Bio-Engineering Elective II, OCEM By Santosh Poudel (Dabrosanto)

1. Introduction to Bio-Engineering

What is Soil Erosion?

In this process, the soil particles are loosened or washed away in the valleys, oceans, rivers, streams or
far away lands. This has been worsening due to human activities such as agriculture and deforestation.
Soil erosion is a continuous process that occurs either slowly or at an alarming rate. It results in a
continuous loss of topsoil, ecological degradation, soil collapse, etc.

Cause of Soil Erosion

Following are the important causes of soil erosion:

Rainfall and Flooding

Higher intensity of rainstorms is the main cause of soil erosion. Four types of soil erosion are caused by
rainfall:

• Rill erosion
• Gully erosion
• Sheet erosion
• Splash erosion
The raindrops disperse the soil, which is then washed away into the nearby streams and rivers. Regions
with very heavy and frequent rainfall face a large amount of soil loss. The flowing water during floods
also erodes a lot of soil by creating potholes, rock-cut basins, etc.

Agriculture
The farming practices are the major cause of soil erosion. The agricultural activities disturb the ground.
The trees are cleared and the land is ploughed to sow new seeds. Since most of the crops are grown
during the spring season, the land lies fallow during winters. Most of the soil is eroded during winters.
Also, the tyres of tractors make grooves on the land, making a natural pathway for water. Fine soil
particles are eroded by wind.

Grazing
The grazing animals feed on the grasses and remove the vegetation from the land. Their hooves churn up
the soil. They also pull-out plants by their roots. This loosens the soil and makes it more prone to erosion.

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Logging and Mining

A large number of trees are cut down to carry out the logging process. Trees hold the soil firmly. The
canopy of the trees protects the soil from heavy rainfall. The leaf litter that protects the soil from erosion,
is also lost during logging.
Mining activities also disturb the land and leave the soil more prone to erosion.

Construction
The construction of roads and buildings exposes the soil to erosion. The forests and grasslands are
cleared for construction purposes, which exposes the soil making it vulnerable to erosion.

Rivers and Streams

The flowing rivers and streams carry away the soil particles leading to a V-shaped erosion activity.

Heavy Winds
During dry weather or in the semi-arid regions, the minute soil particles are carried away by the wind to
faraway lands. This degrades the soil and results in desertification.

Effects of Soil Erosion

The major effects of soil erosion include:

Loss of Arable Land

Soil erosion removes the top fertile layer of the soil. This layer is rich in the essential nutrients required by
the plants and the soil. The degraded soil does not support crop production and leads to low crop
productivity.

Clogging of Waterways
The agricultural soil contains pesticides, insecticides, fertilizers, and several other chemicals. This
pollutes the water bodies where the soil flows.
The sediments accumulate in the water and raise the water levels resulting in flooding.

Air Pollution
The dust particles merge in the air, resulting in air pollution. Some of the toxic substances such as
pesticides and petroleum can be extremely hazardous when inhaled. The dust plumes from the arid and
semi-arid regions cause widespread pollution when the winds move.

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Desertification
Soil erosion is a major factor for desertification. It transforms the habitable regions into deserts.
Deforestation and destructive use of land worsens the situation. This also leads to loss of biodiversity,
degradation of the soil, and alteration in the ecosystem.

Destruction of Infrastructure
The accumulation of soil sediments in dams and along the banks can reduce their efficiency. Thus, it
affects infrastructural projects such as dams, embankments, and drainage.

Soil Erosion Prevention

Soil erosion is a serious environmental issue. Steps should be taken to curb this problem. Following are
some of the methods of soil erosion prevention:

1. Plant trees on barren lands to limit erosion of soil.

2. Add mulch and rocks to prevent the plants and grass underneath to prevent soil erosion.
3. Mulch matting can be used to reduce erosion on slopes.
4. Put a series of fibre logs to prevent any water or soil from washing away.
5. A wall at the base of the slope can help in preventing the soil from eroding.
6. Every household should have a proper drainage system so that water flows down into proper
water collecting systems.

Key Points of Soil Erosion

• It is the natural process of wearing away topsoil, but human activities have accelerated the
process.
• It is usually caused due to the removal of vegetation, or any activity that renders the ground dry.
• Farming, grazing, mining, construction and recreational activities are some of the causes of soil
erosion.
• The effects of soil erosion are not just land degradation. It has led to a drastic increase in
pollution and sedimentation in rivers that clogs the water bodies resulting in a decline in the
population of aquatic organisms.
• Degraded lands lose the water holding capacity resulting in floods.
The health of the soil is of utmost importance to the farmers and the population that depends upon
agriculture for food and employment. There are several challenges to resist soil erosion, but there are
solutions to prevent it as well.

