Electrodynamics Notes

Soryu
January 20, 2026

1 Mathematical Foundations
1.1 Vector Operations
1.1.1 Norm and Normalization
For a vector A = (Ax , Ay , Az ) in R3 , the (Euclidean) norm or magnitude is defined as
q
∥A∥ = A2x + A2y + A2z .

The normalized (unit) vector in the direction of A is defined by

A
 = , ∥Â∥ = 1,
∥A∥

provided that A ̸= 0.

1.1.2 Dot Product

For two vectors A = (Ax , Ay , Az ) and B = (Bx , By , Bz ) in R3 ,

A · B = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz .

Geometrically,
A · B = ∥A∥ ∥B∥ cos θ,
where θ is the angle between A and B.

1.1.3 Cross Product

The cross product of two vectors A and B is defined as

x̂ ŷ ẑ
A × B = Ax Ay Az .
Bx By Bz

It results in a vector perpendicular to both A and B, with magnitude

|A × B| = |A| |B| sin θ,

where θ is the angle between A and B.

Direction (Right-Hand Rule): Point the fingers of your right hand along A, then curl them toward
B. Your thumb points in the direction of A × B.

1
1.2 Scalar and Vector Fields
1.2.1 Scalar Field
A scalar field assigns a real number to each point in space:

ϕ(x, y, z) ∈ R.

1.2.2 Vector Field

A vector field assigns a vector to each point in space. Each component of the vector is itself a scalar field:


A(x, y, z) = Ax (x, y, z), Ay (x, y, z), Az (x, y, z) .

1.3 Differential Operators

1.3.1 Gradient
For a scalar field ϕ(r),  
∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ
∇ϕ = ∂x ∂y ∂z .

1.3.2 Divergence
For a vector field A,
∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az
∇·A= + + .
∂x ∂y ∂z

1.3.3 Curl
For a vector field A,
x̂ ŷ ẑ
∂ ∂ ∂
∇×A= ∂x ∂y ∂z .
Ax Ay Az
Equivalently, in Cartesian coordinates,
 
∂Az ∂Ay ∂Ax ∂Az ∂Ay ∂Ax
∇×A= − , − , − .
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y

1.3.4 Laplacian
Action on a scalar field For a scalar field ϕ(r), the Laplacian is defined as

∇2 ϕ = ∇ · (∇ϕ).

In Cartesian coordinates, this reduces to

∂2ϕ ∂2ϕ ∂2ϕ

∇2 ϕ = + 2 + 2 .
∂x2 ∂y ∂z

Action on a vector field For a vector field A, the vector Laplacian is defined by

∇2 A = ∇(∇ · A) − ∇ × (∇ × A).

Theorem (Cartesian Coordinates) In Cartesian coordinates, the vector Laplacian acts componentwise:

∇2 A = (∇2 Ax , ∇2 Ay , ∇2 Az ) .

2
1.4 Essential Vector Identities
For scalar fields ϕ, ψ and vector fields A, B, the following vector identities are frequently used in electromag-
netism.

Linearity
∇(ϕ + ψ) = ∇ϕ + ∇ψ,
∇ · (A + B) = ∇ · A + ∇ · B,
∇ × (A + B) = ∇ × A + ∇ × B.

Product Rules
∇(ϕψ) = ϕ ∇ψ + ψ ∇ϕ,
∇ · (ϕA) = ϕ (∇ · A) + A · (∇ϕ),
∇ × (ϕA) = ∇ϕ × A + ϕ (∇ × A).

Dot and Cross Product Identities

∇(A · B) = (A · ∇)B + (B · ∇)A + A × (∇ × B) + B × (∇ × A),
∇ · (A × B) = B · (∇ × A) − A · (∇ × B),

∇ × (A × B) = A(∇ · B) − B(∇ · A) + (B · ∇)A − (A · ∇)B.

Second-Order Identities
∇ · (∇ × A) = 0, ∇ × (∇ϕ) = 0.

