MUFULIRA COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
MATHEMATICS METHODS
MODULE 1

Acknowledgements
The Mufulira College of Education, Mathematics Department wishes to thank these below for their
contribution to this Mathematics Teaching Methods Module 1

Mr. Chitoshi, S Senior lecturer

Mr. Chisembe, C Senior lecturer

Mr. Longwe, M. Senior lecturer

Mr. Njobvu, P. Senior lecturer

Mr. Sakayombo, J Senior lecturer

Mr. Koji. S Senior lecturer
Mr. Kambilombilo, D Senior lecturer

Copyright
All rights reserved. No part of this module may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photo copying without permission from The Principal
Mufulira College of Education. For internal circulation only.

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ZAMBIA
Contents

Course overview 1
Welcome…………………………………………………………………………………3
Course outcomes................................................................................................................4
Timeframe.........................................................................................................................4
Study skills........................................................................................................................5
Need help?.........................................................................................................................6
Assignments.......................................................................................................................6
Assessments.......................................................................................................................6

Margin icons......................................................................................................................7

Unit 1 8
Nature of Mathematics………………………………………………………………………... 8
Aims and Objectives of Teaching Mathematics………………………………………………………..8
History of Mathematics………………………………………………………………………12
The Philosophy of Mathematics Education………………………………………………………….16

Unit 2 24
Planning for Instruction………………………………………………………………………24
Writing Instruction Objectives………………………………………………………………..24
Sequencing for Instructions………………………………………………………………… 30
Planning for teaching………………………………………………………………………………….39

Unit 3 50
Classroom Practice……………………………………………………………………………50
Teaching Methods …………………………………………………………………………………….50
Teaching Aids………………………………………………………………………………………….66
Classroom Organisation and Management…………………………………………………………….76
 The History and Philosophy of mathematics and c
instruction

The course overview

The course overview gives you a general introduction to the course.
Information contained in the course overview will help you determine:
 If the course is suitable for you.
 What you will already need to know.
 What you can expect from the course.
 How much time you will need to invest to complete the course.
The overview also provides guidance on:
 Study skills.
 Where to get help.
 Course assignments and assessments.
 Activity icons.
 Units.

We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before

starting your study.

The course content

The course is broken down into units. Each unit comprises:
 An introduction to the unit content.
 Unit outcomes.
 New terminology.
 Core content of the unit with a variety of learning activities.
 A unit summary.
 Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable.

Resources
For those interested in learning more on this subject, we provide you with
a list of additional resources at the end of each topic/unit, these may be
books, articles or web sites.

Your comments
After completing we would appreciate it if you would take a few
moments to give us your feedback on any aspect of this course. Your
feedback might include comments on:
 Course content and structure.
 Course reading materials and resources.
 Course assignments.
 Course assessments.

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 The History and Philosophy of mathematics and c
instruction

 Course duration.
 Course support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.)
Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance this
course.

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Module 1 overview
Welcome to mathematics teaching methods module 1. The whole course
of secondary school diploma has two modules. Module 1 titled, The
History, Philosophy and Classroom Instruction and module 2 titled
Learning Theories and Mathematics Curriculum. Module 1 focuses on
three important themes, which fall under the following headings:
 Unit 1- Nature of mathematics
 Unit 2- Planning for instruction
 Unit 3- Classroom instruction
This module will take you through the history of mathematics. You will
be acquainted to the development of mathematics from ancient times to
its present form. They say that a culture without history is dead. History
on mathematics is important in that it lends learner an opportunity to see
the mathematics in many forms. The perspectives that present
mathematics differently are commonly known as the philosophies of
mathematics.
The second and third units focus on classroom instruction, which happens
to be the core business of this module. As trainee teacher you are obliged
to learn and practice what you are going to read in these units.
You will be assessed from time to time (continuously assessed).
Assessment is discussed in detail under that heading. The assessment
may be in form of assignments and/tests. You will be required to write at
least two major assignments and a test before you write promotion
examination. Promotion examination is normally conducted when the
students have been in the college for a year and half.

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Course outcomes
Upon completion of reading this module you will be able to:

 Discuss the objectives of learning and teaching mathematics.

 relate today’s mathematics to ancient mathematics
 compare and contract different philosophies of mathematics.
 Relate philosophies of mathematics to classroom practice
 Organise you class and resources effectively
 Use various teaching methods and strategies in your
 Plan for your teaching very well.

Timeframe
The secondary school diploma will take you three and half years
You will be having contact sessions for the duration of ten days and three
times a year.
How long? You will need to spend no more than 4 week on each unit. You need to
apportion your time very well.

Study skills
As an adult learner your approach to learning will be different to that
from your school days: you will choose what you want to study, you will
have professional and/or personal motivation for doing so and you will
most likely be fitting your study activities around other professional or
domestic responsibilities.
Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a
consequence, you will need to consider performance issues related to
time management, goal setting, stress management, etc. Perhaps you will
also need to reacquaint yourself in areas such as essay planning, coping
with exams and using the web as a learning resource.
Your most significant considerations will be time and space i.e. the time
you dedicate to your learning and the environment in which you engage
in that learning.
We recommend that you take time now—before starting your self-study
—to familiarize yourself with these issues. There are a number of

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 excellent resources on the web. A few suggested links are:

 [Link]
The “How to study” web site is dedicated to study skills resources.
You will find links to study preparation (a list of nine essentials for a
good study place), taking notes, strategies for reading text books,
using reference sources, test anxiety.

 [Link]
This is the web site of the Virginia Tech, Division of Student Affairs.
You will find links to time scheduling (including a “where does time
go?” link), a study skill checklist, basic concentration techniques,
control of the study environment, note taking, how to read essays for
analysis, memory skills (“remembering”).

 [Link]
Another “How to study” web site with useful links to time
management, efficient reading, questioning/listening/observing skills,
getting the most out of doing (“hands-on” learning), memory
building, tips for staying motivated, developing a learning plan.
The above links are our suggestions to start you on your way. At the time
of writing these web links were active. If you want to look for more go to
[Link] and type “self-study basics”, “self-study tips”, “self-
study skills” or similar.

Need help?
We are aware that learning on distance leaves a lot of questions
unanswered. Do not be afraid, dedicated college staff is there to assist
you. Should you encounter difficulties, please do not hesitate to contact
Help as at email: mucestudent@[Link] or call the distance students’
education coordinator. You can also visit our website. You will be
updated regularly on what is happening in the college on this website.
You can also download study material from our college website:
[Link]

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Assignments
You will be required to answer three assignments, one taken from each of
the three units. However, for purpose of assessment you will be assessed
on two assignments.
The first assignment shall be submitted the second week of your
Assignments December contact session
The second assignment shall be submitted the second week of the April
contact session.
The order for writing and submitting assignments will be communicated
to you by the lecturer

Assessments
Assessment comprises tests, quizzes and assignments
You will complete at least two assignments and a test
Assessments Assignment will be given to you during the contact session
You have two and half months to work on you assignment
The assignment will be handed in during the next contact session after
collecting
Assignment will be ready by the next contact session after submission.

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Margin icons
While working through this module you will notice the frequent use of
margin icons. These icons serve to “signpost” a particular piece of text, a
new task or change in activity; they have been included to help you to
find your way around this module.
A complete icon set is shown below. We suggest that you familiarize
yourself with the icons and their meaning before starting your study.

Activity Assessment Assignment Case study

Discussion Group activity Help Note it!

Outcomes Reading Reflection Study skills

Summary Terminology Time Tip

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The History and Philosophy of Mathematics and Classroom
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Unit 1

NATURE OF MATHEMATICS

Course outcomes

Aims and objectives of teaching mathematics

Introduction
In mathematics counts, a report of the committee of inquiry into the teaching of mathematics in
British schools under the chairmanship of W.H. Cockcroft, the above question is answered in a
single sentence as follows; “it would be very difficult – perhaps impossible to live a normal life
in every many parts of the world in the twentieth century without making use of mathematics of
some kind”

READING

It is interesting to observe that of all the subjects offered in schools, there is greater pressure on
children to succeed in mathematics than, for example, in history or geography, even though it is
generally accepted that these subjects should also form part of the curriculum. This gives
mathematics in some way thought to be of special importance.

Mathematics is useful
This is an often-cited reason for teaching mathematics. No one would deny that mathematics is
useful in many ways. This aspect is greatly overemphasized.
The usefulness of mathematics is perceived in many ways. It is seen in terms of arithmetic skills
which are needed to be used at home or places of work and many others as outlined below.
(i) Communication

Mathematics provides a means of communication which is powerful, concise and unambiguous.

This is a principal reason for teaching mathematics in schools. Mathematics has a language
which is used to present information in many ways by means of letters, figures and charts,
graphs. In addition, these symbols and figures can be manipulated and combined in systematic

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ways to deduce further information to which mathematics relates. For instance when we are told
that a certain number added to 45 is equal to 58, we can deduce from this information the exact
value of this number simply by subtracting 45 from 58 (58 – 45).

(ii) Powers of logical thinking

Mathematics teaches clear and logical thinking

The qualities that most people tend to associate with mathematics are things like precision and
logic and therefore mathematics is closely linked with clear, 'correct' thinking. Because it teaches
students to think, the study of mathematics is beneficial even in the absence of plausible practical
uses of the mathematics topics selected.

This notion is based on the transfer of learning theory which for centuries was used to justify
teaching Latin. Learning Latin was presumed to make it easier to learn other languages. The
same argument can be used to justify the inclusion of chess in school curricula. There is no
objective data to support the notion, and certainly only a small minority of mathematics teachers
believes it to have merit.
In any event, the type of logic which is encouraged in school mathematics is characterized by
being prescriptive, convergent and linear as opposed to descriptive and divergent and creative.
Hardly the sort of thing we would normally admit to encouraging.
The study of mathematics can certainly contribute to the development of powers of logical
teaching, but the extent to which it does so depends on the way in which mathematics is taught.

(iii) Usefulness in other fields

Another important reason for teaching mathematics is that it is useful in many other fields such
as physics, chemistry, biological sciences and engineering. Surely mathematics is fundamental
in the study of physical sciences. It is a very powerful tool for science and a hand maiden for
technology. Computerization alone has enhanced immeasurably the profitability of many firms
and industries. Add to this improvements made possible to many industrial situations purely
through the applications of mathematics such as linear programming, critical path analysis,
queuing theory, sampling techniques, and quality control, and one sees the applied
mathematician entrenched indispensably at the hub of industry and commerce. (Marjoram, Page
17).

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(iv) Pattern and pleasure

The fact that ‘puzzles corners’ of various kinds appear in so many papers and periodicals testify
to the fact that the appeal of relatively elementary problems and puzzles is widespread; attempts
to solve them can both provide enjoyment. Clearly these activities are stuff of mathematics.
(v) Purity and profit

Mathematics is so popular as a school and college subject, and the fact that it attracts nearly as
many if not more GCE ‘O’ and ‘A’ level candidates than does English in most Examinations
boards, shows perhaps that, indeed it is a subject with many appealing facets.
(vi) Mathematics is part of our cultural heritage

Mathematics is an intimate historical part of most cultures. Furthermore, mathematical systems

and concepts, like all knowledge, have an intrinsic beauty of their own which makes them
worthy of study for their own sake. No further justification is required and no liberal education
can be considered complete without it.
This is a widely recognized argument with undeniable validity. Whether it also explains the
selection of those particular mathematics topics that constitute the school curriculum and the
comparative amount of time devoted to them is another matter. The same argument can be made
even more strongly for History, Music, Art, Literature, Religion, Ethics, and Economics and
Philosophy. In most educational jurisdictions these other subjects, combined, do not receive as
much time and resources as mathematics do. In Zambia’s education system this fact is
undeniable. Mathematics and science receive more attention by trying to improve the teaching of
these subjects. This can be seen in the much attention and recognition clubs like JETS receive.
(vii) Mathematics teaches problem solving

In recent years a notion has arisen that there exists a set of generic problem solving skills that
transcend subject matter. These skills can be developed in isolation from any application. Terms
such as 'rubric' and 'heuristics' have become popular in this connection. Skills acquired as a result
of doing mathematical problems are presumed to diffuse into other disciplines. Therefore 'doing
math problems' is 'good for you'.
This is a currently popular variation of the 'transfer of learning' theory, and is supported only by
anecdotal reports.

