SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS Farid Ahmed (EEE-38, DUET)

(36.1) Types of Single-Phase Motors

Such motors, which are designed to operate from a single phase supply, are manufactured in a large number of types to
perform a wide variety of useful services in home, offices, factories, workshops and in business establishments etc. Small
motors, particularly in the fractional kilo watt sizes are better known than any other. In fact, most of the new products of
the manufacturers of space vehicles, aircrafts, business machines and power tools etc. have been possible due to the
advances made in the design of fractional-kilowatt motors. Since the performance requirements of the various applications
differ so widely, the motor-manufacturing industry has developed many different types of such motors, each being
designed to meet specific demands.
Single-phase motors may be classified as under, depending on their construction and method of starting :
1. Induction Motors (split-phase, capacitor and shaded-pole etc.)
2. Repulsion Motors (sometime called Inductive-Series Motors)
3. A.C. Series Motor
4. Un-excited Synchronous Motors

36.2. Single-phase Induction Motor

Constructionally, this motor is, more or less, similar to a polyphase induction motor, except that (i) its stator is
provided with a single-phase winding and (ii) a centrifugal switch is used in some types of motors, in order to cut out a
winding, used only for starting purposes. It has distributed stator winding and a
squirrel-cage rotor. When fed from a single-phase supply, its stator winding
produces a flux (or field) which is only alternating i.e. one which alternates along
one space axis only. It is not a synchronously revolving (or rotating) flux, as in
the case of a two- or a three-phase stator winding, fed from a 2-or 3-phase
supply. Now, an alternating or pulsating flux acting on a stationary squirrel-cage
rotor cannot produce rotation (only a revolving flux can). That is why a single-
phase motor is not self starting.

However, if the rotor of such a machine is given an initial start by hand (or small
motor) or otherwise, in either direction, then immediately a torque arises and the
motor accelerates to its final speed (unless the applied torque is too high).

This peculiar behaviour of the motor has been explained in two ways : (i) by two -field or double field revolving theory
and (ii) by cross-field theory. Only the first theory will be discussed briefly.

36.3. Double-field Revolving Theory

This theory makes use of the idea that an alternating uni-axial quantity can be represented by two oppositely-rotating
vectors of half magnitude. Accordingly, an alternating sinusoidal flux can be represented by two revolving fluxes, each
equal to half the value of the alternating flux and each rotating synchronously (Ns = 120f/P) in opposite direction*.

As shown in Fig. 36.1 (a), let the alternating flux have a maximum value of Φm. Its component fluxes A and B will each
be equal to Φm /2 revolving in anticlockwise and clockwise directions re spectively

PORTION FOR NOTE:

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After some time, when A and B

would have rotated through
angle + θ and θ, as in Fig. 36.1
(b), the resultant flux would be

After a quarter cycle of rotation, fluxes A and B will be oppositely-directed as shown in Fig. 36.1 (c) so that the resultant
flux would be zero.
After half a cycle, fluxes A and B will have a resultant of 2 Φm /2 = Φm. After three-quarters of a cycle, again the
resultant is

zero, as shown in Fig. 36.1 (e) and so on. If we plot the values of resultant flux against θ between limits θ = 0º to θ= 360º,
then a curve similar to the one shown in Fig. 36.2 is obtained. That is why an alternating flux can be looked upon as
composed of two revolving fluxes, each of half the value and revolving synchronously in opposite directions.
It may be noted that if the slip of the rotor is s with respect to the forward rotating flux (i.e. one which rotates in the
same direction as rotor) then its slip with respect to the backward rotating flux is (2 − s)*

Each of the two component fluxes, while revolving round the stator, cuts the rotor, induces an e.m.f. and this produces
its own torque. Obviously, the two torques (called forward and backward torques) are oppositely-directed, so that the
net or resultant torques is equal to their difference as shown in Fig. 36.3.
.

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Total torque T = Tf + Tb Fig. 36.3 shows both torques and the resultant torque for slips between zero and +2. At
standstill, s = 1 and (2 − s) = 1. Hence, Tf and Tb are numerically equal but, being oppositely directed, produce no
resultant torque. That ex plains why there is no starting torque in a single-phase induction motor.
However, if the rotor is started somehow, say, in the clockwise direction, the clock wise torque starts increasing and, at
the same time, the anticlockwise torque starts de creasing. Hence, there is a certain amount of net torque in the
clockwise direction which accelerates the motor to full speed.