1.5 Integral Theorems

Flux (Surface Integral)
For a surface S with outward normal n̂,
¨
A · dS, dS = n̂ dS.
S

Circulation (Line Integral)

For a closed curve C, ˛
A · dl.
C

Gauss’ Theorem
For a volume V with boundary surface S,
" ˚
A · dS = (∇ · A) dV.
S V

Stokes’ Theorem
For a surface S with boundary curve C,
˛ ¨
A · dl = (∇ × A) · dS.
C S

3
2 Maxwell’s Equations

Name Differential Form

ρ
Gauss’ Law ∇·E=
ε0
∂B
Faraday’s Law ∇×E=−
∂t
Gauss’ Law for Magnetism ∇·B=0
∂E
Ampère–Maxwell’s Law ∇ × B = µ0 J + µ0 ε0
∂t
Table 1: Maxwell’s equations in differential form.

Name Integral Form

" ˚
1 1 X
Gauss’ Law E · dS = ρ dV = Q
S ε0 V ε0
˛ ¨ enclosed
d dΦB
Faraday’s Law E · dl = − B · dS = −
dt dt
"C S

Gauss’ Law for Magnetism B · dS = 0

˛S ¨ ¨
d
Ampère–Maxwell’s Law B · dl = µ0 J · dS + µ0 ε0 E · dS = µ0 (I + ID )
C S dt S

Table 2: Maxwell’s equations in integral form.

• E — Electric field, measured in volts per meter (V/m).

• B — Magnetic field (magnetic flux density), measured in tesla (T).

• ρ — Charge density, a scalar field representing the amount of electric charge per unit volume, measured
in coulombs per cubic meter (C/m3 ).
• J — Current density, a vector field representing electric current per unit area, measured in amperes
per square meter (A/m2 ).
• ε0 — Vacuum permittivity, characterizing the ability of free space to permit electric field lines. Nu-
merically: ε0 ≈ 8.854 × 10−12 F/m (farads per meter).
• µ0 — Vacuum permeability, characterizing the magnetic properties of free space. Numerically: µ0 =
4π × 10−7 H/m (henrys per meter).
• Q — Electric charge, measured in coulombs (C). Related to charge density ρ by
˚
Q= ρ dV.
V

• I — Electric current, measured in amperes (A). Related to current density J by

¨
I= J · dS.
S

4
 • ΦE — Electric flux, measured in V·m (or N·m²/C), defined as
¨
ΦE = E · dS.
S

• ΦB — Magnetic flux, measured in webers (Wb), defined as

¨
ΦB = B · dS.
S

• ID — Displacement current, representing the effect of a time-varying electric field, measured in amperes
(A), defined as ¨
dΦE d
ID = ε0 = ε0 E · dS.
dt dt S

3 Electromagnetism Laws
3.1 Coulomb’s Law
The electric field at point r due to a point charge q at r′ is
1 q
E(r) = · (r − r′ ).
4πε0 |r − r′ |3

3.2 Oersted–Ampère Law

An infinite straight wire carrying a steady current I produces a magnetic field that forms concentric circles
around the wire. At a distance r from the wire, the magnitude of the magnetic field is
µ0 I
B(r) = ,
2πr
and the direction is tangential to the circle centered at the wire.

Right-Hand Rule
The direction of B follows the right-hand rule:

• Point your right-hand thumb in the direction of the current I,

• Your curled fingers indicate the direction of the magnetic field B.