Utilitarian goals

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These are at two levels, those of an individual and those of the state. From the state point of
view, education is a resourceful, and often expensive from which certain returns can and should
be expected.(Scopes: 8).
On the side of an individual mathematics provide certain practical or utilitarian skills such as to
read and do a minimum amount of mathematics. This includes number operations,
measurement and approximation, basic geometry and reading and interpreting graphs. It
further provides foundation of further studies in mathematics and other related fields.
Social goals
Apart from the utilitarian skills, the society demands school leaver much more. It expects that,
throughout his time at school, the child is made aware of himself in relation to other people.
(Scopes: 7)
The social aspect of mathematics is that, it equips an individual with methods of investigation
such as scientific, intuitive, deductive and investigative. Scopes (1973: 7) further states that,
mathematics provides the ability of an individual to work with others in areas like organisation,
care of equipment, community rights and social motivation

In conclusion it is therefore desired for those that teach mathematics to teach it in the manner
that will capture all the above outlined aims of teaching mathematics. Teachers should ensure
that they provide in their teaching an enabling environment that would make a pupil to be at the
centre of learning.

Task

1. Identify the problems that teachers face in Zambia when teaching mathematics to pupils
in schools.
2. One of the aims of teaching mathematics in basic schools in Zambia is “To develop in the
child an appreciation of mathematics in the traditional environment”. Using examples
from Zambia, explain what is meant by “Mathematics in the traditional environment”

References

Cockroft W.H. (1982) Mathematics counts., HMSO, London

Scopes P.G. (1973). Mathematics in Secondary Schools – a Teaching Approach.
Cambridge university Press, London.

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Dean P.G. (1982). Teaching and learning Mathematics. Woburn Press

HMI (1987). Mathematics from 5 to 16. HMSO, London

History of Mathematics

Introduction

Aspects of history of mathematics

Mathematics is a subject that has been learned and taught without necessarily looking at its
history. The embellishment resulting from the inclusion of historical notes in a mathematics
lesson may be considered enrichment. Pupils usually get a more complete appreciation of a topic
if they can relate it to its origin. Any book on history of mathematics can provide useful ideas for
enriching your instruction by the inclusion of short anecdotes from the history of that aspect on
mathematics you wish to teach.
Algebra for example that is traditionally taught to our secondary school pupils come about as a
result of independent developments by mathematicians of ancient Greeks as well as those of
Hindu, Egyptians, Arabs and other civilizations of the worlds.

The Greeks treated algebra from a geometric point. A large portion of Euclid’s elements is in
fact devoted to finding solutions, geometrically to what we call today ‘algebra’ equations. For
example ( a+ b )=a2 +2 ab+b 2was thought of by the Greeks in terms of the diagram.

Others from the Greeks were Diophantus (ca 275) a prominent mathematician whose work on
integral solutions to certain types of equations is still studied today. The first woman
mathematician we hear of in ancient times is hypanthia (ca 410) who wrote commentaries on the
work of Diophantus.
In other parts of the world, the Hindu mathematicians were also concerned with methods for
solving equations especially quadratic.

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In the Arab world comes a name Mohammed Ibn Musa al – Khwarizmi (ca 825).
In geometry we have the Egyptians and the Babylonians some of whom are Thales (ca 640 – 546
B.C.) who insisted on ‘’prove it’’ and Pythagoras (ca 582 - 507) on Pythagoras theorem. Not
forgetting Euclid on congruency.
In order for one to appreciate all this it is important to look at the origins of numbers and
counting from works of mathematicians such as Aristotle, sir john Leslie, K. Lovell, kart
menniger and Abraham Seidenberg; and the evidence of Bone art facts from works of Jean de
Henzelin on the isahango boone and Alexander marshack.
ANCIENT CIVILIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF MATHEMATICS
Babylonians
(i) As early as 2300 – 1600 BC we see evidence of the development of the number
notation, use of the sexagesimal system and some work on geometry with π equal to
3.1604.
Egyptians
(ii) Built pyramids at a very early period and were familiar with properties of right –
angled triangles as early as 2000 BC; used mathematics to divide land among citizens
in order to give each one an equal piece of land from which tax returns were
calculated.
Greeks
(iii) Traded with Egyptians and picked up on geometry;
Chinese
(iv) Produced many mathematics works from 2nd century AD.
Arabs
(v) They worked mainly on algebra
Hindus
(vi) They perfected the science of numbers and algebra.

Using history of mathematics in teaching mathematics

History of mathematics can be used in the teaching of mathematics in the following way;
Practical value of learning mathematics
Motivation an interest in mathematics can be promoted by showing children the practical value
of learning the subject. One way of doing this is to show them how mathematics originated as a
result of historical circumstances that demanded the use of certain mathematical ideas.

Acquaintance with the history of mathematics can:

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(i) Enable children to realize that mathematics is connected with the development of
human civilization.
(ii) Make the subject more human by showing that the greatest mathematicians were
human beings with human frailties who worked hard to achieve their results.
(iii) Increase children’s confidence in learning mathematics as they realize that great
mathematicians did not write down their answers immediately but to struggle like
everybody else to perfect them.
(iv) Help children realize that mathematics is not a once – for – all discovery but
constantly changing.
(v) Enable children realize that the use of good notation and setting out will help in
producing not only the right answers but also many discoveries. Here for example is
how equations were written in the years indicated. Imagine how cumbersome is must
have been to work with such notations
(vi) Give children more appreciation of a mathematics topic as they can relate it to its
origin.
(vii) Help remove the myth that mathematics is a part of the cultures of Europe alone and
only men developed it. ( different cultures and both men and women contributed to
the development of mathematics)

Teachers studying the history of mathematics

In order to engage children in discussions of the development of mathematics, teachers need
themselves to be acquainted with the history of mathematics. Mathematics teachers can
cultivate this acquaintance in at least four (4) ways;
(a) Studying the development of mathematics over a given period of time, e.g. 500AD –
1900AD.
(b) Studying the contributions made by certain civilization towards the development of
mathematics.
(c) Studying the contributions made by individual mathematicians towards the development
of mathematics.
(d) Studying the origin and development over the years of particular branches of
mathematics.

Suggestions for using history of mathematics in teaching mathematics

(a) Give children projects to study the life of a great mathematician of the past

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(b) Use historical approach to mathematics approach to mathematics teaching by

approaching each topic historically. Looking at how its subject matter was developed.
(c) Encouraging girls to take more interest in mathematics by showing them the importance
women played in the development of mathematics (Hypanthia – ca 410 AD wrote useful
commentaries on Diophantus’ work on algebra)
(d) Enriching your teaching by making brief references to historical facts related to the topic
being studied
(e) By teaching the history of mathematics itself during mathematics clubs.

Activity

Chose any topic from grade 9 mathematics and give a specific example of how you would
use the history of mathematics to teach the selected topic.

References
Cockroft W.H. (1982) Mathematics counts., HMSO, London
Scopes P.G. (1973). Mathematics in Secondary Schools – a Teaching Approach.
Cambridge university Press, London.
Dean P.G. (1982). Teaching and learning Mathematics. Woburn Press
HMI (1987). Mathematics from 5 to 16. HMSO, London

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The Philosophy of Mathematics Education

Introduction
Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matter such as existence, knowledge,
truth, beauty, justice, validity, mind and language. It differs with other ways of addressing these
questions such as mysticism and mythology by its critical, generally systematic approach and its
reliance on reasoned argument. There are many branches of philosophy, but that is beyond the
scope of this chapter.

Most academic subjects have a philosophy, for example the philosophy of mathematics, and the
philosophy of history. In this chapter we look at the philosophy of mathematics.

Philosophy of mathematics
The philosophy of mathematics is the branch of philosophy that studies the philosophical
assumptions, foundations and implications of mathematics. It is that branch of philosophy which
attempts to answer questions such as “why is mathematics useful in describing nature?”, “In
which sense, if any, do mathematical entities such as numbers exist?” and “why and how are
mathematical statements true?”

Many thinkers have contributed their ideas concerning the nature of mathematics. There are
traditions of mathematical philosophy in both Western philosophy and Eastern philosophy.
Western philosophy of mathematics goes as far back as Plato, who studied the ontological status
of mathematical objects (questions of existence: for instance, do mathematical objects exist? If

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so, in what sense? If not, why do we talk about them?). Aristotle, studied logic and issues related
to infinity (actual versus potential)

During the 20th century philosophers continued to ask questions mentioned above. The
philosophy of mathematics was characterised by fervent interest in formal logic, set theory, and
foundational issues. The investigations into this issue are known as foundations program. At the
start of the 20th century, philosophers of mathematics were already beginning to divide into
various schools of thought about all these questions, broadly distinguished by their pictures of
mathematical epistemology and ontology.
Epistemology is concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge
Ontology is concerned with questions of existence, and in what form, if it does.
Three schools of thought that is, logicism, intuitionism and formalism, emerged at the time,
partly in response to increasingly widespread worry that mathematics as it stood did not live up
to the standards of certainty and rigour that had been taken for granted.

Below we discuss different schools of thought that constitute the main philosophies of
mathematics.

Mathematical realism
Mathematical realism, like realism in general, holds that mathematical entities exist
independently of the human mind. Thus, meaning that humans do not invent mathematics, but
rather discover it, and any other intelligent being in the universe would presumably do the same.
There are distinctions within realism depending on what sort of existence one takes mathematical
entities to have, and how we know about them.

Platonism
Platonism is the form of realism that suggests that mathematical entities are abstract, have no
physical form or causal properties, and are eternal and unchanging. But hold that objects in the
everyday world are imperfect copies. This is claimed to be the view most people have of
numbers.
In the Platonist view, all mathematical objects have an objective existence independent of human
consciousness, actions, or even existence. They do not exist in the physical reality, but in
separate realm of mathematical entities or ideas. Platonists believe that mathematics is a process
of discovering, not invention.
Platonism dominated mathematical thought right up to the 20th century. This philosophy is
important for the cumulative view of scientific knowledge. It was argued that science knowledge
dealt with absolute truth, based on a reduction of subjects of fundamental topics (so biology
could be reduced to chemistry, which could be reduced to physics, etc.) and claimed that this
process of reduction (sometimes referred to as the unity of science project) rested on absolutely
unshakable foundation of pure mathematics and logic.

Logicism

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This school was started in about 1884 by Germany philosopher, logician and mathematician,
Gottlob Frege (1848-1925). The school was rediscovered about eighteen years later by Betrand
Russell.
Russell and Whitehead wanted to show that mathematics can be reduced to logic. They showed
that all classic mathematics known in their time can be derived from set theory and the axioms
of principia. What remained to be done was to show that all the axioms of principia belonged to
logic.
The philosophy of logicism is sometimes said to be based on the philosophical school called
realism, which stood for platonic doctrine, sets are there for us to discover, not to be constructed,
and the same hold for all abstract entities. Russell was a realist and accepted all the abstract
entities which occur in mathematics.
Logicism holds that logic is the proper foundation of mathematics, and mathematical statements
are necessary logical truths. For instance, the statement “if Socrates is human, and every human
is mortal, then Socrates is mortal” is a necessary logical truth.

Formalism
The (ant-Kantian) formalist school was founded by the Germany mathematician David Hilbert
(1862-1943) in about 1910.
Formalism holds that mathematical statements may be thought of as statements about the
consequences of certain string manipulation rules.
Another version of formalism is known as deductivism. In deductivism, Pythagorean Theorem is
not an absolute truth, but a relative one.
Formalists seek to express mathematics as strictly formal, logical systems, and to study them as
such, without concern for their meaning. Formalists claim that mathematics was only about
symbols, rules for manipulating the symbols and the (symbolic) results that could be obtained by
this manipulation.
Hiebert had two conflicting goals while developing formalism:
 He wanted to move mathematics back to concrete away from abstract
 He wanted an intuitive basis for mathematics without appeal to infinity entities or
metaphysics. But on the other hand he did not want to lose any part of mathematics
Both logicists and formalists formalised mathematics, but for different reasons. The logicists
wanted to use such s formalisation to show that the branch of mathematics in question belongs to
logic.
The formalists wanted to use it to prove mathematically that the branch is free of contradictions.

Intuitionism
This school was begun about 1908 by the Dutch mathematician, J. Brouwer (1181-1966). The
intuitionists went about the foundations of mathematics in a radically different way from
logicists.
They believe that mathematical objects must be mentally constructed before they can be said to
exist, it is not sufficient to prove their existence indirectly.
They believe that to be true is to be experienced and whatever exists has its origin in our
conscious thought.

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They believe that abstract entities exist in so far as they are constructed by the human mind.
Brouwer was a constructivist in this sense.
Intuitionists also believe that mathematics should be defined as a mental activity and not as a set
of theorems.
Intuitionism is related to the philosophy called conceptualism. This is the philosophy which
maintains that abstract entities exist only in so far as they are constructed by human minds.