Soil and Water Conservation Engineering

❖ Engineering problems involved in soil and water conservation may be divided into the six
following phases:
➢ Erosion control
➢ Drainage
➢ Irrigation

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➢ Flood control
➢ Moisture conservation and
➢ Water resource development
❖ It is the measures that provide for the management of water and soil
❖ Conservation practices involves in the soil, the plant and the climate, each of which is of utmost
importance.
❖ It is the engineering approach to soil and water conservation problems involves the physical
integration of soil, water and plants in the design of a co-ordination of water management.

Soil Conservation Technique for Cultivated Land

Physical or Mechanical Erosion Control Measure

❖ Mechanical structure is required to control an active gully to stabilize it because other
agronomic and soil management structure is not sufficient to control erosion of gully.

❖ Mechanical structures are called gully control structures.

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❖ The gully control structures primarily designed for safe disposal of excess runoff generated
from the watershed.

❖ While designing gully control structures three major points are considered

(i) structure must have sufficient provision for safe discharge,

(ii) the structure should have sufficient strength to withstand the pressure exerted by flowing water
and

(iii) the structure should be protected from erosion due to the flow passing over it.

❖ These points refer to hydrologic design, structural design and hydraulic design of structures.

Background Information about Bio-Engineering

❖ People living in mountainous areas face problems due to dynamic characters of landscape
(eg., soil erosion, landslides, floods, earthquakes, cloud burst, wind storms and hail storms)

❖ Such phenomena become disasters when they adversely affect human life or property

❖ Reduce downward movement of slope material by applying techniques that help to catch,
reinforce, support and anchor the slope material; and drain water safely

❖ This can be done by applying civil engineering techniques, conservation farming techniques
and bio-engineering techniques

❖ However, conservation farming techniques can only possible on slope up to 25θ, if slope
greater than 25θ, need to use bio-engineering technology use alone or in combination of civil
engineering techniques.

In a broader sense, Bioengineering is the use of life science & engineering to solve human life
problems. Here, in this article, we are using the term bioengineering in the context of civil engineering
& it basically refers to soil bioengineering. So, Bioengineering can be defined as the use of vegetative
measures & small civil engineering structures in order to reduce the shallow seated instability. The
living plants or non-living plant materials are used alone or in conjunction with small civil engineering
structures for slope stabilization & erosion control. It utilizes locally available resources & is a cost-
effective method.

Principles of Bioengineering
Initially, stability is obtained from the small civil engineering structures. The strength of those
structures decreases gradually. After the handover point, stability is derived from the vegetative
measures. This can be depicted from the graph shown below:

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Functions of Bioengineering
Engineering functions performed by vegetation on a slope are as follows:
▪ Catch
▪ Armor
▪ Reinforce
▪ Anchor
▪ Support
▪ Drain

Advantages of Bioengineering
▪ Immediate slope stabilization & erosion control
▪ Utilization of locally available resources (local tools, local manpower, local materials)
▪ It is a cost-effective method
▪ No need for frequent maintenance
▪ It also provides an opportunity for wildlife habitat
▪ It also improves the aesthetic beauty of the site
Commonly Used Techniques of Bioengineering
▪ Fascine: Bundle of live branches laid in shallow trenches
▪ Palisade: Woody cuttings planted across the slope.
▪ Wattling: Fence made out of vegetative materials.
▪ Bamboo Planting: Planting of bamboo for soil conservation
▪ Grass Planting: Planting of grass across the slope
▪ Brush Layering: Layers of woody cuttings planted in line following the contour
▪ RipRap: Stone pitching with vegetation interplanted between them
▪ Retaining Wall: Wall built to resist the pressure of earth filling or backing
▪ Toe Wall
▪ Breast Wall or Revetment Wall

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▪ Check Dam: Dams constructed across the gullies to retard the flow
▪ Gabion Wall: Walls made up of gabion wire filled with stones
▪ Stone Masonry: Masonry construction using stones & mortar
▪ Jute Netting: Protecting the slope with standard jute mesh
▪ Rock Netting: Wire mesh of reliable material used to control the rockfall
▪ Rock Bolting: Reinforcement of rock slope by inserting steel bars
▪ French Drain: Subsurface drainage channel filled with aggregates