3.3 Biot–Savart Law

The magnetic field at point r due to a current element Idl′ is

µ0 I dl′ × (r − r′ )
dB(r) = .
4π |r − r′ |3

For a current distribution, the total magnetic field is

˛
µ0 I dl′ × (r − r′ )
B(r) = .
4π |r − r′ |3

5
3.4 Faraday’s Law
A time-varying magnetic flux through a closed loop induces an electromotive force (EMF) in the loop.
Mathematically,
dΦB
E =− ,
dt
where ΦB is the magnetic flux through the loop:
¨
ΦB = B · dA.
S

Kirchhoff ’s Voltage Law (KVL)

In electrical circuits, the sum of voltage drops around a closed loop plus the induced EMF equals zero:
X
Vk + E = 0.
k

Lenz’s Law
The direction of the induced EMF (and current) is such that it opposes the change in magnetic flux that
produces it. Mathematically, the negative sign in Faraday’s law expresses Lenz’s law.
Physical interpretation:
- If the magnetic flux through a loop increases, the induced current generates a magnetic field that
opposes the increase.
- If the magnetic flux decreases, the induced current generates a magnetic field that tries to maintain it.

3.5 Continuity Equation

The continuity equation expresses the conservation of electric charge:
∂ρ
∇·J+ = 0,
∂t
where J is the current density and ρ is the charge density.
In integral form, for a volume V with boundary surface S,
ˆ ˛
d
ρ dV + J · dS = 0,
dt V S

which states that the rate of change of charge in a volume equals the net current flowing out.

Kirchhoff ’s Current Law (KCL)

At any electrical node (junction), the sum of currents flowing into the node equals the rate of change of
charge at the node:
X dQnode
Ik = ,
dt
k

where Qnode is the total charge stored at the node.

This is the discrete, circuit analog of the continuity equation, reflecting that if the charge at a node
changes over time, the net current into the node is nonzero.

6
3.6 Electromagnetic Wave Equation
In free space, the electric and magnetic fields satisfy the wave equations:
∂2E ∂2B
∇2 E − µ 0 ε 0 = 0, ∇2 B − µ0 ε0 = 0.
∂t2 ∂t2
A plane wave solution propagating in the direction of the wave vector k is
1
E(r, t) = E0 ei(k·r−ωt) , B(r, t) = k̂ × E(r, t),
c
where:
• k is the wave vector, pointing in the direction of propagation, with magnitude |k| = 2π/λ,
• ω is the angular frequency, related to the speed of light by ω = c|k|,
√
• c = 1/ µ0 ε0 is the speed of light in vacuum.

Electromagnetic Field Energy and Momentum Densities

The energy density and momentum density of the electromagnetic field in free space are
 
1 1 2
H= ε0 E2 + B , p = ε0 E × B,
2 µ0
where H is the energy density and p is the momentum density (the Poynting vector divided by c2 ).
The Poynting vector, representing the energy flux density of the electromagnetic field, is
1
S= E × B.
µ0
The electromagnetic energy satisfies the continuity equation (conservation of energy):
∂H
+ ∇ · S = 0,
∂t
which states that the rate of change of electromagnetic energy in a volume equals the net energy flux out of
the volume.

Quantum Correspondence
In quantum mechanics, an electromagnetic wave can be viewed as a stream of photons, for which

H = ℏω, p = ℏk,

where H is the photon energy, p its momentum, and ℏ is the reduced Planck constant.

3.7 Lorentz Force Law

A charged particle with charge q moving with velocity v in electric and magnetic fields E and B experiences
the Lorentz force
F = q(E + v × B).

Electric and Magnetic Contributions

• Electric force: FE = q E
• Magnetic force: FB = q(v × B)

The electric part acts in the direction of E, while the magnetic part is always perpendicular to the velocity
v and the magnetic field B.

7
4 Applications
4.1 Electric Field of a Uniformly Charged Sphere
Consider a sphere of radius R uniformly filled with charge density ρ. The total charge is
˚
4πR3
Q= ρ dV = ρ · .
V 3

Because of spherical symmetry, the electric field must be radial:

E(r) = E(r) r̂.