* It may be proved thus : If N is the r.p.m. of the rotor,

then its slip with respect to forward rotating flux is

Keeping in mind the fact that the backward rotating flux

rotates opposite to the rotor, the rotor slip with respect
to this flux is

For Note:

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SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS Farid Ahmed (EEE-38, DUET)

36.4. Making Single-phase Induction Motor Self-starting

As discussed above, a single-phase induction motor is not self-starting. To overcome this drawback and make the motor
self-starting, it is temporarily converted into a two-phase motor during starting period. For this purpose, the stator of a
single-phase motor is provided with an extra winding, known as starting (or auxiliary)
winding, in addition to the main or running winding. The two windings are spaced 90º
electrically apart and are connected in parallel across the single-phase supply as
shown in Fig. 36.4. It is so arranged that the phase-difference between the currents in
the two stator windings is very large (ideal value being 90º). Hence, the motor
behaves like a two phase motor. These two currents produce a revolving flux and
hence make the motor self-starting.

There are many methods by which the necessary phase-difference between the two currents can be created.

(i) In split-phase machine, shown in Fig. 36.5 (a), the main winding has low resistance but high reactance whereas the
starting winding has a high resistance, but low reactance. The resistance of the starting winding may be increased either
by connecting a high resistance R in series with it or by choosing a high-resistance fine copper wire for winding purposes.

Hence, as shown in Fig. 36.5 (b), the current Is drawn by the starting winding lags behind the applied voltage V by a small
angle whereas current Im taken by the main winding lags behind V by a very large angle. Phase angle between Is and Im is
made as large as possible because the starting torque of a split-phase motor is proportional to sin α. A centrifugul switch
S is connected in series with the starting winding and is located inside the motor. Its function is to automatically
disconnect the starting winding from the supply when the motor has reached 70 to 80 per cent of its full-load speed. In
the case of split-phase motors that are hermetically sealed in refrigeration units, instead of internally-mounted
centrifugal switch, an electromagnetic type of relay is used. As shown in Fig. 36.6, the relay coil is connected in series
with main winding and the pair of contacts which are normally open, is included in the starting winding.

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During starting period, when Im is large, relay contacts close thereby allowing Is to flow and the motor starts as usual.
After motor speeds up to 75 per cent of full-load speed, Im drops to a value that is low enough to cause the contacts to
open.
A typical torque/speed characteristic of such a motor is shown in Fig. 36.7. As seen, the starting torque is 150 to 200 per
cent of the full-load torque with a starting current of 6 to 8 times the full-load current. These motors are often used in
preference to the costlier capacitor-start motors. Typical applications are : fans and blowers, centrifugal pumps and
separators, washing machines, small machine tools, duplicating machines and domestic refrigerators and oil burners etc.
Commonly available sizes range from 1/20 to 1/3 h.p. (40 to 250 W) with speeds ranging from 3,450 to 865 r.p.m.
As shown in Fig. 36.8, the direction of rotation of such motors can be reversed by reversing the connections of one of
the two stator windings (not both). For this purpose, the four leads are brought outside the frame.
As seen from Fig. 36.9, the connections of the starting winding have been reversed

The speed regulation of standard split-phase motors is nearly the same as of the 3-phase motors. Their speed varies
about 2 to 5% between no load and full-load. For this reason such motors are usually regarded as practically constant-
speed motors.

Note. Such motors are sometimes referred to as resistance-start split-phase induction motors in order to distinguish
them from capacitor-start induction run and capacitor start-and-run motors described later.

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(ii) Capacitor-start Induction-run motors. In these motors, the necessary phase difference between Is and Im is produced
by connecting a capacitor in series with the starting winding as shown in Fig. 36.10. The capacitor is generally of the
electrolytic type and is usually mounted on the outside of the motor as a separate unit (Fig. 36.11).

The capacitor is designed for extremely short-duty service and is guaranteed for not more than 20 periods of operation
per hour, each period not to exceed 3 seconds. When the motor reaches about 75 per cent of full speed, the centrifugal
switch S opens and cuts out both the starting winding and the capacitor from the supply, thus leaving only the running
winding across the lines.

