly constant with time. They include:
1. Accuracy: It is the degree of closeness of readings from an instrument to the true
value. Always accuracy is measured relative to the true value or actual value.
2. Sensitivity: It refers to the least change in measured value to which instrument or
device responds. The ratio of change in the output of an instrument to a change in the
value of the quantity to be measured is known as sensitivity.
 3. Precision: It is the degree of closeness of reading with the previous reading. An
instrument is said to be precise when there is negligible difference between successive
readings.
4. Linearity: The linearity is defined as the ability to give the input characteristics
symmetrically and linearly (Straight line). In other words, the ability to measure
maximum deviation from the ideal linear line. Instruments are said to be linear when
there is an increment in input and output are constant over the specified range.
5. Resolution: It refers to a small change in input value does not affect the output value
of an instrument. This continues until both the increment value and output value
exceed the threshold value. This increment is called a resolution.
6. Repeatability: It defines how consistent is the output of an instrument for the same
input tried again and again under the same conditions.
7. Range: The left extreme and right extreme values of a quantity for which the
instrument is designed to function. The range is equal to Maximum value minus
minimum value.
8. Tolerance: It is the highest allowable error that is specified in terms of certain values
while measurement, it is called tolerance.
9. Hysteresis: It is defined as an instrument showing different output values during
loading and unloading conditions.
Dynamic Characteristics
Dynamic characteristics describe the behavior of the instrument when the measured quantity
changes with time, especially rapidly. These describe how the instrument responds to changes
in input.
Key dynamic characteristics include:
 Time delay (Lag time): The time taken for the instrument's output to start changing
after a change in input.
 Response time: The time required for the instrument to respond and settle within a
certain range (usually 90% or 99%) of the final value after a step input.
 Speed of response: How quickly the output follows the changing input.
 Fidelity: The instrument's ability to accurately follow the time variations of the
measured variable.
 Damping: The property that reduces oscillations or overshoot in the output.
 Dynamic error: The difference between the actual output and the ideal output when
the input is changing.
Types of Errors
There is no measurement with perfect accuracy, but it is important to find out what accuracy
actually is and how the different errors are present into the measurement.
The aim of study of errors is to find out the ways to minimize them. Errors may be introduced
from different sources. Errors are usually classified as follows:
a. Gross Errors,
b. Systematic Errors, and
c. Random Errors.

a. Gross Errors: These errors are largely due to human errors in reading of instruments,
incorrect adjustment and improper application of instruments, and computational
mistakes. Complete elimination of such errors is probably impossible. The common gross
error is the improper use of an instrument for measurement. For example, a well
calibrated voltmeter can give an error in reading when connected across a high resistance
circuit. The same voltmeter will give more accurate reading when connected in a low
resistance circuit. It means the voltmeter has a ―loading effect‖ on the circuit, altering the
characteristics by the measurement process.
b. Systematic Errors: These errors are shortcomings of instruments, such as defective or
worn parts, and effects of the environment on the equipment or the user. This type of
error is usually divided into two different categories:
i. Instrumental Errors
ii. Environmental Errors.
Instrumental Errors: These errors are defined as shortcomings of the instrument. Instrumental
errors are inherent in measuring instruments due to their mechanical structure. For example,
in the deflection type instrument friction in bearings of various moving components, irregular
spring tension, stretching of the spring or reduction in tension due to improper handling or
overloading of the instrument may cause incorrect readings, which will result in errors. Other
instrumental errors may be due to calibration; improper zero setting, variation in the air gap,
etc. Instrumental errors may be avoided by following methods:
(a) Selecting a suitable instrument for the particular measurement;
(b) Applying correction factors after determining the amount of instrumental error;
(c) Calibrating the instrument against a standard instrument.
Environmental Errors: These errors are due to external conditions surrounding the
instruments which affect the measurements. The surrounding conditions may be the changes
in temperature, humidity, barometric pressure, or of magnetic or electrostatic fields. Thus, a
change in ambient temperature at which the instrument is used causes a change in the elastic
properties of the spring in a moving-coil

