WAVES

❖ Production of waves
❖ Propagation of waves

WAVES

A wave is a disturbance which travels through a medium transferring energy from

one point to another without causing any permanent displacement of the medium

A wave motion is process of transferring a disturbance from one point to another

without any transfer of particles of the medium.

Types of waves

Waves are broadly classified into two types

a. Based on the medium of propagation: mechanical wave and

electromagnetic wave
b. Based on the comparison of the wave direction with the direction of
vibration of the particle: transverse wave and longitudinal wave

Production and Propagation of waves: Based on the medium of propagation

1. Production and propagation of mechanical waves

A mechanical wave is the wave that requires material medium for its mode of
propagation (or for it to transfer energy away from the source). Examples are
waves travelling through springs, water waves, and sound waves

2. Production and propagation of electromagnetic waves

Electromagnetic waves are waves that do not need material medium for its mode of
propagation (or for it to transfer energy away from the source). Examples are radio
waves, visible light, ultra-violet rays, x-rays, gamma rays. Electromagnetic waves
travels at the speed of light (3.0×108m).
A wave which travels along a medium transferring energy from one part of the
medium to another is called a progressive wave. The progressive wave can be
divided into transverse and longitudinal waves
y
Direction of wave motion

Progressive or travelling wave

A standing or stationary wave: this is formed when two waves travelling in the
opposite direction meets or by superimposition of incident wave and its reflection.
The amplitude of the standing wave varies along the wave.

Incident wave reflected wave

Standing or stationary wave

Production and Propagation of waves: Based on the comparison of the wave

direction with the direction of vibration of the particle

1. Transverse waves
A transverse wave is a wave in which travel perpendicularly to the direction of the
vibrations producing the waves.
2. Longitudinal wave
Longitudinal waves are waves which travel in a direction parallel to the vibrations
of the medium.

TERMS USED IN DESCRIBING WAVES

 1. Phase - particles which are at the same vertical direction from their positions
of rest and are moving in the same direction are said to be in phase.
2. Cycle - is a complete to-and-fro movement or oscillation of a vibrating
particle
3. The amplitude (A) - is the maximum displacement of a particle from its rest
or mean position. It is measured in meter (m).
4. The period (T) - is the time required for a particle to perform one complete
cycle or oscillation
1
𝑓=𝑇 ---1
1
𝑇=𝑓 ---2
5. Frequency (f) - is the number of complete cycles made in one seconds. It is
measured in Hertz (Hz)
6. Wavelength (λ) - is the distance covered by the waves after one complete
oscillation. For transverse waves, it is the distance between successive crests
or troughs while for longitudinal wave, it is the distance between successive
compressions or rarefactions. It is measured in meter (m).
7. Wave-velocity (v) is the distance traveled by the waves in one second. The
S.I unit is m/s

Displacement

Crest complete oscillation or one cycle

Amplitude

Distance(x)

Trough

One wavelength

MATHEMATICAL RELATIONSHIP
𝑣 = 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 − 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝐻𝑧)
𝜆 = 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝑚)
𝑇 = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 (𝑆 −1 )
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 × 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆 ---3
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒
𝑣=
𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
𝜆
𝑣=𝑇 ---4
1
From equation 1, 𝑓 = 𝑇
We have:
𝜆
𝑣=𝑇 ---5
𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆 ---6
𝜆 = 𝑣𝑇 ---7

Worked example
A radio station broadcasts at frequency of 300 KHz. If the speed of the wave is 3 x
108 ms-1, calculate the period and wavelength of the wave?
1
𝑇=
𝑓
1
𝑇 = 300000
𝑇 = 3.3 × 10−6 𝑆

𝜆
𝑣=
𝑇
3 × 108
𝑣=
3 × 105

𝜆 = 1000𝑚

Mathematical representation of wave motion – Progressive wave

The general equation for stationary wave is given by:

2𝜋𝑥
y = A sin ( 𝜆 ) ---8
Where
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒
𝜆 = 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒
𝑦 = 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒
𝑥 = ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒

A
P
O Φ π 2π t
x

Considering O and P that are out of phase by Φ, then we have

2𝜋𝑥
y = A sin ( 𝜆 − Φ) ---8
Where:
Φ 𝑥
=𝜆 ---9
2𝜋
2𝜋𝑥
Φ= 𝜆 ---10
But 𝑥 = 𝑣𝑡
2𝜋𝑣𝑡
Φ= 𝜆 ---11
Substituting equation 11 into equation 8 gives:
2𝜋𝑥 2𝜋𝑣𝑡
y = A sin ( 𝜆 − 𝜆 ) ---12
2𝜋
y = A sin 𝜆 (𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡) ---13
Also from equation 12, putting 𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆 we can have
2𝜋𝑥 2𝜋𝑓𝜆𝑡
y = A sin ( − )
𝜆 𝜆
2𝜋𝑥
y = A sin ( 𝜆 − 2𝜋𝑓𝑡) ---14
Recall that 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
Thus, equation 12 can be re-written as:
2𝜋𝑥
y = A sin ( 𝜆 − 𝜔𝑡) ---15

Example:
A plane progressive wave is given by the equation 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2000𝜋𝑡 − 0.5𝑥)
Calculate: (i) The wavelength of the wave (ii) The speed (iii) The frequency (iv)
The period
Solution:
By comparing the given equation 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2000𝜋𝑡 − 0.5𝑥) with the standard
2𝜋𝑥
equation y = A sin ( 𝜆 − 2𝜋𝑓𝑡)
We have for:
(i) The wavelength of the wave
2𝜋𝑓𝑡 = 200 𝜋𝑡
2ft=2000t
f=1000Hz
(ii) The speed
2𝜋𝑥
𝜆
= 0.5𝑥
2𝜋
= 0.5
𝜆
λ=2π×2
λ=12.57m
(iii) The frequency
v=f λ
v=1000 × 12.57
v=12570m/s
(iv) The period
𝑡 = 1⁄𝑓
𝑡 = 1⁄1000
t=10-3s-1

CLASSWORK 8
1. What is wave?
2. Elias radio station broadcasts at a frequency of 21MHz. If the speed of light
in the air 3×108ms-1, calculate the wavelength of the broadcast.
3. Define stationary wave
ASSIGNMENT 8
SECTION A

1. An electromagnetic radiation has a speed of 3×108ms-1 and a frequency of

106Hz, calculate its wavelength (a) 3.3×103m (b) 3.0×102m (c) 3.0×10-2m (d)
3.3×108m (e) 3.3×10-3m
 2. A body oscillates in simple harmonic motion according to the equation 𝑥 =
𝜋
0.05 cos(3𝜋 + 3 ) where x is expressed in meters. What does 0.05
represents? (a) velocity (b) frequency (c) period (d) amplitude (e) none of
the above
3. Which of the following is not a mechanical wave (a) wave propagated in
stretched string (b) waves in a closed pipe (c) radio waves (d) water waves
(e) sound waves
4. The maximum displacement of particles of wave from their equilibrium
positions is called (a) wave velocity (b) period (c) amplitude (d) wavelength
(e) frequency
5. D(cm)

0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 t(s)

The diagram above represents the displacement D versus t graph of a

progressive wave. Deduce the frequency of the wave
(a) 20Hz (b) 10 Hz (c) 5 Hz (d) 4 Hz (e) 50 Hz

SECTION B

1. (a) What is wave motion?