Application of Bio-Engineering
➢ Slope stabilization
Embankment
Cutting
➢ Erosion control
➢ Water course and shoreline protection
➢ Wind erosion control
➢ Vegetation barriers
Shelters
Noise reduction
➢ Surface protection and traffic ability
➢ Control of runoff in small catchments
➢ Plants as indicators
Potential uses of bio-engineering techniques
• Prevention of scour around drain and culvert discharge points.
• Prevention of scour around civil engineering structures, particularly at the soil/structure
interface.
• Protection against debris blocking side drains.
• Protection against debris coming on to the carriageway.
• Protection of uncompacted spoil.
• Protection of embankments and fill area.
• Protection of bare cut slopes.
• Protection of bare surfaces on rehabilitated landslides.
• Stabilization of gullies.
• Rehabilitation of quarries and borrow pits.
• Prevention of shallow slumps (less than 0.5m deep).
• Prevention of shallow planar failures (less than 0.5m deep).
• Reduction of debris creep on steep, unconsolidated colluvial slopes.
• Reduction of minor rock falls in weak, shattered rocks.

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Benefits of Bioengineering
• Use local materials,
• Low cost,
• Use simple technology, which the locals can adopt,

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• Easily maintained by the locals,

• Does not require heavy equipment,
• Environmentally friendly,
• As time pass it will be more effective

Limitations of Bio-engineering
There are mainly three specific aspects not covered in Bio-engineering

1. Vegetation in relation to buildings:

• Damage due to water removal on shrinking clay soils
• Root penetration on foundations and drains
• Risk of toppling onto buildings
2. Vegetation in relation to water quality:
• Choking of water ways with plant growth
3. Vegetation growth on structure:
• Accelerates weathering and corrosion, or causes adverse effects on the
performance of concrete and steel
4. Needs of aftercare:
• Vegetation can not perform its engineering function in its initial stage
• It demands regular repair and maintenance

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2. Hydrology

Hydrological Cycle

Distribution of rainfall in Nepal

The temporal and spatial variation of rainfall in Nepal is very high. 80% to 90% of rainfall
occurs during June to September. Nevertheless, rainfall in Nepal occurs with different
mechanisms.
1. Orographic Rainfall
– This type of rainfall is due to the condensation of moisture – laden vapor as it
meets orographic barrier (mountains). The monsoon rainfall in Nepal (June –
Sept.) is mainly by this mechanism. During these months the moisture-laden

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vapour from Arabian sea and Bay of Bengal get intercepted by high mountains
of Nepal causing condensation as it rises up.
2. Frontal Rainfall
– When dry cold wind and light moisture laden hot wind meet at front, heavy cloud
wind compels to rise the latter resulting in condensation. This mechanism
prevails in Nepal during winter as hot moisture laden wind from Mediterranean
Sea meets cold wind from central Asia. As a consequence, winter rainfall is
much significant in the western part of Nepal.
3. Convective Rainfall
– This type of rainfall mechanism is very local in nature. During April month the
temperature in Tarai is high causing significant evaporation from water bodies
and soil and evapotranspiration from vegetation. However, the environment at
high altitude is still cold enough to condense convectively the evaporated
moisture locally resulting in rainfall.
4. Cyclonic Rainfall
– Cyclones are the large concentric low-pressure zones. Such zones appear in
Bay of Bengal and its vicinity during autumn resulting in rapid condensation of
moisture. This mechanism is mainly responsible for rainfall in Nepal during
autumn.

Moist Sites
The main factors making sites more moist are
• Exposure to rain-bearing winds
• Topography causing uplift of the wind
• Shade from the sun (e.g. North facing slopes)

Drier Sites
The main factors making sites drier are
• Rain shadow effect
• Exposure to the sun (e.g. south facing slopes)
• Higher site temperatures
• Soils with low infiltration rates
• Dry winds in big river valleys

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Infiltration
Infiltration is the process whereby water enters the soil through the surface.

Factors affecting infiltration

Intensity of rainfall:
The faster the rain falls, the greater the chance that some will run off rather
than infiltrate.
Slope angle:
The steeper the slope, the greater the chance that water will run off.
Soil texture:
The finer the soil particles, the slower will be the infiltration.
Vegetation cover:
Vegetation helps to break up the soil and make it more porous, thus increasing
infiltration , but it is necessary to look at micro level, a short grass cover creates
a very different effect from a few large trees with nothing in between.
Surface openness or compaction:
The less open or more compact the surface, the lower will be the infiltration,
some surfaces are covered by caps of clay or algae.
Compaction of the material:
The more compact the material, lower will be the infiltration.