mechanism and so causes an error in the reading of the instrument. To reduce the effects of
external conditions surrounding the instruments the corrective measures are to be taken as
follows:
(a) To provide air-conditioning,
(b) Certain components in the instrument should be completely closed i.e., hermetically
sealed, and
(c) To provide magnetic and electrostatic shields. Systematic errors can also be
subdivided into:
(a) Static errors, and
(b) Dynamic errors.
Static errors are caused by limitations of the measuring device or the physical laws governing
its behaviour. A static error is introduced in a micrometer when excessive pressure is applied
in twisting or rotating the shaft.
Dynamic errors caused by the instrument do not respond fast enough to follow the changes in
a measured variable.
c. Random Errors: These errors are those errors which are due to unknown causes and they
occur even when all systematic errors have been taken care of. This error cannot be
corrected by any method of calibration or other known methods of control. Few random
errors usually occur in well-designed experiments, but they become important in high-
accuracy work. For example, a voltmeter with accurately calibrated is being used in ideal
environmental conditions to read voltage of an electric circuitry system. It will be found
that the readings vary slightly over the period of observation. This variation cannot be
corrected by any method of calibration or other known method of control and it cannot be
explained without minute investigation. The only way to offset these errors is by
increasing the number of readings and using statistical methods in order to obtain the best
approximation of the true value of the quantity under measurement.

STANDARD TEST SIGNALS

The standard test signals are impulse, step, ramp and parabolic. These signals are used to
know the performance of the control systems using time response of the output.
i. Unit Impulse Signal

A unit impulse signal, δ(t) is defined as

The following figure shows unit impulse signal.

So, the unit impulse signal exists only at ‘t’ is equal to zero. The area of this signal under
small interval of time around ‘t’ is equal to zero is one. The value of unit impulse signal is
zero for all other values of ‘t’.
ii. Unit Step Signal

A unit step signal, u(t) is defined as

Following figure shows unit step signal.

So, the unit step signal exists for all positive values of ‘t’ including zero. And its value is one
during this interval. The value of the unit step signal is zero for all negative values of ‘t’.
iii. Unit Ramp Signal

A unit ramp signal, r(t) is defined as

We can write unit ramp signal, r(t)r(t) in terms of unit step signal, u(t)u(t) as

Following figure shows unit ramp signal.

So, the unit ramp signal exists for all positive values of ‘t’ including zero. And its value
increases linearly with respect to ‘t’ during this interval. The value of unit ramp signal is zero
for all negative values of ‘t’.
iv. Unit Parabolic Signal

A unit parabolic signal, p(t) is defined as,

We can write unit parabolic signal, p(t) in terms of the unit step signal, u(t) as,

The following figure shows the unit parabolic signal.

So, the unit parabolic signal exists for all the positive values of ‘t’ including zero. And its
value increases non-linearly with respect to ‘t’ during this interval. The value of the unit
parabolic signal is zero for all the negative values of ‘t’.

Time Domain Specifications

In this chapter, let us discuss the time domain specifications of the second order system. The
step response of the second order system for the underdamped case is shown in the following
figure.

All the time domain specifications are represented in this figure. The response up to the
settling time is known as transient response and the response after the settling time is known
as steady state response.

i. Delay Time
It is the time required for the response to reach half of its final value from the zero instant. It
is denoted by t d.

Consider the step response of the second order system for t ≥ 0, when ‘δ’ lies between zero
and one.

The final value of the step response is one.

Therefore, at t=t d, the value of the step response will be 0.5. Substitute, these values in the
above equation.

By using linear approximation, you will get the delay time t d as

ii. Rise Time

It is the time required for the response to rise from 0% to 100% of its final value. This is
applicable for the under-damped systems. For the over-damped systems, consider the
duration from 10% to 90% of the final value. Rise time is denoted by t r.

At t = t1 = 0, c(t) = 0.

We know that the final value of the step response is one.

Therefore, at t=t 2. the value of step response is one. Substitute, these values in the following
equation.
Substitute t 1 andt 2 values in the following equation of rise time,
From above equation, we can conclude that the rise time t r and the damped frequency w d are
inversely proportional to each other.

iii. Peak Time

It is the time required for the response to reach the peak value for the first time. It is denoted
by t p. At t=t p the first derivate of the response is zero.