Fallibilism
The philosophy of science, Karl Popper, said that we can never finally prove our scientific
theories, we can merely provisionally confirm (collaborate) or refute them.
During the past 150 years more and more philosophers became aware of the un-attainability of
absolute truth or certainty. With this development, all areas of philosophy were affected, most
affected ones are epistemology, philosophy of science and philosophy of mathematics. This is
referred to as the foundations crises.

Fallibilism developed as an alternative to the absolutist philosophies. Hungarian mathematician

Imre Lakatos is the philosopher of mathematics who introduced fallibilism into the context of
mathematical thought.
The central idea of Fallibilism is that knowledge does not require absolutely perfect evidence.
Lakatos is well known in philosophy of mathematics for his attacks on formalism. Instead of
emphasising the formal or axiomatic features of mathematics, he emphasised the heuristics or
methodologies of mathematics by seriously considering historical processes of theory
formulation and development.
He discovered that mathematics is just as fallible as a science has proved to be, criticism and
revision, error and correction are part of mathematical activities.
This is true because, mathematics is created and pursued by people. Since mathematics is created
and pursued by people, it must have meaning and value to them or else they would not create or
pursue it. Whatever mathematics we look at, out of the huge pile that humanity has created, one
thing can always be said. It was interesting to someone, some time, and somewhere.

Activity 1

1. What do you understand by the term mathematical realism?

2. Why is intuitionism a form of constructivism?

3. What are the major differences between fallibilism and the schools of thought known as the
foundations program?

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4. Compare and contrast the logicist and formalist philosophies

5. Platonism dominated the mathematical thought of ancient times. Discuss the Platonist
mathematical thought.

The nature of mathematics and teaching

What is the relationship between conceptions of the nature of mathematics and teaching?
A strong relationship exists, linking the personal philosophies of mathematics of teachers to
experience of mathematics of their students have in classroom. This claim fit well with the view
that “all mathematics rests on the philosophy of mathematics.” Others stress that teaching
approaches in mathematics incorporates assumptions about the nature of mathematics, and that
any philosophy of mathematics has classroom consequences. Thus, teachers’ views, beliefs and
preferences about mathematics do influence their instructional practice.
Therefore, any philosophy of mathematics (including personal philosophies) has many
educational and pedagogical consequences when embodied in the teachers’ beliefs, curriculum
development, or assessment system.

Absolutist philosophies
There is a range of perspectives in mathematics philosophy which may be termed ‘absolutist.’
These view mathematics as an objective, absolute, certain and incorrigible body of knowledge,
which rests on the firm foundations of deductive logic.
The schools of thought which may be termed absolutist are: logicism, formalism and to some
extent intuitionism.
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Absolutist philosophies of mathematics are not concerned to describe mathematical knowledge.

They are concerned with the epistemological project of providing rigorous systems to warrant
mathematical knowledge absolutely.
Absolutism in its various forms is identified with rigid logical structures introduced for these
epistemological purposes.
According to absolutism, mathematical knowledge is:
 Timely
 Superhuman and a-historical, for the history of mathematics is irrelevant to the nature
and justification of mathematical knowledge
 Pure isolated knowledge, which happens to be useful because of its universal validity
 Value-fee and cultural-free, for the same reason

The absolutist image of mathematics

The image of mathematics by absolutist is viewed as being rigid, fixed, logical, absolute,
inhuman, cold, objective, pure, abstract, remote and ultra-rational. This image coincides with the
widespread public image of mathematics as difficult, cold, abstract, theoretical, but more
importantly and largely masculine. Mathematics also has the image of being remote and
inaccessible to all but a few super intelligent beings with mathematical minds.
Values of mathematics
Absolutists values of mathematics are separated values, abstraction, objectification,
impersonality, unfeelingness, dispassionate reason and analysis, and tends to be atomistic and
thing centred in focus. These are claimed to be masculine values in the western English speaking
countries.

An absolutist view may be communicated in school by giving students mainly

 Unrelated routine mathematical tasks which involve application of learnt procedures
 By stressing that every task has a unique, fixed and objectively right answers coupled
with disapproval and criticism of any failure to achieve this answer.

Fallibilism
A more recent position in the philosophies of mathematics is fallibilism, which emphasises the
practice of mathematics and human side of mathematics.
Fallibilism views mathematics as the outcome of social processes. Mathematical knowledge is
understood to be fallible and open to revision, both in terms of its proofs and its concepts. This
view embraces:
 the philosophical concerns;
 the practices of mathematicians;
 its history and application
 the place of mathematics in human culture including issues of values and education
Fallibilist reject the absolutist image of mathematics described above as a misrepresentation.
Fallibilist reconceptualised the view of the nature of mathematics. It is no longer seen as defined

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by a body of pure and abstract knowledge which exist in a super-human, objective location,
symbolic forms, purposes and power relations.

Images of mathematics
The vital of mathematics communicated in schools coincide with fallibilist philosophy of
mathematics is experienced as warm, human, personal, intuitive, active, collaborative , creative,
investigational, cultural, historical, living, related to human situation, enjoyable, full of joy,
wonder and beauty.
Inquiries in mathematics have propounded humanised views of school mathematics
incorporating some these dimensions.

Values of mathematics
The connected position is based on relationship, connections, empathy, caring, feelings and
intuition and tends to be holistic and human centred in its concerns. They are feminine in nature.

Philosophies of mathematics, values and their relation to teaching

It is theoretically possible to associate a philosophy of mathematics with almost any educational
practice or approach.
Both neo-behaviourist or cognitivist (such as Ausubel) and a radical constructivist (such as
Glassersfeld) may be concerned to ascertain what a child knows before commencing teaching,
despite having opposite epistemologies (absolutist and fallibilist, respectively).

A purist mathematician and a social constructivist may both favour multicultural approach to
mathematics, but for different reasons. The social constructivist is perhaps to humanise
mathematics, the purist mathematician to show it as a social construction for social justice.
The value position of a teacher, curriculum development or school plays a vital role in mediating
between personal philosophies of mathematics and the image of mathematics communicated in
the classroom.
 An absolutist philosophy combined with separated values can give rise to a separated
view of school mathematics. This subject to constraints and opportunities of social
context schooling, often results in separated mathematics classroom practice.
 A fallibilist philosophy of mathematics combined with connected values can give rise to
connected view of school mathematics. Subject to constraints, can result in humanistic
classroom practice.
 An absolutist philosophy of mathematics combined with connected values can give rise
to a connected view of mathematics. Subject to constraints and opportunities, may result
in connected classroom image of mathematics
Connected values are often associated with education and the conception of school
mathematics rather than academic (mathematicians’) mathematics.
 It is also possible that a fallibilist philosophy of mathematics can combine with separated
values resulting in separated view of school mathematics. This subject to constraints and
opportunities can give rise to a separated mathematics classroom practice.

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In conclusion, values as well as beliefs and philosophies play a key role in determining the
underlying image and values embodied in mathematics classroom.

Activity 2

1. Logicism, intuitionism and formalism are schools of thought that may be termed
absolutist.
Describe the meaning of absolutist philosophy.

2. Compare and contrast between fallibilism and absolutism.

3. Why is Platonism a form of absolutism?

4. Discuss how classroom practice can be influenced by teacher’s personal philosophies,

beliefs and his/her view of mathematics

5. Two philosophical views of mathematics have been described. Which of them reflects the
image of mathematics in schools?

References
Ernest, P. (n.d). What is the Philosophy of Mathematics Education? Accessed 3 rd March, 2010 from
[Link]
Ernest, P. (1991). The Philosophy of Mathematics Education, London: Falmer Press
Good, D. N. (1979). The American Mathematical Monthly 86(7) pp. 540-551
Unisa Study Guide (2004) Philosophies, Historical dimensions of mathematics, mathematics education
and logic. Pretoria: Unisa Publisher
Wiki free encyclopedia (n.d). philosophy of mathematics. Accessed 13/01/2001 from
[Link] of mathematics

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Unit 2

PLANNING FOR INSTRUCTION

Course outcomes

Writing Instructional Objectives

How do we achieve the above aims / goals as teachers?

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We must be able to write objectives which will determine what must we intend our pupils to achieve in
every lesson.
These objectives should be indicated in terms of pupil observable change.
The objectives should be attainable by pupils for whom they are written.

Writing complete behavioural objectives

An objective written in terms of pupil behaviour is called a behavioural objective. A behavioural
objective is a statement that describes what the pupil will be able to do once instruction has been
completed. It is also called TERMINAL OBJECTIVE of a pupil.

How to write behavioural objectives

A terminal objective is a three part statement, where each of the three parts is clearly definable. The first
part is the expected outcome, the second is the evaluation evidence of the outcome and the third is the
condition of evaluation (not listed in order).
(i) The expected outcome
This is the statement which outlines what the pupil is expected to be able to do at the end of a
sequence of instruction. It is the one that indicate exactly the observable behaviour the pupil
will exhibit after instructions. TPSBAT calculate simple interest. TPSBAT draw a circle.
TPSBAT solve the quadratic equation.

(ii) Condition of evaluation statement

This is the criteria which spell out the desired level of the learning. A criteria is a standard
against which one measures the degree or extent of success or change of some kind. This sets
down the minimum level of achievement acceptable.
Example: acceptable performance is for a pupil to obtain at least 5 out of 6 questions correct.
Being able to give to the nearest whole number is the acceptable performance.

(iii) Condition of evaluation statement

This defines those circumstances that exist at the moment the pupil is performing. They
contain information about what material and equipment the pupil is to use what the
environment is like, the type of basic rules to be followed. They may also contain restrictions
of equipment or instruments to use and restriction on time.

Examples of complete behavioural objectives

1. Using a ruler the pupil should be able (TSBAT) measure the dimension of a matches box.
Acceptable performance is to be able to give the measurements to the nearest whole
number in all cases.

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2. Given a new and strange problem involving quadratic equations TPSBAT solve it
correctly in at least 3out of 5 cases.
3. Given a set with 2 or 3 members, TSBAT list its subset. Acceptable performance is to list
correctly.

The bloom’s taxonomy

A taxonomy is a formal classification based on relationship e.g. in biology, plants and animals are
classified according to origins, characteristics etc
In education we do also have a taxonomy that classifies objects according to certain criteria. The
classification or taxonomy divides educational objectives into three (3) major areas called domains.
(a) The Cognitive Domain
The cognitive domain (Bloom, 1956) involves knowledge and the development of intellectual
skills. This includes the recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and concepts
that serve in the development of intellectual abilities and skills. There are six major categories,
which are listed in order below, starting from the simplest behaviour to the most complex. The
categories can be thought of as degrees of difficulties. That is, the first ones must normally be
mastered before the next ones can take place.
It also includes objectives that emphasize intellectual outcomes such as knowledge understanding
and thinking skills.

The levels of the cognitive domain

This is the most well know taxonomy of educational objectives. It has six levels as follows
(1) Knowledge
(2) Comprehension
(3) Application
(4) Analysis
(5) Synthesis
(6) Evaluation

(i) Knowledge
This is the lowest level of the cognitive domain. In this level, we need to be able to recognize,
restore, or recite information, facts, theories, and principles.
Examples:
1. The pupil should be able to define the term set

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2. The pupil should be able to name a given statistical diagram.

3. The pupil should be able to recite the Pythagoras theory

(ii) Comprehension
Ability to understand the meaning of material information, this includes ability to interpret,
paraphrase and translate written materials from one form into another.
Examples
1. Pupil should be able to read and interpret a time table.
2. A pupil should be able to translate a verbal mathematical sentence into an equation
3. Pupil should be able to draw the graph of a quadratic equation given corresponding
values of x and y

(iii) Application
Ability to use and apply learnt material in a new but concrete situation
EXAMPLES:
1. Pupils should be able to calculate the roots of a quadratic equation
2. Pupils should be able to solve a given trigonometric question

(iv) Analysis
Ability to break down information into its component parts to examine their relationship.
Examples:
The pupil should be able to identify incorrect steps in mathematical proof. In this level material
or concepts are separated into component parts so that its organizational structure may be
understood.
(v) Synthesis Level
Ability to put together or combine parts, parts ideals e.t.c. To form a new whole, that is new
pattern or structure not previously apparent.
Examples:
1. Pupil should be able to write a company operations or process manual
2. Pupil should be able to design a machine to perform a specific task
3. Pupil should be able to design a computer programme for calculating the value added tax
(VAT)

(vi) Evaluation
Ability to judge the worth of an idea theory, thesis, proposition, information, belief e.t.c
according to certain criteria

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EXAMPLE:
Students should be able to discuss critically reasons for teaching mathematics in high schools.