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Run-off Related Hazard

In this section we deal with the pathways and effects of water movement over and through
the ground and discusses the movement of water over the surface, into the surface to a depth
of a few centimeters, further down into the soil profile, and deep into rocks.
• Soil conservator need to think about water for the following reasons:
– In areas of high rainfall, more care must be paid to drainage system and the
design of all slope treatment works
– In most slope failures and erosion, water is the main cause or triggering factor

Ground condition leading to overland flow of water

Conditions that lead to overland flow are
― When the soil has capping (compacted surface). A soil caps
will prevent infiltration
― even if the soil itself is highly permeable
― when the rate of precipitation exceeds that of infiltration
― When the soil is saturated
― When permeable rock or impermeable soil is at the surface
Erosion resulting from surface water movement
― Sheet erosion is the removal of soil, mineral or rock particles
over the whole surface
― Mudstone and soft sand stone, the siwalik rocks, are typical
examples of this material
― Rill erosion is the removal of soil, mineral or rock particles
along water channels

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Causes of Failure
Surface Water
• Erosion, or soaking of surface to cause shallow sliding.
• Effects of water infiltrating from surface. Causes shallow failures.

Surface Water
Infiltratio Creates shallow
n failure also

Infiltratio
n
Ground Water
• Ground water causes increased pore water pressure at depth.
• Failure plane is deeper than in surface water failure.

Ground Water also

Creates failure

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Weathering
• Rock strength is reduced as constituent minerals are broken down into weathering
products
• Physical bonds between rock constituents are weakened or broken.
• The rock can fail along weakened fracture planes or through its body.
• Progressive, Cyclic failure possible
•

Under Cutting
• Slope is undercut by a flowing stream or by the opening up of a road cutting.
• Incision (down cutting) or lateral scour by streams is a major cause of slope failure.
• The initial failure can work rapidly up slope.
Plan
View
Undercutting

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Addition of Weight
• Weight added usually by the dumping of spoil or landslide debris.

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Types of Slope Failure.

Slope failures depend on the soil type, soil stratification, groundwater, seepage,
and the slope geometry.
We will introduce a few types of slope failure that are common in soils.

1. Translational Slide.
Failure of a slope along a weak zone of soil is called a translational slide (Figure
16.2a). The sliding mass can travel long distances before coming to rest.

Translational slides are common in coarse-grained soils.

2. Rotational Slide.
A common type of failure in homogeneous fine-grained soils is a rotational slide
that has its point of rotation on an imaginary axis parallel to the slope.

Three types of rotational failure often occur.

One type, called a base slide, occurs by an arc engulfing the whole slope.

i. Base Failure.
A soft soil layer resting on a stiff layer of soil is prone to base failure (Figure
16.2b).

ii. Toe Failure.

The second type of rotational failure is the toe slide, whereby the failure surface
passes through the toe of the slope (Figure 16.2c).

iii. Slope Failure.

The third type of rotational failure is the slope slide, whereby the failure surface
passes through the slope (Figure 16.2d).

3. Flow Slide.
A flow slide occurs when internal and external conditions force a soil to behave
like a viscous fluid and flow down even shallow slopes, spreading out in several
directions (Figure 16.2e).

The failure surface is ill-defined in flow slides.

Multiple failure surfaces usually occur and change continuously as flow proceeds.

Flow slides can occur in dry and wet soils.

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4. Block or Wedge Slide.

Block or wedge slides occur when a soil mass is shattered along joints, seams,
fissures, and weak zones by forces emanating from adjacent soils.

The shattered mass moves as blocks and wedges down the slope (Figure 16.2f).

What’s next . . . What causes the slope failures that we briefly described above?
The causes are many and varied.

In the next section, we will describe some common causes of slope failure.

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Causes of Slope Failure.

Slope failures are caused, in general, by natural forces, human misjudgment and
activities, and burrowing animals.

We will describe below some of the main factors that provoke slope failures.

1. Erosion.
Water and wind continuously erode natural and man-made slopes.

Erosion changes the geometry of the slope (Figure 16.3a), ultimately resulting in slope
failure or, more aptly, a landslide.

Rivers and streams continuously scour their banks, undermining their natural or man-
made slopes (Figure 16.3b).

2. Rainfall.
Long periods of rainfall saturate, soften, and erode soils.

Water enters into existing cracks and may weaken underlying soil layers, leading to
slope failure, for example, mud slides (Figure 16.3c).

3. Earthquakes.
Earthquakes induce dynamic forces (Figure 16.3d), especially dynamic shear forces that
reduce the shear strength and stiffness of the soil.

Porewater pressures in saturated coarse-grained soils could rise to a value equal to the
total mean stress, and cause these soils to behave like viscous fluids—a phenomenon
known as dynamic liquefaction. Structures founded on these soils would collapse;
structures buried within them would rise. The quickness (a few seconds) with which the
dynamic forces are induced prevents even coarse-grained soils from draining the
excess porewater pressures.

Thus, slope failure in a seismic event often occurs under undrained condition.