We know the step response of second order system for under-damped case is

Differentiate c(t) with respect to ‘t’.

dc (t)
Substitute, t=t p and =0 in the above equation.
dt
From the above equation, we can conclude that the peak time t p and the damped
frequency w d are inversely proportional to each other.

iv. Peak Overshoot

Peak overshoot M p is defined as the deviation of the response at peak time from the final
value of response. It is also called the maximum overshoot.

Mathematically, we can write it as

Where,

c(t p) is the peak value of the response.

c(∞) is the final (steady state) value of the response.

At t=t p, the response c(t) is –
 π
Substitute, t p= in the right-hand side of the above equation.
wd

We know that

So, we will get c (t p ) as

Substitute the values of c (t p ) and c (∞) in the peak overshoot equation.

Percentage of peak overshoot % M p can be calculated by using this formula.

By substituting the values of M p and c (∞) in above formula, we will get the Percentage of
the peak overshoot % M p as

From the above equation, we can conclude that the percentage of peak overshoot % M p will
decrease if the damping ratio δ increases.

v. Settling time
It is the time required for the response to reach the steady state and stay within the specified
tolerance bands around the final value. In general, the tolerance bands are 2% and 5%. The
settling time is denoted by t s.

The settling time for 5% tolerance band is –

The settling time for 2% tolerance band is –

Where, τ is the time constant and is equal to 1δωn1δωn.

 Both the settling time t s and the time constant τ are inversely proportional to
the damping ratio δ.
 Both the settling time t s and the time constant τ are independent of the system
gain. That means even the system gain changes, the settling time t s and time
constant τ will never change.
Example
Let us now find the time domain specifications of a control system having the closed loop
transfer function

when the unit step signal is applied as an input to this control system.

We know that the standard form of the transfer function of the second order closed loop
control system as

By equating these two transfer functions, we will get the un-damped natural frequency ω n as
2 rad/sec and the damping ratio δ as 0.5.
We know the formula for damped frequency ω d as
 Substitute, ω n and δ values in the above formula.

Substitute, δ value in following relation

Substitute the above necessary values in the formula of each time domain specification and
simplify in order to get the values of time domain specifications for given transfer function.

The following table shows the formulae of time domain specifications, substitution of
necessary values and the final values.

Time domain specification Formula Substitution of values in Final value

Formula

Delay time
 Rise time

Peak time

% Peak overshoot

Settling time for 2% tolerance band

CONTROL SYSTEMS - STABILITY

Stability is an important concept. In this chapter, let us discuss the stability of system and
types of systems based on stability.

What is Stability?

A system is said to be stable, if its output is under control. Otherwise, it is said to be unstable.
A stable system produces a bounded output for a given bounded input.

The following figure shows the response of a stable system.

This is the response of first order control system for unit step input. This response has the
values between 0 and 1. So, it is bounded output. We know that the unit step signal has the
value of one for all positive values of t including zero. So, it is bounded input. Therefore, the
first order control system is stable since both the input and the output are bounded.

Types of Systems based on Stability

We can classify the systems based on stability as follows.

 Absolutely stable system
 Conditionally stable system
 Marginally stable system
a) Absolutely Stable System

If the system is stable for all the range of system component values, then it is known as
the absolutely stable system. The open loop control system is absolutely stable if all the
poles of the open loop transfer function present in left half of ‘s’ plane. Similarly, the closed
loop control system is absolutely stable if all the poles of the closed loop transfer function
present in the left half of the ‘s’ plane.
b) Conditionally Stable System

If the system is stable for a certain range of system component values, then it is known
as conditionally stable system.
c) Marginally Stable System

If the system is stable by producing an output signal with constant amplitude and constant
frequency of oscillations for bounded input, then it is known as marginally stable system.
The open loop control system is marginally stable if any two poles of the open loop transfer
function is present on the imaginary axis. Similarly, the closed loop control system is
marginally stable if any two poles of the closed loop transfer function is present on the
imaginary axis.