As shown in Fig. 36.12, current Im drawn by the main winding lags the supply voltage V by a
large angle whereas Is leads V by a certain angle. The two currents are out of phase with
each other by about 80º (for a 200-W 50-Hz motor) as compared to nearly 30º for a split-
phase motor. Their resultant current I is small and is almost in phase with V as shown in
Fig. 36.12.

Since the torque developed by a split-phase motor is proportional to the sine of the angle
between Is and Im, it is obvious that the increase in the angle (from 30º to 80º) alone
increases the starting torque to nearly twice the value developed by a standard split phase
induction motor. Other improvements in motor design have made it possible to increase
the starting torque to a value as high as 350 to 450 per cent. Typical performance curve of
such a motor is shown in Fig. 36.13

36.5. Equivalent Circuit of a Single-phase Induction Motor–Without Core Loss

A single-phase motor may be looked upon as consisting of two motors, having a common stator winding, but with their
respective rotors revolving in opposite directions.

The equivalent circuit of such a motor based on double-field revolving theory is shown in Fig. 36.14. Here, the single
phase motor has been imagined to be made-up of (i) one stator winding and (ii) two imaginary rotors.

The stator impedance is Z = R1 + j X1. The impedance of each rotor is (r2 + jx2) where r2 and x2 represent half the actual
rotor values in stator terms (i.e. x2 stands for half the standstill reactance of the rotor, as referred to stator).

Since iron loss has been neglected, the exciting branch is shown consisting of exciting reactance only. Each rotor has
been assigned half the magnetising reactance* (i.e xm represents half the actual reactance). The impedance of ‘forward
running’ rotor is

and it runs with a slip of s. The impedance of ‘backward’ running rotor is

* In fact, full values are shown by capital letters and half values by small letters.

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SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS Farid Ahmed (EEE-38, DUET)

and it runs with a slip of (2 − s). Under standstill conditions, Vf = Vb , but under running conditions Vf is almost 90 to 95%
of the applied voltage.

The forward torque in synchronous watts is Tf = I3 2 r2 / s. Similarly, backward torque is Tb = I5 2 r2 / (2 − s)

**The total torque is T = Tf − Tb.

36.6. Equivalent Circuit–With Core Loss

The core loss can be represented by an equivalent resistance which may be connected either in parallel or in series with
the magnetising reactance as shown in Fig. 36.15.

Since under running conditions Vf is very high (and Vb is correspondingly, low) most of the iron loss takes place in the
‘forward motor’ consisting of the common stator and forward-running rotor. Core-loss current Iw = core loss / Vf . Hence,
half value of core-loss equivalent resistance is rc = Vf / Iw. As shown in Fig. 36.15 (a), rc has been connected in parallel
with xm in each rotor.

Example 36.1. Discuss the revolving field theory of single-phase induction motors. Find the mechanical power output at
a slip of 0.05 of the 185-W, 4-pole, 110-V, 60-Hz single-phase induction motor, whose constants are given below:

Resistance of the stator main winding R1 = 1.86 ohm

Reactance of the stator main winding X1 = 2.56 ohm

Magnetizing reactance of the stator main winding Xm = 53.5 ohm

Rotor resistance at standstill R2 = 3.56 ohm

Rotor reactance at standstill X2 = 2.56 ohm

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Example 36.2. Find the mechanical power output of 185-W, 4 pole, 110-V, 50-Hz single-phase induction motor, whose
constants are given below at a slip of 0.05.

R1 = 1.86 Ω X1= 2.56 Ω Xφ = 53.5 Ω R2 = 3.56 Ω X2 = 2.56 Ω Core loss = 3.5 W, Friction and windage loss = 13.5 W.

Example 36.3. A 250-W, 230-V, 50-Hz capacitor-start motor has the following constants for the main and auxiliary
windings: Main winding, Zm = (4.5 + j 3.7) ohm. Auxiliary winding Za = (9.5 + j 3.5) ohm. Determine the value of the
starting capacitor that will place the main and auxiliary winding currents in quadrature at starting.

Tutorial Problem No. 36.1.

1. A 1-φ, induction motor has stator windings in space quadrature and is supplied with a single-phase voltage of
200 V at 50 Hz. The standstill impedance of the main winding is (5.2 + j 10.1) and of the auxiliary winding is (19.7
+ j 14.2). Find the value of capitance to be inserted in the auxiliary winding for maximum starting torque.