2𝜋
(b) The equation y = A sin (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥) represents a wave train in which y is
𝜆
the vertical displacement of a particle at a distance x from the origin in the
medium through which the wave travelling. Explain, with the aid of a
diagram, what A and λ represents.
2. A radio waves transmitted from a certain radio station is represented by the
wave equation: 𝑦 = 0.75 sin(0.67𝜋𝑥 − 2 × 108 𝜋𝑡)
Calculate the (i) wavelength of the wave (ii) frequency of the wave (ii)
velocity of the wave. Where x, y are in meters while t is in seconds
 PROPERTIES OF WAVES

❖ Reflection
❖ Refraction
❖ Diffraction
❖ Interference
❖ Polarization

PROPERTIES OF WAVES
All waves exhibit the following properties
• Reflection
• Refraction
• Diffraction
• Interference
Apart from the properties listed above transverse waves has another properties
called polarization.
Reflection

This is a property of wave which occurs when a travelling wave strikes a surface
and it bounces back. The travelling wave is the incident wave while the one that
bounces back is the reflected rain. In case of water waves generated in a ripple
tank, if the waves were made to incident normally on a plane strip, the wave will
be reflected back along their original course.

If the waves are incident at a particular angle, it will be observed that the angle of
incidence is equal to the angle of reflection in line with the laws of reflection
Reflected wave

Normal r
i

Incident wave

Reflection of plane parallel wave from a plane surface

LAWS OF REFLECTION
 • The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal, at point of incidence, all
lie on the same plane.
• The angle of incidences is equal to the angle of reflection

Refraction

This is the change in the speed and direction of waves as it passes from one
medium to another.

When plane waves pass from deep to shallow water, their wavelength becomes
shorter and thereby travels slowly. A change in the wavelength and speed produce
a change in the direction of travel of waves when they cross the boundary. It is
important to note that during refraction, the wavelength remains constant.
Refractive index is the ratio of the sine of the incident angle (i) to the sine of the
angle of refraction (r). It is also the ratio of the velocity of the wave in the first
medium (v1) to the velocity in the second medium (v2)
sin 𝑖 𝑣1 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 = 𝜂 = = =
sin 𝑟 𝑣2 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚
Diffraction

This is the spreading out of a wave on passing through a narrow opening.

If waves are directed towards a large gap compared with the wavelength of the
waves, slightly bent or beam of waves are formed on passing through the gap.
If the barriers are placed closer to leave a narrow gap waves forms spherical wave
fronts on passing through a narrow shit.

Diffraction occurs when the wavelength of the wave is longer than the width of the
opening or the size of the obstacles.
Interference

This is a phenomenon which occurs when two similar waves traveling in the same
direction cross each other. If the waves are in phase or step so that they travel the
same distance at equal time and the crest or trough of the two waves arrive
simultaneously or one is a complete wavelength ahead of the other. The resulting
wave will build up to twice the amplitude of the two waves; this is called
constructive or additive interference.
If the crest of one wave arrives with the troughs of the waves, and vice-versa, the
waves cancel each other out to give zero resultant, this is called destructive
interference.
Polarization

This is an exclusive property of transverse waves only. It is the production of

transverse vibration in only one plane. A transverse wave which vibrates in only
one plane is said to be plane-polarized.
Polarized light can be produced by passing an ordinary light through a polarizer
called Polaroid or crystal of calcite, tourmaline or quartz. The arrangement of
molecules within this polarizer will only permit the passage of light in a particular
plane and then absorb light due to other vibration. Thus, when an unpolarized light
is passed through a polarizer, the emergent light consists in only one plane.
Application of Polaroid
The Polaroid is used in sunglasses to reduce the intensity of incident light and to
eliminate reflected light glare.

CLASSWORK 9
1. (a) List the properties of waves that you know
(b) Explain any two
2. Define and explain the types of interference

ASSIGNMENT 9
SECTTION A
1. When a wave travels from air to water medium (a) the speed reduces (b) the
speed increases (c) reflection occurs (d) all of the above (e) none of the
above
2. The phenomenon which occurs when two similar waves traveling in the
same direction cross each other (a) reflection (b) diffraction (c) refraction
(d) polarization (e) interference
3. Water waves are generated by dropping a stone into a calm pool of water. If
a small piece of cork is floating in the path of the waves, the cork, as the
wave progresses, will (a) sink into the water (b) move up and down about
the same position (c) move toward the center of the pool (d) move along
with the waves toward the bank of the pool (e) none of the above
4. Surface waves travelling in deep water at 15ms-1 are incident at a shallow
water boundary. If the angles of incidence and refraction are 45 0and 300
respectively, calculate the speed of the waves in the shallow water (a) 8.1
ms-1 (b) 10.0 ms-1 (c) 10.6 ms-1 (d) 22.5 ms-1 (e) 15ms-1
5. Which of the following is an exclusive property of transverse waves only (a)
reflection (b) diffraction (c) refraction (d) polarization (e) interference
SECTION B
1. What is polarization? State three uses of a Polaroid
2. Differentiate between reflection and refraction
Craft