2. Affective Domain:
The affective domain has the following characteristics:
Receiving (or attending) this is willingness to listen or attend (that is give attention) to particular
phenomena or stimuli:
Example:
(i) Listen to others with respect
(ii) Listen for and remember the name of newly introduced member of your class.

(i) Responding

Active participation on the part of learners. Attends and react to particular phenomena. Learning
outcomes may emphasize compliance in responding willingness to respond or (motivation)
Examples
Participates in class discussions. Give a presentation.
(ii) Valuing

This is the showing of preference for an idea by voluntary displayed (that is acceptance of
values, beliefs, values, e.t.c because of their (intrinsic worth) valuing is based on internalization
of a set of specified values.
Examples:
a) Demonstrates beliefs in the democratic process
b) Showing the ability to solve problem

(iii) Organisation

This is the ability to organize and build up one’s value system (that is taking an attitude or value
and incorporating it into a larger value system to guide one’s behavior) the emphasis is on
comparing, relating and synthesizing values.
Example.
Recognizes the need for balance between freedom and responsible behavior.

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(iv) Characterisation

Acting consistently in accordance with the adopted values to an extent where the values form
part of one’s character or philosophy of life.

3. The Psychomotor Domain

This has the following characteristics

(i) observing (or perception) this is the ability to use sensory cues to guide motor
ability. This can be done by observing e.g. a more experienced person in his or her
performance activity.

Example
1. Estimates where a ball will land after it is thrown.
(ii) Imitating: following the directions and sequencing under class supervision.
(iii) Practicing. Performing the entire sequence repeatedly. EXAMPLE performs
mathematical equations.
(iv) Adapting-amending

Perfecting the skill, that is moving from being good at performing a skill to being betters

Examples of psychomotor objectives

1. Given a set of integers, the pupil should be able to represent them correctly on a number
line.
2. Given a table of values of the equations of the function, students should be able to draw
an accurate and smooth graph of a function.
3. Given a straight line the pupil should be able to measure its length.

Task
1. Pick any topics at grade 8 and 9 levels and write complete behavioural objectives at all
the six levels of the cognitive domain

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References
Cockroft W.H. (1982) Mathematics counts., HMSO, London
Scopes P.G. (1973). Mathematics in Secondary Schools – a Teaching Approach.
Cambridge university Press, London.
Dean P.G. (1982). Teaching and learning Mathematics. Woburn Press
HMI (1987). Mathematics from 5 to 16. HMSO, London

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Sequencing Instructions
Introduction
The purpose of sequencing instruction in all subject areas is to engage learners in instruction and
learning in the classroom. All pupils need sufficient time and a variety of problem-solving
contexts to use concepts, procedures and strategies and to develop and consolidate their
understanding. When teachers are aware of their pupils’ prior knowledge and experiences, they
can consider the different ways the pupils learn without pre-defining their capacity for learning.
1. Some definitions:

(a) Arrangement of subject matter in a way that they should be taught

(b) Refers to a set of specified intellectual capabilities having an ordered relationship to
each other. i.e. starting with a clear statement of some terminal objective of
instruction, it is possible, to analyse the final capabilities into subordinate skills in an
order such that lower level ones could generate positive transfer to higher order ones.
(c) Linking stages of learning to effective instructional techniques. i.e. when mastering
new academic skills or strategies, the learner advances through a predictable series of
learning stages.
(d) A learning hierarchy... describes an on the average efficient route to attainment of an
organised set of intellectual skills that represents ‘understanding’ of a topic.

2. Vertical and horizontal sequences

Vertical sequence
 This is sequencing subject matter with respect to a given grade level

Horizontal sequence
 This is sequencing subject matter (content) within a topic/ course. This involves
looking at a single grade level. For instance, if we look at triangle- it has so many
different sub topics.

3. Factors influencing sequencing of subject matter in maths

(a) Pre-requisite knowledge (entering behaviour)
 What children already know before they can learn something new
 What children are able to do
 What children have studied before
(b) Familiarity
 That which children are familiar with should be taught first

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(c) Abstractness
 Concepts (or ideas) that are less abstract should be taught before the more
abstract.
(d) Genetic principle
 Those mathematical ideas which were discovered earlier are taught before that
which were discovered later.

(e) Immediacy of application

 Mathematical ideas should be taught as near as possible to the point where
they will be applied. e.g. angle properties of triangles should be taught just
before the topic

4. Aids and sequencing instructions

 Teaching and learning aids facilitate and make it easier to do something.

Using a learning hierarchy

Example
Terminal objective
Given two sides of a right angled triangle pupils should be able to calculate the third side
using Pythagoras’ theorem in all cases.
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Subordinate objectives
1. PSBAT calculate squares and square roots of numbers less than 100 Task A

2. PSBAT change the subject of the formula

Task C

3. PSBAT state the Pythagoras’ theorem

Task B
This gives a learning hierarchy which is:

Steps in constructing a learning hierarchy

1. Identify the terminal objectives for the topic or lesson.
2. Identify the subordinate objectives by answering the following question.
 What does the learner need to know in order to perform the tasks named in the
terminal objective?
3. Organise the subordinate objectives hierarchy from least complex to most complex.
4. Put in vertical and horizontal links.

Example
(a). Topic: the basic processes of algebra
Terminal objective (T.O):
Given algebraic expressions PSBAT factorise simple algebraic expressions completely.
At least ¾ questions should be done correctly.
Subordinate objectives

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 PSBAT write mathematical sentences.

 PSBAT state the coefficient of a variable.
 PSBAT simplify algebraic expressions.
 PSBAT evaluate algebraic expressions.
 PSBAT expand algebraic expressions.

(b). using a Topic Precedent Diagram (T.P.D)

Steps in constructing a T.P.D
1. Identify the topic
2. Write each topic on an individual card
3. Place the cards in random order and then number them.
4. Pick up any two cards, e.g. Card A and Card B and ask the questions:
i. Must A be taught before B? if yes, then B
A

ii. Should B be taught before A? If yes, then B A

iii. If no relationship between A and B then, A

5. Next, pick a third card, e.g. Card C and then compare it with both A and B by
asking similar questions.

The results should be like the following:

Either A
C B

or
C A B

or
C
A

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B
6. When all the cards have been sorted out, the teaching sequence is complete.

Concept map
Definitions
 Is simply a kind of diagram that displays the relationships between concepts
 Is a graphical representation consisting of nodes and labelled lines. The nodes
correspond to important terms (standing for concepts) in a domain. The lines
denote a relation between a pair of concepts (nodes). The label on the line tells
how the two components are related.
 Is a technique for representing knowledge in graphs. Knowledge graphs are
networks of concepts.

The method of concept mapping “has been developed specifically to tap into a learner’s
cognitive structure and to externalise... what the learner already knows.”
The most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner already knows.
Teachers need to ascertain this and teach the learner accordingly, (Ausubel et al., 1980).
Concept mapping is a useful tool in helping learners to “learn how to learn”.

Example.
Task: Think about all the words (or concepts) that you can associate with the following terminal
concepts.
1. Sets.
2. Triangles and triangularity (see appendix 1)

How are the words below related to sets?

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Concept maps present an effective method of visually representing relationships between

concepts.
Teachers can use concept maps in at least two ways:
i). to identify the concepts associated with the given terminal concepts thereby getting the
full range of subject matter associated with the given topic.
ii). To assess the kind and extent of pupils’ previous learning and knowledge about the
given concept.

Advantages of concept mapping

 Concept maps help to organise information on a topic.
1. Order to be useful, knowledge must be organised so as to facilitate understanding and
problem solving ability. A concept map organises knowledge into categories and sub
categorise so that it can be easily remembered and retrieved.
 Concept maps facilitate meaningful learning, they aid in organising and understanding new
subject matter.
 Concept maps are a powerful tool for identifying learners’ knowledge structures especially
also misconceptions or alternative conceptions.
2. This helps the teacher to plan effective lessons by taking into account what a learner
already knows.
 Concept maps may serves as a memory aid. As a concept map is a graph, a pictorial
representation, it may be grasped at once, and due to its unique appearance committed well to
one’s memory and recalled faster.

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 Concept maps can be used as design of instructional materials.

3. They are useful tools for organising a lesson or an entire curriculum.
4. They can be used as aids in planning instruction as well as understanding of the subject
matter is increased.

Disadvantages
 Concept maps can be used only if one is familiar with them.
 They take time to construct.
 They have a confusing effect.
 They are a very individualistic graphic representations.
 Concept maps are not open structured such that adding new idea(s) might not associate to the
topic.
 Incorrect hypotheses may be made concerning predictions about transfer, .i.e. a capability
thought to be subordinate to another may turn out to be super-ordinate, or even coordinate.

Conclusion
It should be proposed that teachers should identify the terminal objectives (what pupils should
know at the end of the instruction) and the intermediate objective (what pupils must know to
reach the terminal objective), as well as the most logical way to proceed through the intermediate
objectives, starting with factual representations.

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Appendix 1
Activity

1. Identify the key concepts for teaching and think through how they relate to overall and
specific curriculum expectations.
2. Find out where each of your pupils is on a developmental continuum related to those key
concepts. Use different assessment strategies (e.g. observation, interview, performance
assessment) to gather evidence of your pupils’ mathematical knowledge, thinking and
experiences.
3. Discuss the pros and cons of sequencing instruction in teaching mathematics

Reference
Gagne’, R.M (1965). The Conditions of Learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
.

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Planning for teaching

Introduction
What you need to do, as a teacher is to cover what factors affect your teaching. Before you teach
your mathematics lessons, you should find out the following about the school you are working
in: school rules, timetables, syllabi, school records, class textbooks, visual aids, materials,
library, and classrooms. These are fundamental factors, which make your performance in school
easier.
Syllabi
First and foremost, when preparing to teach you must have a syllabus to give you guidelines as to
what you are supposed to teach. The syllabus is expected to be covered completely by all classes.
Brighter classes can have extra topics added and slow classes should not attempt to reach the
same depth. Some schools add notes to their syllabi to explain the level to be reached, time in
terms of periods to be spent on a topic, and reference textbooks where such topics are treated.
The examination syllabus
This is the Examinations syllabus (Basic Education Mathematics syllabus/High School
Mathematics syllabus, etc) from the Examinations Council of Zambia (ECZ). It is a guide to the
examiner as to the questions, which can be set. The syllabus covers all the years of the school
course. The syllabus is not arranged in a logical order although certain topic are arranged
together to show that they are related. It is an examination syllabus and does not contain
everything we would expect pupils to learn in the seven, nine or twelve years.
The school syllabus
This syllabus is sometimes called The Teaching syllabus. It is generally a list of topics to be
taught in each year of the course, with a breakdown into terms. Here an attempt is made to
arrange topics in a logical order.
Schemes of work
A scheme of work outlines the content that s hoped to be covered during the course of term or
year. It breaks down the syllabus into groups of topics to be covered in each term of the
academic year.
The teacher is expected on receiving the curriculum for each year to break it up into each term’s
weekly scheme of work. This scheme of work should make allowance for interruptions such as
school social activities. These should be considered when sequencing themes/topics according to
weeks.

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According to Daramola (1995), the scheme of work booklet is intended for practising and
prospective teachers. For prospective or student teachers on teaching practice, the booklet is
meant to serve the following purposes:
i. It reminds him/her the sequence of the scheme of work to use.
ii. Helps him/her to know what progress has been made in respect of the coverage of the
work intended for a given term.
iii. Helps the teaching practice supervisor to know whether or not the student-teachers have
been following the scheme of work in a logical and sequential order and lastly.
iv. Serves the student-teacher as a useful document for use when s/he finally becomes a full
time teacher.

Some of the characteristics of effective schemes of work are:

1) They are made by those who are to use them.
2) They are detailed, flexible and should not attempt to cover the impossible
3) They are tied to what has been taught before and should pave the way for the future.
4) They should contain statements of aims, content to be developed, references, variety of
methods to be used, methods of evaluation, apparatus to be used and timing.

Schemes of work should be designed to ensure that the knowledge, skills, capabilities,
understanding and attitudes of the pupils are developed over a particular period in order to ensure
progression in learning.
NOTE:
It is important to arrange the topics in a scheme of work in such a way as to form a good and
logical order. In addition, the textbooks to be given under reference materials should be those
available in the school. Furthermore, in writing the Scheme of Work, the sequencing of the topic
should go from simple to complex, and known to unknown. That is, topics taught at the
beginning of the term should not be as difficult as those at the end.
The format of the scheme of work is given below:

Week Topic/Content Objectives Methods Apparatus/ Evaluation references

beginning Teaching Aids (i.e. tests,
exercises)

 Week

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This shows the week when a certain topic is expected to be covered

 Topic/Content
This shows the topic to be taught and the depth to which one must go in teaching a given
topic
 Objectives
The objectives are given as performance statements and not complete objectives. For
example PSBAT carry out the four basic operations on fractions in the correct order
would be one of the objectives under the topic of fractions.
 Teaching method
The method/strategies/approach to be used for each topic should be stated. A number of
methods should be used so as to ensure effective teaching takes place.