CHAPTER 3: DOCUMENT THE CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN AND

SPECIFICATIONS

[Link] Learning Activities

The following are the performance criteria:

 Technical report is developed according to the control system design and

specifications.
 Operation and maintenance manual is developed according to control system design
and specifications
 The control system design is patented according to Industrial Property Act,2001

Trainees to demonstrate knowledge in relation to:

 Developing of technical report

 Developing of operation and maintenance manual
 Patenting

DEVELOPING OF TECHNICAL REPORT

A technical report (also scientific report) is a document that describes the process, progress,

or results of technical or scientific research or the state of a technical or scientific research

problem. Every scientific research needs to have a technical report. A technical report should

contain the following sections

SECTIONS IN A TECHNICAL REPORT

 Cover page- It is the face of your project. So, it must contain details like title, name of
the author, name of the institution with its logo. It should be a simple yet eye-catching
page.
 Title page- In addition to all the information on the cover page, the title page also
informs the reader about the status of the project. For instance, technical report part 1,
final report, etc. The name of the mentor or supervisor is also mentioned on this page.
 Abstract- Also referred to as the executive summary, this page gives a concise and clear
overview of the project. It is written in such a manner that a person only reading the
abstract can gain complete information on the project.
 Preface– It is an announcement page wherein you specify that you have given due credits
to all the sources and that no part of your research is plagiarized. The findings are of your
own experimentation and research.
 Dedication- This is an optional page when an author wants to dedicate their study to a
loved one. It is a small sentence in the middle of a new page. It is mostly used in theses.
 Acknowledgment- Here, you acknowledge the people parties, and institutions who
helped you in the process or inspired you for the idea of it.
 Table of contents– Each chapter and its subchapter is carefully divided into this section
for easy navigation in the project. If you have included symbols, then a similar
nomenclature page is also made. Similarly, if you’ve used a lot of graphs and tables, you
need to create a separate content page for that. Each of these lists begins on a new page.
 Introduction- Finally comes the introduction, marking the beginning of your project. On
this page, you must clearly specify the context of the report. It includes specifying the
purpose, objectives of the project, the questions you have answered in your report, and
sometimes an overview of the report is also provided. Note that your conclusion should
answer the objective questions.
 Central Chapter(s)- Each chapter should be clearly defined with sub and sub-sub
sections if needed. Every section should serve a purpose.
 Conclusion- The purpose of the conclusion is to basically conclude any and everything
that you talked about in your project. Mention the findings of each chapter, objectives
reached, and the extent to which the given objectives were reached. Discuss the
implications of the findings and the significant contribution your research made.
 Appendices- They are used for complete sets of data, long mathematical formulas, tables,
and figures. Items in the appendices should be mentioned in the order they were used in
the project.
 References- This is a very crucial part of your report. It cites the sources from which the
information has been taken from. This may be figures, statistics, graphs, or word-to-word
sentences. The absence of this section can pose a legal threat for you. While writing
references, give due credit to the sources and show your support to other people who have
studied the same genres.
 Bibliography- Many people tend to get confused between references and bibliography.
Let us clear it out for you. References are the actual material you take into your research,
previously published by someone else. Whereas a bibliography is an account of all the
data you read, got inspired from, or gained knowledge from, which is not necessarily a
direct part of your research.

AN OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

An operation and maintenance manual is a comprehensive document that provides all the

details necessary about a physical plant as well as individual pieces of equipment to help the

maintenance staff keep everything running [Link] is created to help in understanding the

performance and maintenance of a component. A comprehensive operations and maintenance

manual has several common parts:

 Overview: This section provides a general overview of the physical plant being
discussed as well as the components covered in the manual. It includes personnel
information, organizational charts, company history, or other background information.
 Physical building: This section details important information about one specific
facility. Ideally, this information is collected during the construction of the facility
itself and contains floor plans, building materials, finish data, building code and
specification information, and site survey.
 Operating procedures: A comprehensive, detailed explanation of all major operating
procedures should be documented so that a new employee can learn quickly and a
seasoned technician can double-check work.
 Maintenance procedures: The preventive and corrective maintenance programs
should be explained thoroughly including schedules, procedures, responsibilities,
troubleshooting and test requirements.
 Emergency procedures: It’s important to think through emergency situations before
they happen because it can be difficult to remember details in the middle of a chaotic
 situation. This section outlines all the people, steps, agencies, and other organizations
that need to be notified as well as a primer on how to handle crisis communications
internally and externally.