Light waves

Light wave is a visible source of energy. It is also a wave motion. It has a very
short wavelength of 5×10-4mm. Light travels at a speed of 3.0×108ms-1

Source of Light waves

There are various sources of light: natural and artificial, luminous and non-
luminous. Natural sources of light include the sun and the stars. Artificial sources
of light are the candle, electric torch, the electric lamp, incandescent, arc light and
fluorescent light.

Self-luminous or luminous sources of light are those that generate and emit light
by themselves e. g. the sun, stars, fire flies and some deep sea fishes
Non-luminous objects are seen when they reflect or throw back light from a
luminous objects. Examples of non-luminous objects are moon, paper, mirror, wall
etc.
When light falls on such surface, it is may be absorbed, transmitted or reflected,
sometimes a combination of the above processes may occur
Light rays and beams
A ray is the direction of the path in which light is travelling. It is represented by a
straight-line with an arrowhead
A light ray

A beam is a collection of two or more rays of light. Beams can be parallel,

convergent or divergent.
A parallel beam is two or more rays travelling in the same direction but can never
intersect each other.

A parallel beam
A beam of light is said to be convergent when they meet at a point
 A convergent beam

The divergent beam occurs when a collection of light rays has the same source is
spread out apart.

A divergent beam

RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION OF LIGHT

The phenomenon of light travelling in straight line is known as rectilinear
propagation of light. It can be demonstrated by placing a candle flame at the end of
a straight pipe, light of the flame will be seen clearly at the other side of the pipe. If
the pipe is then bent and the process repeated, nothing will be seen at the other end,
this clearly shows that light travels in straight line. Two natural effects that result
from the rectilinear propagation of light are the formation of eclipse and shadow,
The principle of operation of the pin hole camera also depends on the fact that light
travels in straight lines.

SHADOW
A shadow is an area in which light rays from a source cannot reach. It is produced
by the obstruction of light by an opaque object. There are two types of shadow:
partial (penumbra) shadow and total (umbra) shadow. If the light source is large,
the shadow formed consist of two parts, a completely dark area known as umbra
and an outer grey area known as penumbra or partial shadow. In the umbra region,
the light from the source is completely blocked by the opaque body. In the
penumbra region, the light is partially blocked by the opaque object. The inner
region of the shadow receives less than the outer parts. Thus the penumbra
becomes brighter from the umbra and outwards.
ECLIPSE
An eclipse is a result of a shadow cast by one heavenly body on another. The sun
being a luminous body and it is in the middle while the earth and the moon
revolves round the sun. If the moon is between the sun and the earth, the shadow of
the moon will be cast on the earth’s surface.
There are two types of the eclipse. Viz:
 1. Eclipse of the sun (solar eclipse): here the moon comes between the sun and
the earth in a straight line
2. Eclipse of the moon (lunar) eclipse: in this case, the earth comes in between
the sun and the moon.
PIN HOLE CAMERA
It consists of a light proof box, one end of which has a small hole made with a pin
or needle point. The opposite end has a screen made with tracing paper or ground
glass. Light from an object in front of the pinhole passes through it and form an
image on the screen. If the screen is replaced with a photographic paper or film, a
picture of the object can be taken with the pinhole camera.
When using the pinhole camera to take pictures of an object, long exposure is
necessary to allow sufficient light to enter the box through the pin hole. The image
formed on the screen of the pinhole camera will be seen more clearly if external
light is excluded by covering head and camera with a dark cloth.
The image formed on the screen of the pinhole camera is inverted
Linear magnification
Magnification is defined as the ratio of the size (or height) of the image to the size
(or height) of the object
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 = 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 ---1
ℎ 𝑣
𝑚 = ℎ𝑖 = 𝑢 ---2
𝑜

Reflection of Light waves

Reflection is the bouncing back of light waves when it strikes a surface.