2. A 230-V, 50-Hz, 6-pole, single-phase induction motor has the following constants. r1 = 0.12 Ω, r2 = 0.14 Ω, x1 = x2
= 0.25 Ω, xm = 15 Ω. If the core loss is 250 W and friction and windage losses are 500 W, determine the efficiency
and torque at s = 0.05.

3. Explain how the pulsating mmf of a single-phase induction motor may be considered equivalent to two
oppositely-rotating fields. Develop an expression for the torque of the motor.
A 125-W, 4-pole, 110-V, 50-Hz single-phase induction motor has the no-load rotational loss of 25 watts and total
rotor copper loss at rated load of 25 watts at a slip of 0.06. The rotor I2R loss may be neglected
At a slip s = 0.06, what is the power input to the machine ?

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36.8. Capacitor Start-and-Run Motor

This motor is similar to the capacitor-start motor [Art.36.4 (ii)] except that the starting winding and capacitor are
connected in the circuit at all times. The advantages of leaving the capacitor permanently in circuit are (i) improvement
of over-load capacity of the motor (ii) a higher power factor (iii) higher efficiency and (iv) quieter running of the motor
which is so much desirable for small power drives in offices and laboratories. Some of these motors which start and run
with one value of capacitance in the circuit are called single-value capacitor-run motors. Other which start with high
value of capacitance but run with a low value of capacitance are known as two-value capacitor-run motors.

(i) Single-value capacitor-Run Motor:

It has one running winding and one starting winding in series with a capacitor as shown in Fig. 36.28. Since capacitor
remains in the circuit permanently, this motor is often referred to as permanent split capacitor-run motor and behaves
practically like an unbalanced 2-phase motor.

Obviously, there is no need to use a centrifugal switch which was necessary in the case of capacitor-start motors. Since
the same capacitor is used for starting and running, it is obvious that neither optimum starting nor optimum running
performance can be obtained because value of capacitance used must be a compromise between the best value for
starting and that for running. Generally, capacitors of 2 to 20 µF capacitance are employed and are more expensive oil or
pyranol-insulated foil-paper capacitors because of continuous-duty rating. The low value of the capacitor results in small
starting torque which is about 50 to 100 per cent of the rated torque (Fig. 36.29).

Consequently, these motors are used where the required starting torque is low such as air - moving equipment i.e. fans,
blowers and voltage regulators and also oil burners where quiet operation is particularly desirable.

One unique feature of this type of motor is that it can be easily reversed by an external switch provided its running and
starting windings are identical. One serves as the running winding and the other as a starting winding for one direction
of rotation. For reverse rotation, the one that previously served as a running winding becomes the starting winding
while the former starting winding serves as the running winding. As seen from Fig. 36.30 when the switch is in the
forward position, winding B serves as running winding and A as starting winding. When switch is in ‘reverse’ position,
winding A becomes the running winding and B the starting winding
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Such reversible motors are often used for operating devices that must be moved back and forth very frequently such as
rheostats, induction regulations, furnace controls, valves and arc-welding controls.

(ii) Two-value capacitor-Run Motor:

This motor starts with a high capacitor in series with the starting winding so that the starting torque is high. For running,
a lower capacitor is substituted by the centrifugal switch. Both the running and starting windings remain in circuit.

The two values of capacitance can be obtained as follows:

1. by using two capacitors in parallel at the start and then switching out one for low-value run. (Fig. 36.31) or
2. by using a step-up auto-transformer in conjunction with one capacitor so that effective capacitance value is
increased for starting purposes.

In Fig. 36.31, B is an electrolytic capacitor of high

capacity (short duty) and A is an oil capacitor of
low value (continuous duty). Generally, starting
capacitor B is 10 to 15 times the running
capacitor A.
At the start, when the centrifugal switch is
closed, the two capacitors are put in parallel, so
that their combined capacitance is the sum of
their individual capacitances. After the motor has
reached 75 per cent full-load speed, the switch
opens and only capacitor A remains in the
starting winding circuit.