N.B. The layout of a scheme of work varies from school to school.

Weekly Plan or Unit Plan
After breaking the syllabus into three terms plan or scheme of work, the next thing is for the
teacher to further identify learning units within that of the term. A learning unit is a broad unit of
base concepts capable of being broken into more than one daily lesson content. For example
from a learning unit in the basic school syllabus is “Addition of Fractions”. Surely this cannot be
taught effectively in one lesson. It is good if one learning unit fits into the number of lessons for
one week. In this case, the learning unit can then be said to be the Weekly Plan: With proper
planning, it is possible to make every learning unit plan coincide with the weekly plan for
supervision purposes.

Format of Unit Plan

The broad pieces of information of a Unit Plan or Weekly Plan are set out below:
(i) The topic to be planned for.
(ii) The class for which the topic is being planned
(iii) General objectives: They are stated in the syllabus.
(iv)Entering behaviours or pre-requisite knowledge: It is the pre-requisite behaviour
necessary or essential for the new concept.
(v) The daily lessons involved in the learning units. It is the most important aspect of this
format. Breaking the learning unit into the suitable number of daily lessons enough to
cover the unit is as art every teacher must develop. A good guide to doing this is teach
one Concept at a time. In other words, let one specific objective determine one lesson.
This is not always the case. We may have two specific objectives depending on the
relative intelligence of the class and the content to be taught. But in most cases let one
objective be enough for a lesson of 40 minutes.
(vi)Some suggested teaching aids may be identified at the learning plan level. This makes the
planning of the daily lesson plan easy. Evaluation and teaching techniques are not

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necessary at this planning level, but these are necessary at the daily lesson plan or note of
lesson plan level.

Daily Lesson Format/ lesson plan

A note of lesson differs from a daily lesson plan in matter of details.
A daily lesson plan is a write up that spells out clearly the class being taught for a specific time
or period usually 40 minutes, the specific behavioural objectives of the lesson, the entry
behaviour, the activities involved, the teaching aids, the teaching strategies, the development of
the content sequentially, evaluation techniques and the closure of the lesson.

The reasons for writing a lesson note by the mathematics teacher are as follows:

(i) Direct his attention to realize the specific behavioural objectives

(ii) Locate the needed teaching aids for teaching the lesson
(iii) Locate the entry behaviours which will help to introduce the new concept.
(iv)Define the sequence of thought and actions needed to develop the content and allow time
to achieve the objectives.
(v) Prepare for questions to be asked by both the learner and the teacher himself
(vi)Make room for student activities
(vii) End the lesson with a summary and assignments.

What the Teacher should note

In order to write a good lesson note, the teacher should be very well aware of the three words
namely:
(i) The content
(ii) The child and
(iii) The curriculum

Each of them as stated must be borne in mind while teaching. Briefly explained.

(i) The Content: The teacher must know very well what s/he wants to teach. One must
know the concept s/he is teaching and how it relates to other concepts. S/he should be

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able to arrange the content sequentially, step by step so as to succeed in achieving the
behavioural objectives one has in mind. One should move from simple to complex,
known to unknown. The entry behaviour, that is, what the child already knows will be
used to teach him new concepts.

(ii) The Child: The teacher must understand the child s/he is teaching. S/he should know
their maturity level so as to know which teaching aids they will like and appreciate.
The child’s age will show his/her level of intellectual development. In most schools,
the majority of our pupils are in the concrete operational stage and so must be taught
using concrete objects

(iii) The Curriculum

Many teachers neglect consulting the curriculum. The Mathematics curriculum should be
consulted at all times. It is very comprehensive and good. It contains a wealth of information for
the teaching of any concept. The column for objectives indicates the necessary general objectives
that must be achieved. The teacher can then write his/her own specific objectives that will lead to
the general goals or aims. The content column gives other topics relating to the concept being
treated and allows relational awareness on the part of the teacher. The column for the
materials/activities suggests the method to be used, activities to be carried out in class, the aids to
be used and experiments to carry out. The column for remarks narrates the depth to be reached
for any concept.

The lesson plan

The lesson plan is a plan that shows the subject matter to be taught in a particular lesson.

NOTE: Each lesson must have a lesson plan.

The lesson plan provides an outline of one lesson within a scheme of work. In planning a lesson,
you are working out the details required to teach one aspect of the scheme of work.

To plan the lesson you use a framework and an example of a lesson planning framework is
given below:

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School:
Date:
Name of teacher:

Class: Time:

Subject: Duration:

Topic: Number of pupils:

Subtopic: Number of girls:

References: Number of boys:

Rationale:

Terminal objective

Subordinate objectives

Specific Teaching and learning Aids

Time/Phase Teacher Activity Pupil Activity Method/Strategy

Introduction
(say 2-5minutes)

Lesson development

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Lesson evaluation

Conclusion

Self Evaluation

The following gives details on some of the components of a lesson stated above:

References
All reference books used for the lesson should be stated, naming the author(s) and giving the
page numbers as well.
Terminal objective
The terminal objective should be a complete objective, that is, it should have all the three parts
(condition, performance statement and evaluation statement). For instance, on the topic integers,
an example of a terminal objective could be as follows:
Given two or more integers PSBAT find their sum. Getting at least 5 out of 6 questions correct is
the acceptable level of performance.

On the topic construction of a 60⁰angle, one may give the following as a terminal objective:
Given a ruler and a pair of compasses, PSBAT construct a 60⁰angle accurately in all cases.

Subordinate objectives
Subordinate objectives support the terminal objective. For subordinate objectives, the
performance statement(s) are adequate. A minimum of three subordinate objectives is required.

Teaching and learning aids

The materials that a teacher will use in the lesson should be stated. NOTE: chalk, chalkboard
and board ruler are not special excerpt for such topics as graphs. A teacher s urged to prepare
teaching aids in each lesson especially from the local environment.

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Introduction
A lesson plan should show the way a teacher intends to begin the lesson. The way a lesson is
begun has a great impact on the success of a lesson. An introduction is important for the
following reasons:
 It helps to link ideas of previous lessons to those of the lesson to be taught
 It captures the interest of the learners
 A well introduced lesson motivates learners in a lesson

Lesson development
After a lesson has been introduced, a teacher is now expected to move to the development. This
is the main part of the lesson.

Lesson evaluation
Here, the teacher evaluates the pupils through exercises, tasks and pupil activities.

Conclusion
The conclusion shows how a lesson will end. The conclusion of a lesson is important for the
following reasons:
 The teacher is able to emphasise on the main points. In this way pupils who may have
missed some points may catch up.
 A well established lesson can enable pupils to look forward to previous lessons.

Self evaluation
Under this subheading, a teacher is expected to comment on how his/her lesson went on. The
strengths and weaknesses of the lesson should be stated.

Note:
A teacher should assess learners during lesson presentations. This assessment may be done
through the giving of an exercise (oral or written) or assignment.

Records of work
A record of work is a written account of what the teacher has actually done in his/her classes. It
is an account of the pupils’ growth and development. In its ideal form it should clearly indicate

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to the new teacher what the previous teacher has done. A record of work is important because it
helps to know whether teachers are following the schemes of work and whether topics are being
taught in a logical sequence.
The following should be indicated in the record of work
 What has been taught
 What progress the class has made
 Necessary remedial work
 Revision work and tests
 Future action if any
 A record of pupil evaluation
It should be pointed out that schemes of work and records of work are school property and so
should be retained in the school when a teacher leaves.

Example of records of work format.

Week ending Topic/Content Tests and Teachers HOD’s

assignment comments Comments

Week ending
This is the last day of conducting a lesson in a particular week, usually, but not always, this is a
Friday

Topic/content
The topic to be taught is shown as well as the content for that topic

Tests and assignments

If no test was given, then homework or class exercise can be stated.

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Teacher’s comments
The teacher here gives the overall picture of how the lessons went on. The successes of the
lesson and the weaknesses should be stated.

H.O.D’s comments
The Head of Department writes his/her comments. A teacher is advised accordingly if the H.O.D
feels there are areas that need improvements. HOD gives a general professional feedback to the
teacher.

Activity

1 . Explain the following terms:

(i) Teaching
(ii) Instruction
(iii) Curriculum
(iv)Syllabus
2. Write one main difference between unit plan and a lesson plan
3. State whether this is a learning unit or a lesson: Subtraction of fractions with common
denominators.
4. Write short notes to explain the following terms:
(i) Scheme of work
(ii) Lesson plan
5. Write one main difference between unit plan and a lesson plan
6. What is the difference between a daily lesson plan and a note of a lesson?
7. Can the teacher during a lesson plan foresee all actions in a classroom?
8. Write out in order the necessary format for a daily lesson plan or note.
9. State one entry behaviour for a lesson on the properties of a square

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Assignment
1 (a). Lesson plans are said to enhance effective teaching and learning, and every teacher is
expected to spend some time making lesson plans. Do you agree with the view that lesson
plans are essential parts of effective mathematics teaching? Justify your answer.
(b). For each of the following pairs justify which should be considered first in making lesson
plans.
i. Lesson objectives and pre-requisites objectives
ii. Pupil activity and teacher activity

References
Fakuade, R. A. (1981) Teaching Arithmetic and Mathematics in the Primary School,
Ibadan: Ibadan University Press,
Gagne, R.M (1970). The Conditions of Learning. New York Hold Rinehart and Winston,
Odili, G. A. (1986) . Teaching Mathematics in the Secondary Schools. Port Harcourt :
Anachana Educational Books.
Daramola, S.O. (1995) “Curriculum Development in Schools”. Ilorin: Lekan Printing
Press

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Unit 3

CLASSROOM PRACTICE

Teaching Methods
Introduction
The mathematics teacher is responsible for producing pupils who have well-formed basic
mathematics concepts, are able to build on these concepts to increase and broaden their
mathematical knowledge, are well motivated to study mathematics, and are able to apply their
mathematical knowledge to real-life situations.
In order to achieve this, a teacher must have a good understanding of the concepts to be taught
and to the way the pupils learn mathematics. A teacher must be able to present these concepts in
a way, which will be easily understood and assimilated by them. A teacher must show the pupil

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how to apply these concepts and, subsequently, how to use these concepts to develop other
concepts.
When teachers have a very clear picture of the subject matter to be learned they should then
decide how they will present the material to the pupils. Different topics lend themselves to
different strategies, methods and approaches of teaching. There are an infinite number of ways in
which a lesson can be presented.

Selection of strategies/methods/approaches:
The selection of the strategy, method and approach to use in a given
mathematics instructional process depends to a large extent, on the
following factors:
Discussion
1. Pupils characteristics—their entry behaviour (Prerequisite knowledge).
2. Learning environment—some methods may require availability of physical facilities
such as special rooms like maths lab, computers, audio-visual rooms fitted with special
machines etc.
 Availability of materials e.g. text books; programmed materials; paper for
making work sheets or work cards; models and other apparatus.
 Availability of sufficient time
 Availability of transport or proximity to places which could provide facilities for
demonstrations etc.
3. Teacher characteristics—knowledge of subject matter, materials required or the
method to be used and possession of skills and ability to design the lesson as per method
chosen with minimum wastage of time.
4. Nature of topic to be taught—e.g. some topics may only require giving information,
definitions, notations, etc. other topics may require an inquiry or investigational method
through either inductive or deductive approach.

Strategies
There are basically two main strategies:
 Group instruction
 Can be either whole class or smaller groups
 Individualised instruction

Methods

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Several methods have been prescribed for the teaching of mathematics. Some of these methods
are more suitable for group instruction. Some are convenient for individualised and yet others are
convenient for both group and individualised instructions.

Methods for group instruction include:

i. Teacher exposition
a) Lecture
b) Demonstration
c) Discussion
ii. Programmed instruction
iii. Project
iv. Investigational methods
a) Directed discovery
b) Guided discovery
c) Exploratory discovery
d) Free discovery

Methods for individualised instruction include:

i. Investigational methods
a) Directed discovery
b) Guided discovery
c) Exploratory discovery
d) Free discovery
ii. Programmed instruction.
iii. Project.

Note: These methods will be discussed in detail later.

Approaches:
Four different types of approaches identified in the teaching of mathematics are: explanation,
deductive, inductive and experimentation.