Reflection of plane mirrors

There are two types of reflection:

1. Regular Reflection
2. Diffuse Reflection or Irregular Reflection
In regular reflection, parallel rays of light incident on a smooth or polished surface
are reflected as parallel rays in one direction.

Incident Reflected
Rays Rays
 Regular reflection

In diffused or irregular reflection, parallel rays of light incident on a rough or

irregular surface are reflected in various directions

Incident

Diffuse or scattered reflection

LAWS OF REFLECTION
The first law of reflection states that the incident ray, the reflected ray and the
normal at the point of incidence all lie on the same plane
The second law of reflection states that the angle of incidence (i) is equal to angle
of reflection (r).

IMAGE FORMATION BY A PLANE MIRROR

CHARACTERISTICS OF IMAGE FORMED BY PLANE MIRROR
1. It is the same size as the object
2. It is virtual
3. It is laterally inverted
4. It is upright
5. It is far behind the mirror as the object is in front of the mirror
IMAGE
There are two types of image:
1. Real image
2. Virtual image
A real image is one that can be caught on a screen. Light rays actually pass
through real image. A virtual image is one that cannot be caught on a screen. It is
one through which rays do not actually pass but which is nevertheless visible to the
eye.
LATERAL INVERSION
The effect on plane mirror on objects placed in front of it whereby the appearance
of the image looks like a reversal of the object is known as lateral inversion
 AM MA

IMAGES FORMED BY INCLINED MIRROR

When two mirrors are placed at an angle to each other, the number of images
formed is given by:
360
𝑛 = 𝜃 −1 ---3
N = Number of images
Ө = Angle of inclination
When Ө = 1800, the two mirrors will act as a single mirror and therefore formed
only one image. When Ө = O, the two mirrors are parallel to each other and the
image of object placed between them will be at infinity.
EFFECT OF MIRROR ROTATION ON REFLECTED RAY-MIRRO
GALVANOMETER
If the direction of an incident ray on a mirror is kept constant and the mirror is
rotated through twice that angle. This fact is utilized in mirror galvanometer (to
measure very small electric current) and in the navigator’s sextant.

Example
The reflection of a narrow beam of light incident normally on a plane mirror falls
on a metre rule parallel to the mirror and at a distance of 1m. Calculate the angle
of rotation of the mirror if the reflected beam is displaced 21.26cm along the
metre-rule when the mirror rotated.

Angle ONP = 2 Ө
Tan 2 Ө = 21.26
100
= 0.2126
2 Ө = tan-1 (0.2126)
2 Ө = 120
Ө = 60

USES OF PLANE MIRROR

It is used in periscope
It is used in kaleidoscope
It is used in sextant
Reflection of curved mirrors
Curved mirrors differ in size, shape and direction of their curvature. In respect of
shape, we have spherical and parabolic mirrors.
There are two types of spherical mirrors – concave and convex mirrors
1. Concave mirrors – the concave mirrors are hollowed-out toward the incident
light like the inside surface of a spoon. It is also called a converging mirror.

C F P principal axis

Concave mirror

2. Convex mirrors – these mirrors bulge towards the incident light like he back
of a spoon. Convergent mirrors are also referred to as divergent mirrors.