A patent is a form of property that gives its owner the legal right to exclude others from

making, using, selling, and importing an invention for a limited period of years, in exchange

for publishing an enabling public disclosure of the invention. Patenting is the act of obtaining

a patent.

[Link] Self-Assessment

1. What is a technical report?

2. List or the essential headings in a technical report?
3. State the important segments of an operation & maintenance manual?
4. Describe what is a patent?
5. What is patenting?
6. State the three types of patents?
7. What is the other name for a technical report?
8. What is the purpose of an operation and maintenance manual?
9. Develop a standard technical report for the mini-project done in previous section

CHAPTER 4: INSTALL MECHATRONIC INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

SYSTEM

Interfacing of controller and mechatronic system

Interfacing is the method of connecting or linking together one device with another allowing

us to design or adapt the output and input configurations of the two electronic devices so that

they can work together. PIC’s input interfacing circuits allows low voltage, low power

devices to easily communicate with the outside world as this device have built-in input–

output ports for transferring data to and from the controllers’ program and attached switches

or sensors. control. There are two ways to control devices: the open-loop system and the

closed-loop system. The open-loop control is a system where the output variables have no
effect on the control of the input. In an open loop system, a device is instructed to move to a

certain location in a certain manner, say at a specified speed, but the control unit does not

ascertain that the device reaches the predetermined location or moves at the commanded

speed. In order to completely automate a process of a machine tool, it is necessary to employ

control systems that can compare the desired set of results with the actual results, and take

corrective action. This is the essence of closed-loop feedback systems.

Studying, monitoring, testing and evaluating system performance: A system performance

monitor (SPM) is a type of application that identifies, collects, monitors and reports on the

overall operational health of a computer system. It is a performance-monitoring tool that

enables end users, administrators and organizations to gauge and evaluate the performance of

a given system. A system performance monitor primarily collects and reports key

performance indicators and metrics into the operational state of a system. Monitoring and

evaluation system performance helps to detect problems that affect a user's productivity,

collect data when a problem occurs for the first time and allow the user to establish a baseline

for comparison

Calibration of mechatronic systems: Calibration is the process of determining and

adjusting an instrument's accuracy to make sure it is within the manufacturer's specifications.

Calibration is intended to eliminate or reduce bias in an instrument's readings over a range for

all continuous values. There are different types of calibrations:

o Transducer calibration which focuses on the transducer input-output output relationship.

o Data system calibration, which simulates or models the input of the entire measurement

system.

o Physical end-to-end calibration.

Commissioning is the process by which an equipment, facility, or plant (which is installed,

or is complete or near completion) is tested to verify if it functions according to its design

objectives or specifications. Applying simulation for testing responses of mechatronic

systems, which might even be still under development, is also known as emulation and it is a

modern way how to carry out virtual commissioning. This can be used to perform CAD to

PLC simulation and robot simulation.

Variable speed drives are a type of motor controller that drives an electric motor by varying

the frequency and voltage supplied to the electric motor. They are put between the electrical

supply and the motor, the power from the electrical supply go to the drive and the drive then

regulates the power which is fed to the motor. Inside the drive, the input power is run through

a rectifier, which converts the incoming ac power to dc power which is fed to capacitors

inside the drive. This is done to smooth out the electrical waveform providing a clean power

supply for the next step. They are used to regulate the speed and rotational force, or output

torque of mechanical equipment.

[Link] Self-Assessment

i. Differentiate between closed loop and open loop systems

ii. List the criteria for the selection installation tools and equipment
iii. State the advantages of performing system performance monitoring and evaluation
iv. State the meaning of calibration and state its importance
v. State the types of calibrations
vi. What is commissioning?
vii. What are the uses of a variable speed drive?
viii. State the uses of a system performance monitor

CHAPTER 5: ANALYZE INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL DATA

[Link] Learning Activities

The following are the performance criteria:

 Data to be analysed is decided according to the inputs and the outputs of the controller
and the mechatronic system performance
  Methods of data collection is selected according system performance
 Data from the system is collected according to system performance
 Documentation of the collected data is done according to the system performance
 Data is interpreted and analysed according to the system performance
 Interpreted and analysed data is documented for future use