Explanation:

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This is an approach which requires teacher talk. The definitions, notations and facts which form
the subject of the lesson have to be explained. There are many topics in mathematics which
require the teacher to give information. Sets is one example.

Inductive-deductive method
Induction is that form of reasoning in which a general law is derived from a study of particular
objects or specific processes. Learners use measurements, manipulators or constructive activities
and patterns etc to discover a relationship. They later formulate a law or rule about that
relationship based on their observations, experiences, inferences and conclusions.

Example 1: Ask pupils to draw a number of triangles. Ask them to measure the three angles of
each triangle and find their sum. They will find that the sum of the three angles of all triangles is
180⁰.
Example 2: Ask pupils to find the sum of two odd numbers like 3+5=8; 5+7=12; 9+11=20, etc.
They will find that the sum of two odd numbers is an even number.

An example where this approach could be used is in deriving the laws of multiplying and
dividing indices. Beginning with the specific examples
1 2 3
3 ×3 =3 × 3× 3=3
2 3 5
3 ×3 =3× 3 ×3 ×3 ×3=3 etc .
the law of multiplication of indices can be concluded for any real number a and any integers m
and n
m m m +n
a × a =a

Deduction is the method in which the law is accepted and then applied to a number of specific
examples. The child does not discover the law but develops skills in applying the same, proceeds
from general to particular or abstract to concrete.

Steps in the inductive method:

1) The first step is clear recognition of the problem. It should be clearly understood and
defined by the pupils.

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2) Once the problem has been defined, the child should start searching for data from all
possible sources like books, magazines, journals, making visits to certain places etc.
3) Under the guidance of the teacher, the pupils organize the data which they have collected
from various sources. They select relevant data and discard irrelevant material.
4) By studying particular instances, the pupils frame possible solutions.
5) These solutions are discussed, argued and judged. Thus tentative solutions are eliminated
and only the probable solutions remain.
6) The solutions are applied to the situation and results are verified.

Merits of Inductive method

1) This method is psychological. The pupil feels interested in experiments, experiences and
discoveries.
2) This method fosters independence and self-confidence in the pupil which proves very
useful in later life.
3) In this method, children discover the solution themselves. Hence it develops and
encourages initiative and creative thinking.
4) All that is learnt using inductive method is remembered easily as it is self-acquired.
5) In this method, the pupils observe and analyze particular objects of similar and different
nature and try to arrive at general truth.
6) Inductive method takes into consideration all the maxims of good teaching. The process
of induction calls for perception, reasoning, judgment and generalization.

Steps involved in deductive method

1) Like the inductive method, the first step is the clear understanding of the problem.
2) It may involve the study of a particular thing and phenomenon.
3) Principles and generalizations are reviewed to find the one which may be applicable to
find a solution.
4) In this step the rule, principle or generalization is applied to a problem and inference is
formulated that the problem falls under such rule, principle or generalization.
5) Verification of the inference is done by applying it to a case. If it solves the problem then
it is accepted otherwise the procedure is repeated to find the correct one.

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−b ± √ b2−4 ac
For example, in teaching the quadratic formula x= a deductive could be taken
2a
using the completing the square method. This however, suggests that the pupils should have
already been introduced to the idea of completing the square in a quadratic expression.

Merits of deductive method

1) Deductive method is short and time-saving. It takes little time to solve the problem by
predetermined formulae.
2) In the deductive method, the teacher’s work is very much simplified. He/she simply gives
a rule and asks the pupils to verify it by application to several concrete examples. For
example, students are told that the area of rectangle = Length x Breadth. Then a few sums
are solved before the pupils. The pupils apply these formulae to solve these problems and
they memorize it for future use.
3) This method is very useful for small children because with small children we generally
use story or telling method.
4) This method glorifies memory, as the students have to memorize a considerable number
of formulae and definitions.
5) This method is adequate and advantageous during practice and revision stages.

Inductive--Deductive Method-A Comparison

1. It proceeds from particular to general; 1. It proceeds from general to particular;

concrete to abstract. abstract to concrete.

2. It takes care of the needs of the pupils. It is a 2. In this method facts are thrust upon the
developmental process and takes them through pupils. The principle of growth is not
easy to difficult phase. considered.
3. It encourages ‘discovery’ and stimulates 3. The authority decides or gives the formula
thinking. and encourages memorization.

4. The generalization or rule is formulated by 4. The rule is given to the child. He does not
the child; therefore he remembers it with ease. appreciate its nature and is likely to forget it
5. The how and why of the process is made easily.
clear through reasoning. 5. The process is taken for granted and

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accepted without reasoning.

6. It starts from observation and direct
experience and ends in developing a rule in 6. Does not encourage learning but it starts
abstract form. with a rule and provides for practice and
7. It encourages child participation and group applications.
work. 7. It demands individual learning and treats the
child as a passive recipient.

So it can be concluded that in inductive method we proceed from particular instances to general
laws or formulae. Through this method, children discover many new things themselves and
learning becomes very easy. It provides self-reliance and confidence in the students. Inductive
method is slow and safe as the general law is reached step- by-step. Students climb up the stairs
of thought leading to definitions, principles or rules.

In deductive method, we start with general law or formulae and then solve particular problems
by applying this law or formulae. It is a method of verification and explanation and provides
instruction. Deduction can give us the formal validity because the rule is taken for granted. The
aim of this method is to fit the pupil generally for the battle of life.

In actual practice of teaching, the combination of Induction and Deduction must be practised.
The laws should be discovered by pupils inductively and they must be further verified
deductively through applications to new situations.

Experimentation
In the experimentation approach, a generalisation is presented and the pupils must investigate its
truth by devising a proof which suits their level of mathematical development. This is more or
less similar to the deductive method of approach.

Methods in detail:
Note: All Methods Require Adequate Preparation!
1. Lecture
What it is?
 A lecture involves the teacher talking to the pupils about the subject. There is
little, if any, chance of any two-way communication. An interesting description of

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a lecture is: “You tell them what you are going to tell them, you tell them, and you
tell them what you have told them.” In other words, the lecture has an introduction
to the content, the detail is then presented, and finally there is a summary of the
lecture. The word lecture comes from the Latin word “LETCARE” meaning to
read aloud.
A lecture is used to pass knowledge only: if understanding is required a subsequent different
method will be used. In the course of a lecture, the learners should be thinking about the spoken
information and sometimes be expected to take down notes. It is a convenient method for
teaching topics which require giving new information.
Advantages
 A teacher can reach a large number of pupils
 Conveys a large amount of material in short time
 Teacher has complete control (unless listeners/pupils rebel!)
 Teacher controls both content and sequence, and can place emphasis where he/she
wishes, allowing him/her to complete the syllabus within the time limits of the
syllabus
 It combines easily with other methods
 Excellent on dissemination of background information
Limitations
 Little opportunity to question teacher (often one-way communication)
 Little or even no feedback regarding the effectiveness of learning
 Pupils are often passive
 It does not adjust to individual speed of comprehension
 Retention of learned material is poor
 Effectiveness depends on skill and personality
Ways to improve
 Use dynamic and interesting manner
 Prepare introductions, transactions and summarises
 Ask questions to which answers must be provided only after pupils have failed to
answer them
 Allow time for note taking
 Adjust vocabulary according to audience
 Don’t take up too much talking, instead give intermittent short exercises
 Use teaching aids where they are necessary
 Combine with other methods

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2. Demonstration
What it is?
 The technique is usually associated with demonstrating practical skill. It often introduces
the skill: its point and importance. The skill is demonstrated after which the pupils
practice the skill. In mathematics, the demonstration method can be used in topics such as
constructions.
Advantages
 It serves time and talk
 Learners see the sequence and build up
 Explanations are more concrete
 It is easier to watch a procedure than to listen to verbal descriptions and therefore
helps to ensure understanding
 It gives the learner confidence when he performs adequately
 Minimises dangers, errors, waste and damage
Limitations
 It requires a skilled demonstrator
 It may require assistant to watch and offer some help to learn when they practice
 There is no learner participation during the course of demonstration.
 It may require adequate preparation for effective demonstrations
 Can be too fast or too slow for the learners
 No permanent record
 May be difficult to see
 Can be expensive in terms of material costs
 Teacher needs to rehearse
 Pupils can be passive
Ways to improve
 Encourage pupil participation through question and answer between steps of
demonstration
 Provide immediate pupil practice after demonstration
 Emphasise what to watch for during demonstration
 Repeat parts, then entire demonstration
 Reward correct pupil performance, employ and space criticism judiciously

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Discussion
What it is?

 This a method in which the pupils participate in a lesson by contributing ideas through
talking. The pupils are actively involved in talking to each other about an issue of mutual
concern. The teacher initiates a discussion by asking questions which require elaborative
answers from different points of view. A discussion can also be initiated by questions
from pupils. NOTE: mathematics lessons offer great opportunities for class discussions.
The nature of a problem given can generate a discussion in order to understand what is
intended in the problem. The method to be used in a problem can also generate a
discussion; concepts which need clarification and the correctness of the solution to a
given problem may need to be discussed. Where mistakes are made they should not be
ignored or dismissed but should be discussed further to clarify misconceptions. The
teacher’s job is to manage the situation so that learning takes place.

Advantages
 Can be used following a video or lecture in order to re-inforce the learning.
 It encourages pupil participation and maintains interest
 Very useful for changing attitudes
 Avoids monotony and increases pupil commitment
 Involves pupils- and quiet members of the group can emerge as leaders
 Can be creative
 Provides immediate feedback to teacher on progress made
 Gives pupil sense of responsibility for learning
 Enhances quality of pupils’ mathematical thinking and ability to express
themselves
 Does not feel like hard work
 Broadens views
 Pupils can criticise each other’s views and not the person
Limitations
 Pupils and teachers need to develop discussion skills
 Can be risky
 May take a relatively long time

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 Requires skilful summarisation of the ideas contributed

 Requires fast thinking on the part of the teacher, to shift, adapt and accommodate.
 Pupils should have background knowledge of topic
 Pupils must be homogeneous in background and maturity
 May be noisy
 Can degenerate into an informal chat
 Size of group must be limited for fruitful and controlled discussion to take place.
Ways to improve:
 Have a reserve of stimulating questions available
 Prepare well for transitions, guidance and summaries
 Provide permissive communication with pupils
 Start with a view point designed to stimulate a discussion
 Be able to predict learner response and build upon them
 Investigational methods

Question and answer

What it is?
 Posing a series of questions to pupils in order to promote thinking and understanding. It is
a way of ascertaining the existing level of learning or entry behaviour in the introduction
to a lesson and /or, assessing the learning that has taken place at the end of a lesson (or
during it).
Advantages
 Pupils are involved and feel they are contributing to learning
 Misconceptions may be identified at an early stage
 Can build from simple to complex
 Key questions can be pre-planned
 Feedback on quality of learning is gained
 Maintains concentration
 Can stimulate pupils
 Gives feedback on quality of teaching
Limitations
 You need to be able to respond quickly to the pupils answers
 Careful planning may be needed
 May use too many closed questions
 A minority of pupils may participate
Ways to improve
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 Need to develop a useful skill

 May last a few minutes or develop into longer session
 Feedback showing misconceptions is very valuable
 Encourage all answers and build upon wrong or partially correct answers

Investigational methods
Heuristic Method (Discovery/Inquiry Method)

Discovery through Inquiry adapts the Scientific method. It organizes investigation of real world
phenomena into four steps. Each step has a series of tasks that lead to the next step or the
conclusion of the investigation. The process involves an inquiry strategy that uses questions and
the seeking of answers to guide the investigation as it proceeds.

Step I: Wondering:
What do we want to discover?
1. Make observations on real world phenomena related to topic of study.
2. Connect observations to topic and possibly subtopic of study.
3. Identify questions to be answered or problems to be solved.

Step II: Designing:

How can we find out?
1. Create hypothesis
2. Design methods to test hypothesis
3. Develop means to collect and analyze data

Step III: Investigating:

What are we finding out?
1. Conduct experiments to test hypothesis
2. Record data
3. Organize and analyze data
4. Prove or revisit and revise hypothesis
Step IV: Discovery:
What did we discover?
1. State conclusion(s) after analyzing data
2. Determine validity of conclusion(s)

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3. Construct meaning by connecting to real world.

Heuristic Method (Discovery/Inquiry Method) of teaching is simply the process of allowing the
students to take the leading role in their own learning experiences. The teacher becomes a
facilitator and guide, making it possible for the learner to reach mutually-agreed-upon goals. The
teacher serves as a resource person to stimulate, motivate, clarify, and explain.