We consider two regions:

Outside the Sphere (r > R)

By Gauss’ law, choosing a spherical Gaussian surface of radius r:
"
Q
E · dS = E(r) (4πr2 ) = .
S ε0

Thus the electric field is

1 Q
E(r) = , (r > R)
4πε0 r2
i.e. the sphere behaves as if all charge is concentrated at the center.

Inside the Sphere (r < R)

The enclosed charge for a Gaussian sphere of radius r is

4πr3
Qenc = ρ · .
3
Gauss’ law gives
Qenc 1 4πr3
E(r) (4πr2 ) = = ρ .
ε0 ε0 3
Therefore,
ρ
E(r) = r (r < R)
3ε0
which increases linearly from the center.

Summary
 ρ
 r, r < R,
3ε0

E(r) = 1 Q

 , r > R.
4πε0 r2

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Electric Field Diagram

+Q E(r)

E(r)

ρ
E(r) = r
3ε0

1 Q
E(r) =
4πε0 r2

r
R

Figure 1: Electric field E(r) of a uniformly charged solid sphere.

4.1.1 Verification
p
Consider a uniformly charged sphere with total charge Q and charge density ρ. Let r = x2 + y 2 + z 2 .

• Outside the sphere (r ≥ R):

1 Q 1 Q
E(r) = 3
r= (xx̂ + yŷ + zẑ)
4πε0 r 4πε0 r3

• Inside the sphere (r < R):

ρ ρ
E(r) = r= (xx̂ + yŷ + zẑ)
3ε0 3ε0

Divergence Verification
Outside the sphere (r ≥ R)

Q x Q y Q z
Ex = , Ey = , Ez = .
4πε0 r3 4πε0 r3 4πε0 r3

Compute ∂Ex /∂x:

9
 ∂ x −3 ∂ −3 −3 x2
= r + x (r ) = r − 3 .
∂x r3 ∂x r5
where,
∂ −3 ∂ 2 3 3x
(r ) = (x + y 2 + z 2 )−3/2 = − (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )−5/2 · 2x = − 5 .
∂x ∂x 2 r
Similarly,
∂ y y2 ∂ z z2
3
= r−3 − 3 5 , 3
= r−3 − 3 5 .
∂y r r ∂z r r
Add the three components:
Q  −3 
∇·E= (r − 3x2 /r5 ) + (r−3 − 3y 2 /r5 ) + (r−3 − 3z 2 /r5 ) = 3r−3 − 3r2 /r5 = 0 (r ̸= 0).
4πε0

Inside the sphere (r < R)

ρ ρ ρ
Ex = x, Ey = y, Ez = z.
3ε0 3ε0 3ε0
Compute divergence:
ρ ρ ρ ρ
∇·E= + + = .
3ε0 3ε0 3ε0 ε0
This exactly satisfies Gauss’ law inside the sphere.

Curl Verification
We verify that the electric field of a uniformly charged sphere is irrotational (∇ × E = 0) using Cartesian
coordinates.

Outside the sphere (r ≥ R) The electric field is

Q p
Eout = (xx̂ + yŷ + zẑ), r= x2 + y 2 + z 2 .
4πε0 r3
Compute the curl in Cartesian coordinates:

x̂ ŷ ẑ
∂ ∂ ∂
∇×E= ∂x ∂y ∂z .
Ex Ey Ez

For the x-component:

∂Ez ∂Ey ∂ Qz ∂ Qy
(∇ × E)x = − = 3
− = 0.
∂y ∂z ∂y 4πε0 r ∂z 4πε0 r3
where
∂ z ∂ zy
= z (r−3 ) = −3 5 .
∂y r3 ∂y r
Similarly,
∂Ex ∂Ez ∂Ey ∂Ex
(∇ × E)y = − = 0, (∇ × E)z = − = 0.
∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
Hence, outside the sphere:
∇ × Eout = 0.