C P F

Convex mirror

Terms used with spherical mirrors

1. The pole (p) – this is the midpoint of the spherical mirrors
2. The aperture – this is the width or diameter of the mirror.
3. The center of curvature (c) – this is the centre of the large sphere from which
the spherical mirror is carved out.
4. The radius of curvature (R) – this is the distance between the center of
curvature and the pole of the mirror.
5. The principal axis – this is the imaginary line passing through the pole (p)
and the center of curvature (c)
6. The principal focus (f) – this is the point on the principal axis where the
incident rays converges (for concave mirrors) or appear to diverge (for
convex mirror)
 7. Focal length (f) – this is the distance between the focus and the pole of the
spherical mirror. It is always half of radius of curvature
𝑅
𝑓=2 ---4
𝑅 = 2𝑓 ---5
Spherical aberration
This is the phenomenon whereby a spherical mirror of wide aperture cannot bring
all parallel rays to the same focus. In other to avoid this, spherical mirrors of small
aperture are usually used. This is also why parabolic mirrors are used in place of
spherical mirrors in searchlights and car headlamps.
Construction of ray diagrams
The following tips are used in constructing ray diagrams
i. Light rays parallel to principal axis are reflected through the focus
ii. A light ray passing through the center of the curvature is reflected back
along the same path
iii. A light ray passing through the focus is reflected parallel to the principal
axis.
iv. Light rays striking the mirror at the pole is reflected such that the angle of
incidence is equal to the angle of reflection
Characteristics of image formed by concave mirrors
a. Object before center of curvature: the image formed is:
• same size the object
• between the center of curvature and the focus
• inverted
• real
b. Object at the center of curvature: the image formed is
• same size the object
• at the center of curvature
• inverted
• real
c. Object between the center of curvature and the focus: the image formed is
• Magnified
• Beyond the center of curvature
• Inverted
• real
d. Object at focus: the image formed is
• Formed at infinity
e. Object between focus and the pole: the image formed is
• Magnified
 • Behind the mirror
• Virtual
• Erect
f. Object at infinity: the image formed is
• Diminished
• Formed at the focus
• Real
• Inverted
Characteristics of image formed by convex mirrors
The image formed by a convex mirror is always virtual, erect and diminished in
size; it is formed between the pole and the principal focus. This is unlike the case
of the concave mirror which can produce either real or virtual images that may be
inverted or erect, magnified or diminished in size according to the position of the
object.

Linear magnification
This is defined as the ratio of the image size to the object size
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = =
𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
ℎ 𝑣
𝑚 = ℎ𝑜 = 𝑢 ---6
𝑖
Mirror formula
The focal length, f, object distance, u, and the image distance, v, can be related
using the formula below:
1 1 1
+ = ---7
𝑢 𝑢 𝑓
From equation 6, we can have:
𝑣 = 𝑚𝑢 ---8
𝑣
𝑢=𝑚 ---9
Also, from equation 7, we can have:
𝑢𝑣
𝑓= ---10
𝑢+𝑣
𝑓𝑣
𝑢 = 𝑣−𝑓 ---11
𝑓𝑢
𝑣 = 𝑢−𝑓 ---12

Sign convention
This is used to know and calculate by properly assigning sign to all the parameters
used in mirror
 i. The new Cartesian – here, all the distances measure to the left of the mirror
from the pole are negative while distances measured to the right of the
mirror from the pole are positive
ii. Real is positive and virtual is negative – this is the most widely accepted and
used in calculations for mirrors and lenses. In this case:
• All distances are measured from the pole of the mirror to either left
or right
• The distance of real objects and real images are positive
• The distance of virtual objects and virtual images are negative
• The focal length of a concave mirror is positive while the focal
length of a convex mirror is negative
Example
1. An object which is 5.0cm high is placed 10.0cm in front of a convex mirror
of focal length 15.0cm. Find the position, size and nature of the image
produced.
Solution
Using “real is positive”
Given that f=-15cm, u=10cm
1 1 1
+ =
𝑢 𝑢 𝑓
1 1 −1
+ =
𝑣 10 15
1 1 1
= −( + )
𝑣 15 10
1 5
= −( )
𝑣 30
𝑉 = −6.0𝑐𝑚
For magnification
𝑣
𝑚=
𝑢
−6
𝑚=
10
𝑚 = −0.6
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 (ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡)
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 = 0.6 × 5.0 = 3.0𝑐𝑚
Thus, the image is formed 6.0cm behind the mirror and the height 3.0cm. it is
erect, virtual, diminished