The atmosphere in which such teaching takes place must be informal and non- threatening. In
order for discovery teaching to be effective, the environment (including the teacher’s attitude)
must contribute to rather than detract from the attaining of objectives. Rather than forcing his
idea of content, the teacher attempts to keep his hands off the learning process whenever and
wherever the student can carry it on for himself.
Discovery teaching brings four basic components of the educational setting into
interaction: the student, the teacher, the environment, and the content.
• The student is an active participant who solves problems which he understands through the
process of structuring his own learning experiences.
• The teacher plays the role of resource person and a facilitator.
• The environment includes both freedom and structure with freedom having the upper hand.
• The content may very well be propositional truth in a general context, waiting in the proper
place for the student to track it down, confront it, and capture it for his own.

An effective discovery leader must be a mature teacher who knows not only the subject matter of
the current lesson, but has an in-depth understanding of the subject. The students have to be a
willing participant, ready to explore numerous avenues of information and to appreciate new
findings in the light of previous information. A number of diverse methods can be used within
the framework of discovery learning, since any single student may approach his subject matter
from different perspectives.
Surely, numerous different approaches will be adopted within the total group.

Importance: Heuristic Method (Discovery/Inquiry Method) of teaching

• Allows for individualistic accomplishments.
• Is highly adaptive and versatile, limited only by the imagination of the participants at both the
teacher and pupil level.
• Allows for free expression of individual creativity. It is a concept of learning about which we
talk much and do little.
• Develops the relationship of pupils to teachers and of pupils to pupils.

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Problems: In Heuristic Method (Discovery/Inquiry Method) of teaching

• Many pupils feel insecure in an unstructured environment of learning.
• It is much more comfortable to be able to listen to a lecture and take notes in orderly fashion
than to be confronted with the haunting question, “What do you want to learn about this subject,
and how do you propose to learn it?”
• If responsibilities are not taken seriously by the participants, the whole process could get out of
control.
• It is also a time-consuming method.

Principles for Effective Teaching by Heuristic Method (Discovery/Inquiry

Method) of Teaching:

To get the best results, a teacher must:

• Encourage the questioning mind, and equip students with skills for finding the answers.
• Suggest resources, but refrain from doing the research for the learner.
• Train the pupils to think
• Challenge the answers they suggest and not be satisfied with the easy answer they are
‘supposed to get.’
• Insist the pupils to give evidence and make a convincing case for what they think and say.
• Ensure that all resources are available and usable by the learner.

Teach the pupils how to use various resources as they track their solutions through books,
articles, films, recordings, maps, experiences, projects, and most important, other people.

Project Method
This method aims to bring practically designed experience into the classroom. Often conducted
over a period of three to six months, the projects give pupils an opportunity to work in a team
environment and apply theory learned in the classroom. There are some parts of the curriculum
in which children are necessarily dependent on the teacher and others in which children can work
more independently.

Project work is more likely to constitute the more informal part of the program, the part where
they have greater autonomy in the development of their work than when involved in teacher
directed instruction.

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Project work can be seen as providing complementary learning opportunities to children in

which they not only need to know how to use a skill but also when to use it. They need to learn
to recognize for themselves the contexts in which the skill might be useful and the purposes
which it can most appropriately serve.

In project work they apply those skills in meaningful contexts. The project work can be seen as
the part of the curriculum which is planned in negotiation with the children and which supports
and extends the more formal and teacher directed instructional elements.

Scope and Strategies

This method is appropriate for any level, but is often employed for senior levels of education.
Using projects usually requires a lot of preparation by the teacher.
Some tips in this regard are as follows:
• Realize that the product of the project is not as important as the processes
• It is not important that the students determine an optimal design. What is important,
however, is that they experience the design process.
• It is important that the scope of the project is reasonable; care must be taken to ensure
that the students are not overloaded.
When possible, divide the project into sections and set dates for the submission of each
section.
• Assign projects to teams of two or three students to allow in-depth efforts, and to
promote interaction among the pupils.
Conclusion
It is not appropriate for a teacher to commit to one particular method. It is evident that successful
application of the various methods of teaching depends on a number of factors. Every method
has certain merits and few demerits and it is the work of a teacher to decide which method is best
for the pupils. The whole issue of mathematics teaching depends on the famous paragraph 243 of
the Cockcroft report (1982) whish says:
Mathematics teaching at all levels should include opportunities for:
 Exposition by the teacher
 Discussion between teacher and pupils and between pupils themselves
 Appropriate practical work
 Consolidation and practice of fundamental skills and routines
 Problem solving, including the application of mathematics to everyday situations
 Investigational work.

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Activity

1. What are the merits and demerits of Discovery Method of teaching mathematics?
2. Write a note of lesson for teaching a lesson using discovery method in maths.
3. The Cockcroft commission of inquiry into the teaching of mathematics in England and Wales
(1982) recommended that teaching at all levels (of primary and secondary school) should
include opportunities for
i. Exposition by the teacher
ii. Practical work
iii. practice
iv. Discussion
v. Problem solving
vi. Investigation

.
a) For each of the above, briefly explain what teachers should note for the successful
implementation of the strategy.
b) You have been given the responsibility of helping teacher of mathematics improve their
classroom practice. Explain how you would use the above recommendation to convince
teachers that doing as the commission of enquiry recommended would, indeed, improve
the quality of teaching and learning.

4. Distinguish between teacher-centred teaching, learner –centred teaching and learning

centred teaching. Explain whether or not three are mutually exclusive. If any of the three
intersect, explain how this might be the case.

5. Explain what is meant to be a reflective practitioner and the stage in teaching at which a
teacher needs to reflect.
6. Discuss the merits of using a variety of teaching strategies when teaching mathematics
7. Discuss the value of practical work in the teaching and learning of mathematics.

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References

Ball, D. L., Lubienski, S. T., & Mewborn, D. S. (2001). Research on teaching mathematics: The
unsolved problem of teachers’ mathematical knowledge. In V. Richardson (Ed.),
Handbook of research on teaching (4th ed., pp. 433–456). New York: Macmillan.

Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (Eds.). (1999). How people learn: Brain, mind,
experience, and school. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Kilpatrick, J., Swafford, J., & Findell, B. (Eds.). (2001). Adding it up: Helping children learn
Mathematics. Washington, DC: National Academies Press

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Teaching Aids

Definition
A teaching aid is an object that helps aid teaching. Therefore, a teaching aid helps learners to
understand a concept.
Learning is multi-sensory in nature, that is, it involves the use of all the senses ( hearing,
touching, smelling, tasting and seeing ). Teaching aids involve the multi-sensory approach to
learning. Of all the senses, hearing and sight are the most used in gathering information as people
tend to remember 65% of what is seen and heard simultaneously.
Teaching aids are basically classified into two categories, i.e,
1. Visual aids ( involves seeing)
2. Audio visual aids ( involves seeing and hearing )

Basic characteristics of visual teaching aids

i) The visual aid used should be simple in design and language.
ii) The visual aid should reflect use of suitable abstractions of complex situations.
iii) The visual aid should be inexpensive.
iv) The visual aid should be clear.
v) The visual aid should be easy to manage.
vi) The visual aid should have a focal point, ie, the purpose of the visual aid should be
distinct.

Some basic teaching aids

1. Chalk board

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A chalkboard is a reusable writing surface on which text or drawings are made with sticks
of calcium sulphate, known, when used for this purpose, as chalk. A chalkboard comes in
all colours, shapes, sizes and degrees of portability.
 Always start your lesson with a clean board.
 Do not use your usual handwriting, instead, use the print style.
 Do not talk to the board but to students.
 When cleaning the board, use up and down strokes.
 Do not get the board clustered with writings, erase unwanted material.
 Before you go to class, plan what you are going to write on the chalk board.
 Use white or yellow chalk for writing the main information. Other colours can
only be used for specific purposes.
 Always accompany your teaching with a visual step by step progression of facts
written on the chalkboard as this tends to help learners in understanding and
remembering better.
 Do not use your fingers or hands to erase work on the board, but use a duster or a
cloth.
 Learn to stand and/or move around so that you do not block the view of the
learners as you use the chalkboard.
 Practice writing in a straight line.
 Keep writing neatly and large enough to be seen by all the learners in class.
 Be brief and specific.

Advantages of using a chalkboard

 Availability. Most areas assigned for instruction are equipped with chalkboards.
Also, more board space is needed, portable boards are handy.
 The chalkboard is inexpensive, especially when the usable life of the board is
considered.
 Spacious. Lots of writing space is usually available.
 It is flexible to use in the sense that, instructors may use it, learners may use it and
changes can easily be done through erasure.
 The visual communication of the chalkboard directs attention of the class to the
purpose of the lesson.
 Ideas can be dealt with at all levels from, facts to concepts, cognitive to affective
learning.
 A number of learners can do practice and drill work on the board at one time,
allowing the instructor to give a feedback immediately.

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 Test or discussion questions can be put on the chalkboard and covered up before
the class assembles, then revealed at the appropriate time. This can save on time
and cost of duplication materials.
 Ideas or topics suggested can be listed on the chalkboard, reorganized, and put in
final form.
 A point by point outline of a presentation can be made on the spot with diagrams
drawn at the appropriate time.

Disadvantages of using a chalkboard

 Learners who have vision impairments experience problems to see what is
written on the board.
 Material put on the board cannot be there permanently.
 Chalkboards are often fixed in such a way that they are not always at a
comfortable height for all potential users.
 With time, boards can become cloudy as they retain chalk dust.
 Being fixed, chalkboards can put restrictions on the use of the classroom
space and classroom activities as learners need to be placed where they can
see the board.
 A teacher’s handwriting or spelling deficiencies are most obvious when using
the chalkboard.
 Chalkboard work can be messy.
 Writing on the board is time consuming.
 Chalk dust brings about respiratory problems.

Charts and posters

Charts are prepared drawings used for explaining, clarifying, illustrating and reinforcing
points used in a lesson. It is a useful way of presenting and displaying information or
instruction, especially in a classroom. I t can range in size from a large wall chart to a
single piece of paper. A chart can also be defined as a group of related facts presented in
the form of a diagram, table, graph or other visually organized model.
Posters are self teaching charts which are used to create a positive learning environment.

Considerations when making charts

 Information presented should be accurate.
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 Diagrams should be large enough to be seen clearly from everywhere in the

classroom.
 Use vivid colours as these enhance eye appeal.
 Use identifying labels carefully.
 Lettering should be large and thick enough to be seen clearly.
 Bind the charts with cello tape, packing tape or masking tape to make them last
longer. This makes the chart to look neat besides being prevented from tearing.

Purposes
 To show and compare changes
 To show and compare relationships.
 To bring facts to life.

Advantages of using charts

 It is a quick way for the audience to visualize what you are saying.
 It is forceful as it emphasizes main points.
 It is convincing as learners prove the points by seeing and hearing.
 It is a compact way to convey information.
 It makes the lesson more interesting than just talking or writing.

Disadvantages of using charts

 It is time consuming to make a chart as decisions have to be made in advance for
the layout, colour and materials to be used.
 Depending on the medium used, a chart can be costly.
 It is technical in nature as it depends on the knowledge of the audience to interpret
and understand.

2. Models

A model can come in many sizes, shapes and styles. It is important to emphasise that a
model is not a real world but merely a human construct to help us better understand real
world systems. Models make learners to visualize problems more clearly.
Therefore, it is a visual way of picturing a situation.
A teacher should always be innovative by making teaching aids such as models.
e.g. a Wire spherical model can be made and used in teaching earth geometry. This
clearly shows the latitudes and longitudes.

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Advantages of using a model in a lesson

 It helps with the explanation and gives the learners the opportunity to experiment
with practical materials for better understanding.
 It gives clarity to a lesson.
 It makes the learners to be focused on the key ideas of the lesson.
 It is a great way of teaching visual learners.
 It aids learners’ understanding as it gives hands on experience.

3. Notice board/display board

This is a board that hangs on a wall in or outside the classroom. It displays

announcements. This is also referred to as a bulletin board. It is a place where people
leave public messages, e.g. advertising things to buy or sell, announce events or provide
information. In the classroom, it can be used for the following purposes:
 To display learners’ work e.g. best group work or individual work.
 To display test results so as to encourage learners to be performing well as well as
help them to learn statistical averages.
 To allow learners to have access to information on charts any time they want to
refer to them.
 To allow learners to have access to challenging questions pertaining to a
particular topic as such questions are also advisable to be displayed.

Note
 Do not display anything for the whole term but at least for two weeks as this
should be replaced by other materials.
 Materials displayed should be very good so that it attracts the learners’ attention.