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[Link] and their classification

Geological classification of soils

Soils are the disintegration products of rocks. When weathering affects the rock, it breaks
into pieces and changes into various soil types.
Depending upon its origin, the soil can be
1. Alluvium (deposited by river)
2. Colluvium (deposited by gravity and surface water)
3. Residual (product of in-situ weathering)

Geological Soil Grain Roundness

Alluvial fans/terraces Rounded to well rounded

Colluvial slope debris Angular

Residual soils Very fine soils of sub angular to angular

The grain size of soil identified in the field as:

– Boulder is larger than palm size
– Cobble is approximately the palm size
– Pebble is about the size obtained by joining the thumb and fore finger
– Granule (gravel) is about the size of little finger tip
– Sand is smaller than ¼ inch or sometimes less than 4.75 mm, but it is visible
to unaided eye
– Silt is invisible to the unaided eye, it feels soft with hand, but gritty while eating
– Clay is soft and soapy, no gritty feeling while eating

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Soil can be classified as:

Coarse grained soil
Boulder
Cobble
Pebble
Granule (gravel)
Fine grained soil
Sand
Silt
Clay

The other properties of the soil are as following:

– Shape: ball-shaped (equant), disk-shaped (tabular, cigar-shaped (prolate)
– Roundness (lack of corner and edges): sub-rounded, rounded, well rounded
– Moisture content: dry, moist, wet
– Plasticity (possible to make 3mm long ribbon): high, medium, low
– Grading: well graded, poorly graded
– Porosity: ratio of volume of voids to the total volume
– Permeability: rate of flow of water through the voids

Field tests for estimate of dry strength, plastic limit and plasticity
• Dry strength or breaking test:
– The test permits the cohesiveness of the soil and therefore its clay content.
After removing the particles larger than ~ 1-2mm apart of the soil is molded to
the consistency of a putty after having added some water. The pat is dried
completely by sun, air or if available by oven. Its strength is then tested by
breaking and crumbling between the fingers. The dry strength increases with
increasing plasticity.

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• Dilatancy or shaking test:

– After removing the coarse particles, a slightly moist pat of material is placed in
the open palm of one hand and Shaked horizontally by striking vigorously
against other hand several times. A positive reaction consists of the
appearance of water on the surface of the pat that becomes glossy. When
sample is squeezed between the fingers the water and gloss disappear from
the surface, the pat stiffens and finally it cracks or crumbles.
– A rapid reaction indicates the lack of plasticity, a slow reaction indicates a
slightly plastic and no reaction indicates clay or organic material.
• Ribbon Test
– This test permits to have a view on the plastic limit. A slightly moist pat of
material, from which coarse grained has been removed, is rolled to obtain a
thread. The plastic limit is reached when the thread breaks. The longer is the
thread is without breaking, the higher the plastic limit.
• Shine Test

– A knife blade cuts a slightly moist sample of soil. A shiny surface indicates
highly plastic clay. A dull surface indicates silt or clay of low plasticity.

Relative density estimates by penetration test:

Term Relative density Penetration field test

Very lose to loose 0 – 50% Easily penetrated with ½ in. reinforcing rod push by
hand

Moderately dense 50 – 70% Easily penetrated with ½ in. reinforcing rod driven by 5
lb hammer

Dense 70 – 90% Penetrated a foot with ½ in. reinforcing rod driven by 5

lb hammer

Very dense 90 – 100% Penetrated a few inches with ½ in. reinforcing rod
driven with 5 lb hammer

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Soil and rock properties in term of stability parameters:

Type Description/Material Unit weight Friction Cohesion
Angle (f) (kN/m3)
(Saturated/dry)
(kN/m3)

Sand Loose sand, uniform grain 19/14 28 – 34

size

Dense sand, uniform grain 21/17 32 – 40

size

Loose sand, mixed grain 20/16 34 – 40

size

Dense sand, mixed grain 21/18 38 – 46

size

Gravel Gravel, uniform grain size 22/20 34 – 37

Sand and gravel, mixed gain 19/17 38 – 45

size

Blasted / Basalt 22/17 40 – 50

broken
rocks Chalk 13/10 30 – 40

Granite 20/17 45 – 50

Limestone 19/16 35 – 40

Sandstone 17/13 35 – 45

Shale 20/16 30 – 35

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Type Description/Material Unit weight Friction Cohesion

Angle (f) (kN/m3)
(Saturated/dry)

(kN/m3)