CLASSWORK 10
 1. (a) What do you understand by the term lateral inversion? (b) write your first
name in block form to buttress (a)
2. Differentiate between concave and convex mirror
3. Two plane mirrors inclining at an unknown angle, forms 11 images. Find the
value of the angle
4. Mention three uses of plane mirrors

ASSIGNMENT 10
SECTION A
1. Which of the following abatement is true of virtual image (a) it is formed on
the screen (b) it is formed by the intersection of actual rays (c) rays of light
do not pass through it (d) all of the above (e) none of the above
2. An object is placed between two plane mirrors inclined at 600 to each other.
How many images will the observer see? (a) 6 (b) 5 (c) 4 (d) 3 (e) 2
3. An object is place 15cm in front of a concave mirror of focal length 20cm,
the image formed is (a) real, inverted and diminished (b) real, inverted and
magnified (c) virtual, erect and diminished (d) virtual, erect and magnified
(e) virtual, inverted and magnified
4. A concave mirror can be used to produce can be used to produce a parallel
beam of light if a light bulb is placed (a) between its focus and the pole (b) at
its focus (c) at its center of curvature (d) between its focus and the center of
curvature (e) none of the above
5. When an image is formed in a plane mirror, the image formed will be (a) the
same size as the object (b) smaller than the object (c) laterally inverted (d)
always virtual (e) all of the above
6. Using the real is positive sign convention determine the sign of the focal
length of a convex mirror (a) positive (b) negative (c) neutral (d) none of the
above (e) options (a) and (b)
7. An object is placed in front of a concave mirror of radius of curvature 12cm.
if the height of the real image formed is three times that of the object,
calculate the distance of the object from the mirror (a) 24 cm (b) 16 cm (c)
12 cm (d) 8 cm (e) 4 cm
8. A magnified erect image four times the size of the object is formed by a
concave mirror of focal length 12cm. what is the distance of the image from
the pole of the mirror? (a) -36cm (b) -18cm (c) -24cm (d) -3.6cm (e) 24cm
9. A boy walks away from a plane mirror at a constant speed of 5.0ms -1 in a
direction normal to the surface of the mirror. At what speed does his image
move away from him? (a) 5.0ms-1 (b) 2.50ms-1 (c) 3.5.0ms-1 (d) 1.25.0ms-1
(e) 0.00ms-1
 10. The image of an object is located 6cm behind a convex mirror. if its
magnification is 0.6, calculate the focal length of the mirror (a) 3.75 cm (b)
6.60 cm (c) 10.00 cm (d) 15.00 cm (e) 20.00 cm
SECTION B
1. (a) Give the differences between real and a virtual image
(b) A magnified, virtual image is formed 12cm from a concave mirror of
focal length 18cm. calculate the position of the object and the magnification
of the image
2. (a) Explain with the aid of diagram how the image of an object is formed by
a plane mirror
(b) State four characteristics of the image
3. (a) Define the following terms (i) principal focus (ii) radius of curvature (iii)
principal focus
(b) The screen of a pinhole camera is a square of side 160mm and it is
150mm behind the pole. The camera is placed 11m from a flag staff and
positioned so that the image of the flag staff is formed centrally on the
screen. The image occupies three-quarters of the screen. What is the length
of the staff?

Refraction of light
Refraction is the bending away of light from the normal as it passes from one
medium to the other.
There is a change in the direction and speed of a ray of light when it passes from
medium to another medium of different density. This change in the direction of
the light of the light ray which is due to difference in the speed of light in different
media is called refraction.
When a ray of light travels from optically less dense medium (air) to an optically
dense medium (water, glass), it bends towards the normal.
A ray passing from glass or water to air is bent away from the normal