4. A computer

This is a machine which can take instructions and perform computations based on those
instructions. It has the ability to store, retrieve and process data. You can use a computer
to type documents, send email, and surf the internet. You can also use it handle
spreadsheet, accounting, database management, presentations, games and more.
This is a modern teaching aid. Information can be displayed by using power point.
Learners should know how to display statistical data by using spreadsheets, e.t.c
e.g. SPSS (statistical package for social science ) found under learners’ guide.

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6. Overhead projector
An overhead projector is used to illustrate points as they are written or typed on
transparencies. It is a device used to project images from transparent film onto a screen
or the wall. Overhead projectors can be used to build up a diagram or enlarge a chart.
There is need for the teacher to prepare transparencies in advance which should contain
instructions in a brief and orderly manner. Therefore, transparencies should not be
overcrowded. Transparencies can not just be made using a computer, but the teacher can
also use markers to prepare them.

Advantages of using an overhead projector

 It facilitates an easy low-cost interactive environment for teachers as
transparencies can be pre-printed and used repetitively.
 It allows the teacher to face the class, thereby facilitating better communication
between the pupils and the teacher.
 It allows the teacher to write in a comfortable small print on transparencies in a
natural writing position as the overhead projector enlarges features.
 Transparencies can simply be replaced by already prepared ones after use or
use fresh sheets.
 Transparencies are easy to store and reuse.

7. Tape recorders and radios

These enable teachers to record planned lessons. The teacher and the learners can listen
to recorded broadcast and make follow ups. E.g Taonga Market Education Broadcast in
Mathematics.
It is advisable to play the tape in phases and ask questions at appropriate times.
Skilful preparation by the teacher is required. This can be obtained through practice.
Accompanying worksheets should be prepared and instructions should be recorded as the
teacher works through the worksheet.
A teacher can also record his/her lesson so that it can be used the following year with
other pupils. This can help the teacher to recognize ideas in a sensible order.

8. Television and video Tapes / DVD

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These are not commonly found in many schools but where they are available, they are
used for viewing non academic programs unless by chance, something academic is on a
TV program.
Where the TV and video/DVD is available, it helps present mathematics in a lively and
entertaining way. Tapped programs can be used by the teacher at appropriate times. To
make the use of the television and videos/DVD efficient, instructions and worksheets
should be prepared accordingly.

9. Textbooks
These are standard books for a study of a particular subject. A textbook contains most or
all of the content at the appropriate grade level required in the syllabus. Therefore, a
textbook is a book that is the basis for the teaching and learning.

Types of textbooks
There are three types of textbooks, i.e
i) Prescribed textbook

This is a book recommended for use in specific syllabus content. It covers most of
the content.
ii) Course book

This is a book specifically written for particular syllabus content. It covers all the
required content in a given course.
iii) Reference book

This is a book used for background reading and sometimes for selection of
exercise.

Why teachers use textbooks

 To provide an organization or structure of the course.
 As a source for the subject matter to be taught.
 To provide suggestions for teaching strategies.
 To provide information about other required readings, teaching aids, etc.

Note

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 Teachers should not merely read out of the textbook during a lesson but should
supplement textbooks with other sources of information.
 Textbooks should be approached critically and learners should be allowed to
use them on their own.
 Textbooks should only be used as an aid to teaching.
 Teachers should avoid being enslaved by the textbook by becoming familiar
with the textbook through knowing
o The book’s title.
o The names of the authors.
o The date of publication.
o The main topics covered and the arrangement of the different parts or
sections.
o What the authors say the book is intended to do.

Teaching learners to use textbooks

Teachers can help pupils to learn how to use textbooks by helping them to
understand the following about textbooks:
 The basic structure or plan of a text book, ie, the major parts, chapters,
headings, introduction, etc.
 How to use the chapters and section headings.
 How to use special aids in the textbook.
 How to look things up using the table of contents, preface, glossary and
index of terms.

Characteristics of a good textbook

 Covers most of the required content, giving adequate depth to topics.
 Presents topics in a manner that builds understanding.
 Provides opportunities for attaining mastery of the subject matter through
practice.
 Provides means for independent study.
 Acts as a compact reference book.
 Provides a basis for achievement testing.

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Activity

1. State in your own words what you understand by the term teaching aid.

2. Explain why there are marked differences in the extent to which teachers use
teaching aids.

3. “The chalkboard is one of the most widely used and widely abused teaching aid.”
Explain why this is the case, using examples from the mathematics classroom.

4. How can worksheets/ work cards be used in mathematics teaching and learning?

5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of teachers making their own teaching
aids?

6. “Time spent on learning may be shortened and yet the quality of learning may still
be improved through appropriate use of teaching aids.”

Discuss this statement illustrating with examples.

7. “Despite being the most commonly used aid in the classroom; the chalkboard is
also one of the most poorly used.
i) Discuss poor chalkboard habits/ features.
ii) Outline how the chalkboard could best be used.

8. Compare and contrast the overhead projector and the chalkboard as aid to teaching
mathematics.

9. What factors should be taken into consideration when selecting aids to teaching
and learning?

10. Teaching/ learning aids may be a source of learning impediments to some learners.

How may this be the case? Illustrate your answer with examples.

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11. Distinguish between a prescribed textbook and a course book.

12. The head teacher at your school has asked you to assess the suitability of a new
mathematics textbook for use by junior secondary school pupils at your school.
List and justify five criteria you might use to assess the suitability of the textbook.

13. “Schools do not need prescribed textbooks. All they need are teachers who are
experts in their subject, a syllabus and a good reference library.”
Give an argument for and/ or against this statement.

14. Describe an activity you would ask your learners to perform to help them
understand addition and subtraction of integers.

15. “How to make pupils want to learn should be at the centre of one’s concerns
when preparing to teach a mathematics lesson.”
i) List and explain two reasons why making pupils want to learn should be at the
teacher’s concerns when preparing mathematics lessons.
ii) Explain briefly what you think mathematics teachers should keep in mind when
selecting audio visual aids for a given lesson, to make pupils want to learn.

16. i) Explain two ways in which a textbook can be used properly and two ways in

which it can be used improperly in teaching mathematics.

ii) Between a course book and a prescribed textbook which one is most likely to be
used improperly in teaching mathematics?
iii) List five qualities of a good mathematics textbook.

17. a) i) Define the term audio-visual aid.

ii) Describe an activity in school mathematics where you might use a named audio-
visual aid. Justify your answer.

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Classroom Organisation and Management

Introduction

Classroom Management
This is the process of organising and conducting a class so that it is efficient and results
in maximum students’ learning.
When pupils are busily doing what the teacher requires of them, the teacher can be
considered to be successfully managing the class.

Classroom Organisation
This refers to the way in which the teacher arranges every aspect of the classroom
environment to enable students to learn more effectively and efficiently.
The classroom environment is viewed as comprising three elements:

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i) Physical Components
This involves the surrounding in which the learners and the teacher work.

ii) Social Components

This involves the learners and the teacher involved.

iii) Educational Components

This involves the knowledge, curriculum and skills learners need to be taught.

Management/organisational activities include the following:

 Managing students’ behaviour.
 Selecting appropriate teaching methods.
 Deciding on how to organise the learners, for example, whether to adopt
the whole class, group or individual approach.
 Selecting appropriate strategies for communicating rules and procedures.

Achieving success in classroom management

a) Planning
i) Planning aids management by:
 Providing a framework for activities.
 Preparing teachers for possible problems that might arise.
 Increasing the confidence in which teachers face their classes.

ii) Planning activities includes making decisions about the following:

 Content to be taught.
 Materials to be used.
 Who is to be taught?
 How the class should be organised.

iii) In planning, you should aim at:

 Providing enough purposeful activities to keep learners busy and
active throughout the lesson.
 Not lecturing for too long, for example, not more than 20minutes of
straight talking.
 Providing for individual differences.

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 Making it clear to learners when giving assignments, what to do and

what not to do.
 Making sure that the necessary materials are available when they are
needed.

b) Managing Students’ Behaviour

i) When is student’s behaviour a problem?

 When it interrupts the child’s own learning or that of his or her
classmates.
 When it may cause harm to the child or his or her classmates.
 When it results in damage to personal belongings or school property.
 When it is antisocial, for example, stealing from classmates.

ii) Causes of Misbehaviour

 Society at large
Economic problems can make growing up a stressful experience.
 The Home
Failures in the home such as poverty and parental neglect can cause
misbehaviour in a learner.
 Adolescence
The strains and pressures of adolescence frequently manifest
themselves in deviant behaviour.
 The School
Boredom and inability to cope with work assigned can make learners
to misbehave. This usually comes about due to teacher insensitivity
and poor management skills.

iii) Preventing Students’ Misbehaviour

 Plan adequately
 Promote self discipline by teaching learners to take responsibility for
their own behaviour.
 Establish and reinforce classroom rules and procedures.
Rules
These specify expected and forbidden actions in the classroom and are
usually written and put on the wall.
Procedures

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These tell us how things should be done or accomplished. They are

usually not written down.

iv) Dealing with Misbehaviour

You can deal with misbehaviour in your lesson by doing the following:
 Ignoring bad behaviour and rewarding good behaviour.
 Changing the context, for example, removing what was distracting.
 Interrupting the unwanted behaviour and directing the learner to the
desired behaviour.
 Using peer group pressure, for example, getting learners to share with
you, the teacher, the responsibilities of good behaviour.
 Formulating rules together with learners.
 Using stronger measures such as punishment, extra work, etc.

Classroom organisation
a) Instructional Material
Prepare all necessary materials ahead of time and if possible, test to see if they work.

b) Sitting Arrangement
Different sitting arrangements can aid or reduce the amount of learning that children
gain in a lesson.
Sitting arrangements can be considered with decisions about whether you will teach
in a small group or a whole class.

Types of sitting arrangements

i) Vertical Row ( Traditional )

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

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KEY
X.......... Pupil
T...........Teacher

 This is good for tests and when learners are working alone.
 It emphasises independent quite working.
 It is bad for discussions.

ii) Sitting in Pairs

X X X X X X X X

X X X X X X X X

X X X X X X X X

X X X X X X X X

 It encourages pupils to discuss their work but also encourages talking

and destructions
 It is not good for whole class discussions.

iii) Horse - Shoe or Double Horse - Shoe

X X
X X
X X
X X
T

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X
X X X
X X X X
X X X X
X X X X
X X T

X X

 Good for discussions although in double horse shoe those nearest the teacher
will do more discussions.

iv) Circle

X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
T

 This is best for discussions.

1. Conducting a class properly

The following useful suggestions have been given:

i) Start your class without delaying, as soon as the bell rings.
ii) Work out a lesson pace that is vigorous enough to keep learners alert but not
enough to lose some.

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iii) Move from one phase of the lesson to the next smoothly and unobtrusively ( not
noticeable ).
iv) Control class movements but do not interrupt the smooth progress of the class
yourself.
v) If something can be done in a few steps or explained in a few words, do not expand
unnecessarily.
vi) Keep all the class members alert by asking questions.
vii) If learners are engaged in group work, make sure they understand procedures,
routines, etc.
viii) Keep the whole class under surveillance and keep checking pupils’ work from time
to time.

Activity

1. Define in your own words the terms classroom management and classroom organisation.

2. Describe at least three ways in which effective planning can contribute to maintenance of
classroom control and discipline.

3. What is meant by self - discipline? Suggest three ways in which teachers might promote
self - discipline in their learners.

4. Identify at least four rules that you feel teachers should insist on during mathematics
lessons. Give reasons for your answer.

5. Assume that you have a mixed ability mathematics class that has just the right number of
learners, not too many and not too few, and you have sufficient classroom space and
moveable furniture. How would you arrange the sitting to facilitate introduction of a
‘difficult’ topic in mathematics such as earth geometry?

6. Success at classroom management involves a number of attributes/aspects.

a) List and explain briefly three key aspects of successful classroom management.
b) “Corporal punishment is less successful as a measure of curbing discipline problems.”

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Justifying your position, state to what extent you agree or disagree with this statement.
c) Outline how you would deal with severe discipline problems in your class.

7. a) Explain clearly features that constitute a classroom environment.

b) Discuss how this environment might influence the choice of teaching methods.
8. Discuss what is involved in classroom management.
9. Outline your personal discipline approach. Compare and / or contrast your approach with
the current Ministry of Education model.
10. “The key to successful classroom management is not what the teacher does after
learners have misbehaved but what the teacher does to avoid learner misbehaviour and
prevent it from occurring”.
Explain why this might be the case.
11. Give three examples of what a mathematics teacher can do to reduce the possibility of
discipline problems during the mathematics lesson.

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