10
Inside the sphere (r < R) The electric field is linear in r:
ρ
Ein = (xx̂ + yŷ + zẑ).
3ε0
Compute the x-component of the curl:
∂Ez ∂Ey ∂ ρ ∂ ρ
(∇ × E)x = − = z− y = 0.
∂y ∂z ∂y 3ε0 ∂z 3ε0
Similarly, the other components vanish:
(∇ × E)y = 0, (∇ × E)z = 0.
Therefore, inside the sphere:
∇ × Ein = 0.
Conclusion: The electric field of a uniformly charged sphere is irrotational everywhere, consistent with
Faraday’s law in electrostatics.

4.2 Electric Field of an Infinite Uniformly Charged Cylinder

Consider an infinitely long cylinder of radius a, carrying a uniform linear charge density λ. The corresponding
volume charge density is
λ
ρe = .
πa2
Due to cylindrical symmetry, the electric field points radially outward in the plane perpendicular to the
axis: p
E(r) = E(ρ) ρ̂, ρ = x2 + y 2 .

4.2.1 Using Gauss’ Law

Choose a cylindrical Gaussian surface of radius ρ and length L coaxial with the cylinder.

Inside the cylinder (ρ < a) The enclosed charge:

λ ρ2
Qenc = ρe · πρ2 L = 2
· πρ2 L = λ 2 L.
πa a
The flux through the curved surface:
E(ρ)(2πρL).
Gauss’ law gives:

λρ2 L λ
E(ρ)(2πρL) = ⇒ E(ρ) = ρ, (ρ < a) .
ε0 2πε0 a2

Outside the cylinder (ρ ≥ a) The enclosed charge is the total charge of the cylinder:
Qenc = λL.
Gauss’ law:
λL λ
E(ρ)(2πρL) = ⇒ E(ρ) = , (ρ ≥ a) .
ε0 2πε0 ρ

Summary
 λ
 ρ, ρ < a,
2πε0 a2

E(ρ) =
 λ ,

ρ ≥ a.
2πε0 ρ

11
4.2.2 Field in Cartesian Coordinates
Inside the cylinder (ρ < a)
λ
E(x, y) = (xx̂ + yŷ).
2πε0 a2

Outside the cylinder (ρ ≥ a)

λ xx̂ + yŷ
E(x, y) = .
2πε0 x2 + y 2

4.2.3 Divergence Verification

Inside the cylinder (ρ < a)
λ λ 2λ λ ρe
Ex = x, Ey = y ⇒ ∇·E= = = .
2πε0 a2 2πε0 a2 2πε0 a2 πε0 a2 ε0

Outside the cylinder (ρ ≥ a)

λx λy
Ex = , Ey = .
2πε0 (x2 + y 2 ) 2πε0 (x2 + y 2 )

∂Ex λ(y 2 − x2 ) ∂Ey λ(x2 − y 2 )

= , = .
∂x 2πε0 (x2 + y 2 )2 ∂y 2πε0 (x2 + y 2 )2

∇·E=0 (ρ ̸= 0),
consistent with Gauss’ law outside the cylinder.

4.2.4 Curl Verification

Inside the cylinder (ρ < a)
λ λ
Ex = x, Ey = y, Ez = 0 ⇒ ∇ × E = 0.
2πε0 a2 2πε0 a2

Outside the cylinder (ρ ≥ a)

λx λy
Ex = , Ey = , Ez = 0.
2πε0 (x2 + y 2 ) 2πε0 (x2 + y 2 )

∂Ey ∂Ex
(∇ × E)x = (∇ × E)y = 0, (∇ × E)z = − = 0.
∂x ∂y
Conclusion: The electric field of a uniformly charged cylinder of radius a is radial, satisfies Gauss’ law
inside and outside, and is irrotational everywhere, consistent with electrostatics.

12
4.3 Electric Field of an Infinite Uniformly Charged Slab
Consider an infinite slab of thickness 2a, extending infinitely in the x- and z-directions. The slab occupies
the region
−a ≤ y ≤ a.
The volume charge density is uniform:
ρ = constant.
By translational symmetry in x and z, the electric field depends only on y. By reflection symmetry about
the plane y = 0, the electric field must be parallel to the y-axis. Thus,

E(r) = E(y) ŷ.