Trainees to demonstrate knowledge in relation to:

 Data selection
 Data collection and documentation
 Data analysis

[Link] Information Sheet

Data selection is defined as the process of determining the appropriate data type and source,

as well as suitable instruments to collect data. The primary objective of data selection is the

determination of appropriate data type, source, and instrument(s) that allow investigators to

adequately answer research questions. There are a number of issues that researchers should

be aware of when selecting data. These include determining:

 The appropriate type and sources of data which permit investigators to adequately
answer the stated research questions,
 Suitable procedures in order to obtain a representative sample
 The proper instruments to collect data. There should be compatibility between the
type/source of data and the mechanisms to collect it. It is difficult to extricate the
selection of the type/source of data from instruments used to collect the data.

Data collection and documentation:

Data collection is a process of collecting information from all the relevant sources to find
answers to the research problem, test the hypothesis and evaluate the outcomes.

Documentation refers to a clear description of the methodology used to collect data. Data
collection methods can be divided into two categories: secondary methods of data collection
and primary methods of data collection.

Secondary data is a type of data that has already been published in books, newspapers,
magazines, journals, online portals etc. These criteria include, but not limited to date of
publication, credential of the author, reliability of the source, quality of discussions, depth of
analyses, etc.

Primary data collection methods can be divided into two groups: quantitative and
qualitative. Quantitative data collection methods are based in mathematical calculations in
various formats. Methods of quantitative data collection and analysis include questionnaires
with closed-ended questions, methods of correlation and regression, mean, mode and median
and others.

Qualitative research methods, on the contrary, do not involve numbers or mathematical

calculations. Qualitative research is closely associated with words, sounds, feeling, emotions,
colours and other elements that are non-quantifiable.

Data analysis is a process of inspecting, cleansing, transforming, and modelling data with the
goal of discovering useful information, informing conclusions, and supporting decision
making.

SELF-ASSESSMENT

1. Describe data collection

2. Describe data analysis
3. Describe what is data selection
4. Explain the purpose of documentation in a data collection process.
5. What are the steps to follow when doing data analysis?
6. State the methods of data collection
7. State things to put into consideration when performing data selection
8. Name types of data collection methods
9. Prepare a research methodology for collection of data for your project. What are the
quantitative tools you will be using? How you will analysis the data?
10. Prepare a research methodology. Conduct data collection process, data analysis and
interpretation for a project on installing sensors at modern home.

CHAPTER 6: SERVICE AND/OR REPAIR SYSTEM FAULTS

Tools and equipment are selection

Tools are handheld devices that aid in accomplishing a task. In mechanical, we have different

types of tools, which are used to perform different tasks. In a lathe machine, we have tools

for turning, facing, drilling, knurling, etc. When you need to get a tool, get to know and

understand the scope of the work to be accomplished. Plan for the scope taking into account

the sequences of the tasks. Selecting the best tool for each task requires training in the proper

use of the tools, field experience in their safe use, and following the manufacturer’s guidance

and instructions for that specific tool.

The following should be put into consideration when selecting tools and equipment:

 First cost
 Suitability
 Constructability due to schedule, lead time, start-up/commission-ability
 Ease and cost of operations and maintenance:
 Total cost of ownership
 Experience and reputation of the equipment manufacturer
 Impact on other building design elements (size, location, interference)
 Noise criteria
 Lifespan
 Energy benefits (code requirements, energy efficiency, or value of the
property)
 Scalability, staging, and modularity of equipment
 Redundancy and failure-node risk
 Environmental health attributes (i.e., R-123, ammonia)
 Safety

System testing and fault diagnosis: In the current society, there are many advances in

technology. This advances have led to the creating of simulation software that can be used to

do testing of the mechatronic systems. Also, one can apply prototyping technologies (such as

3D prototyping and rapid prototyping) so as to perform different test processes. MATLAB

and Simulink are used to do the simulation of different components so as to test the outcome.
Engineers also develop mathematical models that represent the mechanical components of a

system under development.