Incident ray normal

Medium 1- air
i

Medium 2 - glass

Refracted ray

LAWS OF REFRACTION
1. The incident ray, refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence; all
lie on the same plane.
2. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of
refraction is a constant for a given pair of media.
The second law is known as Snell’s law

sin 𝑖
𝑛=
sin 𝑟
The constant, n, is known as the refractive index of the second medium with
respect to the first medium. It is a number which gives a measure of refraction or
bending of light as it travels from one medium to another.
As the ray of light travels from air to glass, the refractive index can be written as:
sin 𝑖
𝑎 𝑛𝑔 =
sin 𝑟

From the principle of reversibility of light

1
𝑎 𝑛𝑔 =
𝑎 𝑛𝑔
Furthermore,
𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒊𝒓 (𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝟏,𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎)
𝑎 𝑛𝑔 = 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒈𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 (𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝟐,𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎)

Determination of Refractive index

EFFECTS OF REFRACTION
The phenomenon of refraction is responsible for the following
1 The bottom of a clear river or pond appears shallower than it really is
2 A rod or spoon appears bent or broken when it is partially immersed in water or
any liquid
3 Letters in print seem to be nearer when we place a thick block of glass over them
REFRACTION THROUGH RECTANGULAR PRISM

The refractive index, n=sin(A/2+D/2)/sinA/2

Total internal reflection & Critical angle

When light passes at a small angle of incidence from a denser to a less dense
medium e.g. from glass to air, there is a strong refracted ray. There is also a weak
ray reflected back into the denser medium.
When the angle of incidence increases, the angle of refraction also increases. At a
certain increase of the angle of incidence, the angle of refraction is 90 0. This angle
of incidence in the denser medium for which the angle of refraction in the less
dense medium is 900, is referred to as the critical angle ( c). For angle of incidence
greater than C, the refracted ray disappears and all the incident light is reflected
back into the denser medium. At this point, the ray is said to experience total
internal reflection. Example of total internal reflection is the mirage on the road,
where the refractive density of warm air is less than that of cool air and light meets
a layer at a critical angle, it suffers total internal reflection.
REAL AND APPARENT DEPTH
A thick slab of glass appears to be only two –third of its real thickness when
viewed vertically from above. Similarly, water in a pond appears to be only three
quarters of its real depth. Rays from a coin at the bottom of a bucket of water are
refracted away when they leave water and enter the eyes. They appear as if coming
from a virtual image, which is apparent depth while the actual depth of the bottom
remains and is referred to as real depth
Refractive index=real depth/apparent depth
CLASSWORK 11
1. State the laws of refraction
2. The velocities of light in air and glass are 3.0 x108 m/s and 1.8 x108 m/s
respectively. Calculate the sine of the angle of incidence that will
produce an angle of refraction of 300 for a ray of light incident on glass

ASSIGNMENT 11
SECTION A
1. The direction of light ray changes as it passes from one medium to the
other. The phenomenon is called (a) diffraction (b) reflection (c)
dispersion (d) deviation (e) refraction
2. The horizontal floor of a reservoir appears to be 1.0m deep when viewed
vertically from above. If the refractive index of water is 1.35, calculate
the real depth of the reservoir (a) 2.35m (b) 1.35m (c) 1.00m (d) 0.50m
(e) 0.35m
3. Which of the following is an application of refraction (a) eye glasses (b)
car headlamp (c) touch light (d) shaving mirror (e) none of the above
4. A ray of light is incident normally on an air-glass interface. What is its
angle of refraction (a) 900 (b) 600 (c) 450 (d) 300 (e) 00
5. A transparent block 5.0cm thick is placed on a dot. The dot when viewed
is seen 3.0cm from the top of the block. Calculate the refractive index of
2 3 3 5 5
the material of the block (a) 5 (b) 5 (c) 2 (d) 3 (e) 2

SECTION B
1. (a) What is: (i) refraction of a wave? (ii) Critical angle?
 (b) A water poured into a jar to a depth of 21cm. the bottom of the jar
appears to be raised by 3cm when viewed vertically. Calculate the refractive
index of the water
2. A ray of light incident at an angle of 300 at an air-glass interface (i) draw a
ray diagram to show deviation of the ray in glass (ii) determine the angle of
deviation