4.3.1 Using Gauss’ Law

Choose a rectangular Gaussian surface of cross-sectional area A, extending from −y to +y along the y-
direction and centered at y = 0.

Inside the slab (|y| < a) The enclosed charge is

Qenc = ρ(2yA).

Gauss’ law gives ˛

Qenc ρ(2yA)
E · dA = 2E(y)A = = .
ε0 ε0
Therefore,
ρ
E(y) = y ŷ, (|y| < a) .
ε0

Outside the slab (y > a) The enclosed charge is the total charge of the slab:

Qenc = ρ(2aA).

Gauss’ law yields

ρ(2aA)
2E(y)A = ,
ε0
so
ρa
E(y) = ŷ, (y > a) .
ε0

Outside the slab (y < −a) By symmetry, the electric field reverses direction:

ρa
E(y) = − ŷ, (y < −a) .
ε0

Summary
ρ
 y ŷ, |y| < a,
ε0




 ρa
E(y) = ŷ, y > a,
 ε0
 ρa


−
 ŷ, y < −a.
ε0

13
4.3.2 Divergence Verification
Since
E = (0, Ey (y), 0),
the divergence is
∂Ey
∇·E= .
∂y

Inside the slab (|y| < a)  

∂Ey ∂ ρ ρ
= y = .
∂y ∂y ε0 ε0
Thus,
ρ
∇·E= , (|y| < a) .
ε0

Outside the slab (|y| > a) Since Ey is constant,

∂Ey
= 0,
∂y
so
∇ · E = 0, (|y| > a) .

4.3.3 Curl Verification

The curl is
x̂ ŷ ẑ
∇ × E = ∂x ∂y ∂z .
0 Ey 0
All components vanish:
∇×E=0
both inside and outside the slab, consistent with electrostatics.

4.4 Magnetic Field of an Infinite Uniformly Current-Carrying Cylinder

Consider an infinitely long cylinder of radius a, carrying a uniform current density J = J ẑ. The total current
is
I = Jπa2 .
By cylindrical symmetry, the magnetic field is azimuthal:
p
B(r) = B(ρ) ϕ̂, ρ = x2 + y 2 .

4.4.1 Using Ampère’s Law

Choose a circular Amperian loop of radius ρ centered on the axis.

Inside the cylinder (ρ < a) The enclosed current:

Ienc = J · πρ2 .
Ampère’s law: ˛
B · dℓ = B(ρ)(2πρ) = µ0 Ienc .

Thus,
µ0 J
B(ρ) = ρ, (ρ < a) .
2

14
Outside the cylinder (ρ ≥ a) The enclosed current is the total current:

Ienc = I.

Ampère’s law gives:

µ0 I
B(ρ)(2πρ) = µ0 I ⇒ B(ρ) = , (ρ ≥ a) .
2πρ

Summary
µ0 J


 ρ ϕ̂, ρ < a,
2

B(ρ) =
µ I
 0 ϕ̂, ρ ≥ a.


2πρ

4.4.2 Field in Cartesian Coordinates

Using  
y x p
ϕ̂ = − , ,0 , ρ= x2 + y 2 .
ρ ρ

Inside the cylinder (ρ < a)

µ0 J
B(x, y) = (−y x̂ + x ŷ) .
2

Outside the cylinder (ρ ≥ a)

µ0 I −y x̂ + x ŷ
B(x, y) = .
2π x2 + y 2

4.4.3 Divergence Verification

Inside the cylinder (ρ < a) For ρ < a, the magnetic field components in Cartesian coordinates are

µ0 J µ0 J
Bx = − y, By = x, Bz = 0.
2 2
The divergence is
∂Bx ∂By ∂Bz
∇·B= + + .
∂x ∂y ∂z
Since Bz = 0 and all components are independent of z, we have
∂Bz
= 0.
∂z
Compute the remaining terms:  
∂Bx ∂ µ0 J
= − y = 0,
∂x ∂x 2
 
∂By ∂ µ0 J
= x = 0.
∂y ∂y 2
Therefore,
∇ · B = 0, (ρ < a) .