In this way, both optimum starting and running performance is achieved in such motors. If properly designed, such
motors have operating characteristics very closely resembling those displayed by two-phase motors. Their performance
is characterised by

1. ability to start heavy loads

2. extremely quiet operation
3. higher efficiency and power factor
4. ability to develop 25 per cent overload capacity

Hence, such motors are ideally suited where load require mentsare severe as in the case of compressors and fire
strokers etc.

The use of an auto-transformer and single oil-type capacitor is illustrated in Fig.36.32. The transformer and capacitor are
sealed in a rectangular iron box and mounted on top of the motor. The idea behind using this combination is that a
capacitor of value C connected to the secondary of a step up transformer, appears to the primary as though it had a
value of K2C where K is voltage transformation ratio.

For example, if actual value of C = 4 µF and K = 6, then low-voltage primary acts as if it had a 144 µF ( = 62 × 4) capacitor
connected across its terminals. Obviously, effective value of capacitance has increased 36 times.
In the ‘start’ position of the switch, the connection is made to the mid-tap of the auto-transformer so that K = 2. Hence,
effective value of capacitance at start is 4 times the running value and is sufficient to give a high starting torque.
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As the motor speeds up, the centrifugal switch shifts the capacitor from one voltage tap to another so that the voltage
transformation ratio changes from higher value at starting to a lower value for running. The capacitor which is actually
of the paper-tinfoil construction is immersed in a high grade insulation like wax or mineral oil.

CROSS-FIELD THEORY

If one line of a polyphase induction motor is opened while the motor is opened, while the motor rotating the rotor will
continue to revolve, although at reduced speed. This is evidence that the single-phase field which remains does cause
torque to be developed in the rotor. Two theories are frequently used to explain this running torque. They are the two-
revolving-field theory and the cross-field theory. Since the latter theory requires no mathematics in the explanation, it
will be used here.
Assume that the rotor of Fig. 22.11 is rotating in a clockwise direction, while the single-phase distributed stator field sets
up a flux along the horizontal axis from right to left as shown. φs represents the stator flux and at this instant indicates a
north pole on the right side and a south pole on the left side.
Because of the motion of the conductors in the magnetic field, a rotational emf is induced in them. Application of
Fleming’s right-hand rule shows that these induced rotor-conductor voltages are in the directions indicated outside the
rotor conductors.
The magnitude of the rotational voltage is proportional to the speed of rotation and the magnitude of the stator flux.
For a given speed, therefore, this rotor voltage, and hence rotor current varies sinusoidally at supply frequency, as does
the stator flux. It should be remembered that the inductive reactance of a squirrel-cage rotor at line frequency is
comparatively high, and so the rotor current lags the induced voltage and also the stator flux by almost 90°. Examining
Fig. 22.11 again, it is seen that the rotor sets up a flux which is at right angles to the stator flux in space, and hence it is
called the cross field. Furthermore, it has already
been shown that this rotor flux also lags the stator
flux by almost 90° in time. The conditions necessary
to produce a rotating field are thus present, namely,
two fields which are in space and time quadrature. At
synchronous speed, the two fields are equal, and the
rotating field has a constant magnitude. As slip
increases, the rate of cutting is less, and the
magnitude of the cross field decreases.
A rotating field is still produced, but the magnitude of
the resultant varies as it rotates around the stator,
giving an elliptical pattern rather than a circular one.
It should be pointed out that only the magnitude of
the cross field varies with slip, while the frequency
depends on that of the stator field.

If, at the instant shown in Fig. 22.11, the stator field is at a maximum, then the rotational emf induced in the rotor is also
at a maximum, with the direction shown near the rotor conductors. At this same instant, however, since the cross-field
current lags the rotational voltage by 90°, the magnitude of the cross-field flux is zero. If time is now taken 90° later,
when φs is zero, the rotor current will be at a maximum in the direction shown in Fig. 22.12.
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The resultant field now has a direction which is

90° clockwise from that which it previously had.
Thus, not only does the cross field combine with
the stator field to produce a resultant rotating
field, but this same field rotates in the direction
in which the rotor is already moving. This, of
course, produces a rotor torque in the direction
of rotation.

It should be obvious that at standstill there can be no cross field, only the pulsating stator field. This again leads to the
conclusion that the single-phase induction motor has no inherent starting torque. If, however, there is some means of
starting the motor, then it will continue to develop torque as a single-phase induction motor in the direction given to it
upon starting.

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