Standard services are important for customers, potential customers, and employees because

they help to define what a customer can expect and to remind management and employees of

the challenge and obligations that they face. Service standards are usually defined in terms of

timeliness, accuracy and appropriateness. Repair procedure is a set of rules that determines

which actions are generated in the repair order. Different products have different repair

procedures.

Maintenance Scheduling is the maintenance plan and it bringing together all the resources

needed to complete it. The scheduling involves assembling and coordinating the information,

people, materials, and equipment, along with all the other necessary resources to get the job

done. Maintenance scheduling ensures tasks are completed in a timely manner.

Reporting and documentation is important because it describes the use, operation,

maintenance, or design of software or hardware through the use of manuals, listings,

diagrams, and other hard- or soft-copy written and graphic materials, Assign responsibilities

and establish authority for business processes and practices (pertains mostly to policies and

procedures), standardize business practices, reduce/eliminate fraud, waste, and abuse, comply

with federal, state, and local regulations, comply with customer requirements, comply with

contractual requirements, train new employees.

[Link] Self-Assessment

i. Describe the importance of reporting and documentation

ii. List the things to consider when choosing a tool
iii. Describe what is simulation
iv. What is Rapid Prototyping?
v. What is maintenance scheduling?
vi. What is a repair procedure?
vii. What is the importance of Maintenance Scheduling?

Factors to consider while selecting a component for replacement during maintenance

 Cost
 Suitability
 Constructability due to schedule, lead time, start-up/commission-ability
 Ease and cost of operations and maintenance:
 Total cost of ownership
 Experience and reputation of the equipment manufacturer
 Impact on other building design elements (size, location, interference) 402
 Noise criteria o Lifespan
 Energy benefits (code requirements, energy efficiency, or value of the property)
 Scalability, staging, and modularity of equipment
 Redundancy and failure-node risk
 Environmental health attributes (i.e., R-123, ammonia) Safety

Factors to consider when justifying whether a component should be repaired or replaced when
performing maintenance activities

 Analyze the Costs-Always think in the long-term when analyzing the costs of repairing or
replacing. For a new piece of equipment, consider the cost of purchasing the equipment, its
service life, potential salvage value, operating costs, and any revenue increase it may bring.
For an old piece of equipment, consider its remaining service life, operating costs, its market
value and future salvage rate. From these figures, you can determine an annual average cost
for each option, which will then be easy to compare.
 Consider the Age of Equipment- Equipment does not age with grace. The older your
machinery, the more extensive repairs it will need. This often translates to higher
maintenance costs. As you continue to repair, the machine will give you less and less for
your investment of repair. You may want to consider replacing an old malfunctioning piece
of equipment for a newer, technologically advanced model that will give you better
efficiency and longevity. When your equipment is new, it makes more sense, in many cases,
to repair it once it malfunctions.
 Consider the Cost of Repairs- What are the cost of repairs, and more importantly, how often
will you be paying those costs for repairs? Documenting asset repair events provides
information on number and frequency of breakdown events and costs for the repairs. Can
you tell if you’re going to continue repairing this equipment several times a year, or will it
likely just be a one-time fix?
 Consider Downtime- What’s the impact of downtime while the asset is being repaired? If it
takes several days to repair, and if this happens frequently, you’re looking at too many hours
of lost productivity. Consider this when deciding if repair or replacement is better in your
situation. Keep in mind, however, that repairing often takes less time than replacing a
machine. Replacing involves waiting for the replacement to arrive, installation, new training,
and more. If you’re on an extremely tight schedule and if the equipment is crucial to your
process, you may lose too much in production if you take the time to replace.
 Consider Safety- Remember that older equipment can cause injury to workers if it
malfunctions. Even if you stay up to date on maintenance, equipment wears down as it ages.
Thoroughly inspect your machinery before making your decision so you can determine if
your current equipment will continue to provide a safe environment for your workers. If it
won’t, replacement is the obvious choice. If it is still meeting safety standards, it’s worth
comparing costs of a replacement versus repair.
 Consider Efficiency- Always think of the long run. How efficient is your machine operating
now, and will a simple repair keep efficiency at the level you want, or would a new piece of
equipment that uses less fuel, offers newer features, and breaks down less frequently be
better for your efficiency and your bottom line?