15
Outside the cylinder (ρ ≥ a) For ρ ≥ a, the magnetic field components are

µ0 I y µ0 I x
Bx = − , By = , Bz = 0.
2π x2 + y 2 2π x2 + y 2
Again,
∂Bx ∂By
∇·B= + .
∂x ∂y
Compute each derivative explicitly:
   
∂Bx µ0 I ∂ y µ0 I −2xy µ0 I xy
=− 2 2
= − 2 2 2
= ,
∂x 2π ∂x x + y 2π (x + y ) π (x + y 2 )2
2

   
∂By µ0 I ∂ x µ0 I −2xy µ0 I xy
= = =− .
∂y 2π ∂y x2 + y 2 2π (x2 + y 2 )2 π (x2 + y 2 )2
Adding the two terms,
µ0 I xy µ0 I xy
∇·B= 2 2 2
− = 0, (ρ ̸= 0).
π (x + y ) π (x + y 2 )2
2

Conclusion: The magnetic field is divergence-free both inside and outside the cylinder, consistent with
Gauss’ law for magnetism,
∇ · B = 0.

4.4.4 Curl Verification

Inside the cylinder (ρ < a) For ρ < a, the magnetic field in Cartesian coordinates is

µ0 J µ0 J
Bx = − y, By = x, Bz = 0.
2 2
The curl is
x̂ ŷ ẑ
∂ ∂ ∂
∇×B= .
∂x ∂y ∂z
Bx By Bz
Since Bz = 0 and all components are independent of z, we have

(∇ × B)x = 0, (∇ × B)y = 0.

The z-component is
∂By ∂Bx
(∇ × B)z = − .
∂x ∂y
Compute each term explicitly:  
∂By ∂ µ0 J µ0 J
= x = ,
∂x ∂x 2 2
 
∂Bx ∂ µ0 J µ0 J
= − y =− .
∂y ∂y 2 2
Therefore,  
µ0 J µ0 J
(∇ × B)z = − − = µ0 J.
2 2
Hence,
∇ × B = µ0 J ẑ, (ρ < a) .

16
Outside the cylinder (ρ ≥ a) For ρ ≥ a, the magnetic field components are
µ0 I y µ0 I x
Bx = − , By = , Bz = 0.
2π x2 + y 2 2π x2 + y 2
Again,
(∇ × B)x = (∇ × B)y = 0,
and
∂By ∂Bx
(∇ × B)z = − .
∂x ∂y
Compute:
∂By µ0 I (x2 + y 2 ) − 2x2 µ0 I y 2 − x2
= = ,
∂x 2π (x2 + y 2 )2 2π (x2 + y 2 )2
∂Bx µ0 I (x2 + y 2 ) − 2y 2 µ0 I x2 − y 2
=− 2 2 2
=− .
∂y 2π (x + y ) 2π (x2 + y 2 )2
Thus,
µ0 I y 2 − x2 µ0 I x2 − y 2
 
(∇ × B)z = − − = 0, (ρ ̸= 0).
2π (x2 + y 2 )2 2π (x2 + y 2 )2
Therefore,
∇ × B = 0, (ρ > a) .
Conclusion: The magnetic field of a uniformly current-carrying infinite cylinder is azimuthal, divergence-
free everywhere, and satisfies Ampère’s law in differential form:

∇ × B = µ0 J.

4.5 Magnetic Field of an Infinite Uniformly Current-Carrying Slab

Consider an infinite slab of thickness 2a, extending infinitely in the x- and z-directions. The slab occupies
the region
−a ≤ y ≤ a.
The current density is uniform and flows in the z-direction:

J = J ẑ.