Clay Soft bentonite 13/6 7 – 13 10 – 20

Very soft organic clay 14/6 12 – 16 10 – 30

soft, slight organic clay 16/10 22 – 27 20 – 50

Soft glacial clay 17/12 27 – 32 30 – 70

Stiff glacial clay 20/17 30 – 32 70 – 150

Glacial till, mixed grain size 23/20 32 – 35 150 – 250

Rock Hard igneous rock: granite, basalt, 25 – 30 35 – 45 35000 –

porphyry 55000

Metamorphic rock: quartzite, gneiss, 25 – 28 30 – 40 20000 –

slate 40000

Hard sedimentary: limestone, dolomite, 23 – 28 35 – 45 10000 –

sandstone 30000

Soft sedimentary: sand, stone, coal, 17 - 23 25 – 35 1000 –

chalk, shale 20000

Geological classification of rocks:

Igneous rocks:
• The rocks originated from cooling of molten material called magma or lava. If the rock
solidifies inside the earth, it is called intrusive where as if it solidifies at the surface, it
is called volcanic. Common igneous rocks are granite, gabbro, rhyolite, basalt, etc.
Sedimentary rocks:
• The rocks formed at the surface of the earth by the process of weathering,
transportation, and deposition by wind, water, snow or biological process. They are
classified into the clastic rocks (made up of fragments), precipitates ( rock salt, iron

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ores) and organic ( coal, peat). Common sedimentary rocks are conglomerate,
sandstone, shale, mudstone, etc.
Metamorphic rocks:
• The rocks which have undergone significant changes in their solid state after their
formation by the action of pressures and temperatures in the earth’s crust are called
the metamorphic rocks. Common metamorphic rocks are: slate, phyllite, schist,
quartzite, and gneiss.

Igneous rocks:
– Granite:
• Uniformly distributed grains with granular and interlocked texture. The
rock is made up of quartz, feldspar, and muscovite (light mica), biotite
(dark mica). No cementing material is present.
– Basalt:
• Dark grey to green–gray colour, vescicles (holes) are seen at the surface,
no grains are visible by unaided eye. Hard (more than 5), heavy, massive,
and uniform. No bands or layers are seen.

Sedimentary rocks:
– Mudstone:
• Soft (can be scratched by fingernail), very fine grained, contains clay
minerals. Smells like mud.
– Shale:
• Like mudstone but with lamination. Very fine grained, feels like
chocolate, while eating.
– Siltstone:
• Silt size grains (1/6 to 1/256 mm). Grains are invisible by unaided eye.
Sharp edges, harder than 5. Feels smooth, but while eating feels gritty.

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– Sandstone:
• Sand size grains (2mm to 1/16 mm). Grains are visible by unaided eyes.
The grains are held together by the cementing material. The rock
scratches hammer or knife (hardness than 5)
– Conglomerate:
• Distinct rounded to sub-rounded grains of pebble size (2mm to 256mm)
held together by cementing material.

• Metamorphic rocks:
– Slate:
• Dark grey, thinly foliated (splits into very thin flakes), no grain visible.
Smoot, and uniform. Used for roofing and formerly for writing purposes.
– Phyllite:
• Grey to dark grey-green, soft (can be scratched by fingernail), soapy feel,
slightly irregular surface, thinly foliated rock. It contains shining mica
grains barely visible by unaided eyes.
– Schist:
• The mica grains are visible by unaided eyes. It contains mica and quartz.
The foliation is wavy to undulating. Grains are arranged to foliation.
– Gneiss:
• Hard and banded rock with light to dark grey alternating bands. The light
bands contain quartz and feldspar whereas the dark bands contain
biotite and other dark minerals.
– Quartzite:
• Banded to massive, hard and homogeneous rock. It scratches the glass
(hardness about 7). It shines like sugar (shiny luster) . When struck by
hammer it gives metallic sound.
– Marble:
• Crystalline rock, effervesces highly when HCl is added. It is generally
made up of calcite, or dolomite crystals with three distinct sets of
cleavage.

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[Link] Slide
What is landslide?
"Movement of soil or rock controlled by gravity, superficial or deep, with movement from
slow to rapid, but not very slow, which involves materials which make up a mass that is a
portion of the slope or the slope itself".

Landslide Occurrence in Nepal

Nepal is situated in the center of the 2,400 km long Himalayan Range and extends for about
800 km. Landslides are the most severe types of natural disaster in Nepal, where the
mountains occupy about 83% of the territory. Apart from causing the loss of life and
property, they also seriously degrade the mountain environment and add an enormous
sediment load to the streams and rivers. In recent years, cases of infrastructure damage by
floods and landslides have increased significantly.
In Nepal, landslides, floods, and debris flows cause a substantial loss of life and
property as well as seriously degrade the mountain environment.
In Nepal, landslide study is carried out in a watershed, along road or canal corridors, and at
dam sites as well as in the areas affected by earthquakes and high-intensity precipitation.
The main landslide-triggering factors are the occurrence of soft or highly jointed rocks on
steep slopes, presence of faults and shear zones, incidence of strong earthquakes and
heavy rainfall, and environmental degradation. Though each of these factors is responsible
for trigging landslides, often the various factors interact among themselves and give rise to
a complex situation. An overview of some important landslides of Nepal, their investigation,
and control is presented below.