By translational symmetry in x and z, the magnetic field depends only on y. By reflection symmetry
about the plane y = 0, the magnetic field must be parallel to the x-axis. Thus,

B(r) = B(y) x̂.

4.5.1 Using Ampère’s Law

Choose a rectangular Amperian loop of length L in the x-direction and height 2y in the y-direction, centered
at y = 0.

Inside the slab (|y| < a) The enclosed current is

Ienc = J · (2yL).

Ampère’s law gives ˛

B · dℓ = 2B(y)L = µ0 Ienc = µ0 J(2yL).

Therefore,
B(y) = µ0 Jy x̂, (|y| < a) .

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Outside the slab (y > a) The enclosed current is the total current:

Ienc = J(2aL).

Ampère’s law yields

2B(y)L = µ0 J(2aL),
so
B(y) = µ0 Ja x̂, (y > a) .

Outside the slab (y < −a) Using the right-hand rule, the magnetic field reverses direction:

B(y) = − µ0 Ja x̂, (y < −a) .

Summary


 µ0 Jy x̂, |y| < a,



B(y) = µ0 Ja x̂, y > a,




− µ Ja x̂, y < −a.
0

4.5.2 Divergence Verification

Since
B = (Bx (y), 0, 0),
the divergence is
∂Bx ∂By ∂Bz
∇·B= + + .
∂x ∂y ∂z
All components are independent of x and z, and By = Bz = 0, hence

∇·B=0

both inside and outside the slab.

4.5.3 Curl Verification

The curl is
x̂ ŷ ẑ
∇ × B = ∂x ∂y ∂z .
Bx 0 0
Only the z-component is nonzero:
∂Bx
(∇ × B)z = − .
∂y

Inside the slab (|y| < a)

∂Bx
= µ0 J,
∂y
so
∇ × B = µ0 J ẑ, (|y| < a) .

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Outside the slab (|y| > a) Since Bx is constant,
∂Bx
= 0,
∂y
hence
∇ × B = 0, (|y| > a) .

4.6 Electric Field of an Electric Dipole

Consider an electric dipole consisting of two point charges:
d d
+q at r+ = + ẑ, −q at r− = − ẑ.
2 2
The electric field is the superposition of the fields produced by the two charges:

E(r) = E+ (r) + E− (r),

where
1 ±q (r − r± )
E± (r) = .
4πε0 |r − r± |3

Dipole Approximation (r ≫ d)
Define the electric dipole moment
p = qd ẑ.
To leading order in d/r, the electric field of the dipole is

1 1 
E(r) = 3(p · r̂)r̂ − p .
4πε0 r3

Spherical Coordinate Components

Using p = pẑ and
ẑ = cos θ r̂ − sin θ θ̂,
the electric field components are

1 2p cos θ 1 p sin θ
Er = , Eθ = , Eϕ = 0 .
4πε0 r3 4πε0 r3

4.7 Magnetic Field of a Small Current Loop

Consider a small circular current loop of radius a, carrying a steady current I, lying in the x–y plane and
centered at the origin. The magnetic moment of the loop is

m = Iπa2 ẑ.

The magnetic field is the superposition of the fields generated by the current elements of the loop. In the
far-field region (r ≫ a), the loop can be treated as a magnetic dipole.

Dipole Approximation (r ≫ a)
To leading order in a/r, the magnetic field of a magnetic dipole is

µ0 1  
B(r) = 3(m · r̂)r̂ − m .
4π r3

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Spherical Coordinate Components
Using m = mẑ and
ẑ = cos θ r̂ − sin θ θ̂,
the magnetic field components in spherical coordinates are

µ0 2m cos θ µ0 m sin θ
Br = , Bθ = , Bϕ = 0 .
4π r3 4π r3

Remark: The magnetic field of a small current loop has the same angular dependence as the electric field
of an electric dipole, with the replacement
1 µ0
p ←→ m.
4πε0 4π

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