Types of Land Slides According to Varnes (1978)

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• Falls:
– Falls are abrupt movements of the slope material that becomes detached
from steep slopes or cliffs. Movement occurs by free fall, bouncing, and
rolling. Depending on the type of materials involved, the result is a rock fall,
soil fall, boulder fall, and so on. Typical slope angle of occurrence of falls is
from 45 – 90 degrees and fall types are promoted by undercutting, differential
weathering, excavation, or stream erosion.

• Topples:
– A topple is a block or serial of block that tilts or rotates forward on a pivot or
hinge point and then separates from the main mass, falling to the slope below,
and subsequently bouncing or rolling down the slope.

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• Slides:
– It refers to movement of soil or rock along a distinct surface or rupture, which
separates the slide material from more unstable underlying material. Two
major types of landslides are rotational and translational slides.

Rotational slides
– These slides refer to a failure, which involves sliding movement on a circular
or near circular surface of failure. They generally occur on slopes of
homogeneous clay, deep weathered and fractured rocks and soil. The
movement is more or less rotational about an axis that is parallel to the
contour of the slope. Such slides are characterized by a scrap at the head,
which may be nearly vertical. These slides may be single rotational, multiple or
successive rotational types; accordingly, they may have a single, multiple
surfaces of rupture. A “Slump” is an example of small rotational slide.
Translational Slides
– These are non-rotational block slides involving mass movements on more or
less planar surfaces. The translational slides are controlled by weak surface
such as bedding, joints, foliations, faults and shear zones. The slides material
involved many range from unconsolidated soils to extensive slabs of the rock
and debris. Block slides are translational slides in which the sliding mass
consists of a single unit or a few closely related units of rock block that moves
down slope.

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• Lateral Spreads
– Lateral spreads are a result of the nearly horizontal movement of
unconsolidated materials and are distinctive because they usually occur on
very gentle slopes. The failure is caused by liquefaction, the process whereby
saturated, loose, cohesionless sediments (usually sands and silts) are
transformed from a solid to a liquefied state, plastic flow of material.

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• LANDSLIDE CAUSES

1. Geological causes

a. Weak or sensitive materials

b. Weathered materials
c. Sheared, jointed, or fissured materials
d. Adversely oriented discontinuity (bedding, schistosity, fault, unconformity, contact
and so forth)
e. Contrast in permeability and/or stiffness of materials

2. Morphological causes
– a. Tectonic or volcanic uplift
b. Glacial rebound
c. Fluvial, wave, or glacial erosion of slope toe or lateral margins
d. Subterranean erosion (solution, piping)
e. Deposition loading slope or its crest
f. Vegetation removal (by fire, drought)
g. Thawing
h. Freeze-and-thaw weathering
i. Shrink-and-swell weathering

[Link] causes
a. Excavation of slope or its toe
b. Loading of slope or its crest
c. Drawdown (of reservoirs)
d. Deforestation
e. Irrigation
f. Mining
g. Artificial vibration
h. Water leakage from utilities

• Landslide Zones
– A landslide has distinct parts. Recognizing and assessing these individually helps us
to understand the character of the landslide, in particular, its severity.

– Landslide has four zones:

• Zone of cracking

– Above the slide and sometimes around its sides

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• Zone of failure

– The head scar (crown) and failure surface which may occupy only a
relatively small area at the top of the slide.

• Zone of transport

– A damaged slope, scarred by the passage of debris on its way down

slope, this part of the slope may be stable, and may recover on its own.

• Debris pile

– The detached, mobile material.

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[Link] Classification of Nepal

Gangetic Plain (Terai)

• The Terai Plain lies to the south of the Himalayan Mountain Range. It is made up of sand, silt,
and clay. The northern border of the Terrain Plain consists of boulders and pebbles, and it is
called the Bhabar Zone.

• The Terai Plain is very gentle (slope is less than 2 degrees). The altitude of the Terai Plain is
less than 150 m. River’s meander on the Terai Plain and deposit sediments.

The Sub-Himalayan Zone (Siwalik)

• Delimited on the south by the Main Frontal Thrust (MFT) and on the north by the Main
Boundary Thrust (MBT)

• Fluvial deposits of 23 Ma to 1.6 Ma old

Siwalik can be classified as

• Lower Siwalik (Greenish grey fine-grained sandstone and siltstone with mudstone)

• Middle Siwalik (Medium to coarse-grained salt-and-pepper sandstones with colorful

mudstone)

• Upper Siwalik (Conglomerate and boulder beds and subordinately sand and silt beds)

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Mahabharat Range
• The Mahabharat Range lies immediately north of the Siwalik. It is made up of stronger rocks
such as limestone, quartzite, dolomite, and schist. The Mahabharat Range is very active and
there are many landslides. As the Mahabharat Range is actively rising, the rivers make gorges
and have steep to vertical banks. The altitude of the Mahabharat Range varies from 1000 m to
2000 m.

Midlands
• Midlands are Situated between the Mahabharat Range in the south and the Higher Himalayas
in the North. The topography of the Midlands is strongly dissected by many streams and rivers.
There are old river terraces and thick residual soils. The altitude of the Midlands ranges from
700 m to 1500 m.

Higher Himalaya
• The Higher Himalaya include the snow peaks and the mountains surrounding them. There are
many glaciers, large rockslides, and talus deposits. The Higher Himalaya is made up of such
rocks as schist, quartzite, a gneiss, and granites. They have rugged topography with altitudes
ranging from 1500 m to 8000 m and more.

Trans Himalaya
• The area north of the Higher Himalaya is called the Trans Himalaya. Many soil slides, debris
flows, and talus deposits characterise the area. It is made up of soft sedimentary rocks and its
altitude ranges from 2500 m to 500 m.

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[Link] Investigation
Landslide mapping
• This procedure will help you map an unstable site and observe all its significant features.
The procedure is given in logical order but you do not have to follow this order in every case.
An advantage of observing the site in a methodical way is that there will be less risk of
missing an important feature.

• The basis of the site record is a drawing of the site. A simple sketch will do. It does not have
to be to scale. Its purpose is to help you to understand the geometric relationships between
features of the landslide. It also enables you to record concisely your measurements and
where you took them from. Any notes you make can also go on the drawing, but if they are
lengthy, or if you wish to describe some detail of the slide by additional drawings and notes,
these are best recorded separately in your notebook. It is good practice to make all your
drawings and notes in one notebook.

Steps in a suggested procedure Draw,

measure
or
describe

Step 1 Geomorphic situation Draw

Look at the general locality and situation of the site:

- make a note of the exact location so that you can direct others to the site if
necessary;

- see if it is in a part of the landscape where instability would be expected;

- see if the orientation of the rocks, outcropping on the hillside around the
site, indicate that the cause of the failure may be due to rock structure, either as
planes of weakness or movement of water along fractures;

- look at other sites in the area; they may have a similar geomorphic situation
and a similar life progression.

Step 2 Sketch the site from the road or other good observation point: Draw

- concentrate on getting the general proportions correct;

- estimate the length from top to bottom. Record this on the drawing;

- estimate the width across the base. Record this.

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Step 3 Look for the landslide zones: Draw

- scar;

- transport;

- debris.

Note that you cannot yet see whether there is a zone of cracking above the
scar. You do not have to record these zones on the drawing, but the completed
drawing should be sufficiently well illustrated and labelled to let another person
recognise which zones are present and where they are.

Step 4 Examine the material forming the original hill slope: Describe,

- debris; draw

- soft rock;

- hard rock;

- alternating hard and soft rocks.

All of these could be present on one landslide. The drawing should show where they
are.

Step 5 Sketch a slope profile of the site from top to bottom. Angles do not have to be real, Draw
but should indicate relative steepness.

This can be augmented with more detail (e.g. with slope measurements) as you walk
up the slide.

Note that slopes >35° tend to be unstable unless of solid rock.

Step 6 Sketch the surface water drainage: Draw

- streams;

- any springs that may be visible from where you are standing.

Step 7 Sketch areas of rock outcrop Draw

Step 8 Landmarks: Draw

- note any obvious landmarks on the site, such as prominent trees. This will
help you to keep your bearings as you walk over and around the site.

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Step 9 Walkover survey Measure

Walk up the centre of the slide to the crown (head of scar). Measure the angles of
major slope units.

If the slope is too steep or dangerous walk around the edge, looking into the scar.

Step 10 Rock Measure

dip/strike
Visit each rock outcrop. Measure any relevant rock planes or observe how the
(bedding
planes relate to the slope and failure planes.
and joints)
Make sure that the rocks observed are true outcrops (attached to solid rock beneath)
Describe
and not simply large boulders partly buried on the slope.

Note:

- uniformity or layering (bedding) of the rock units;

- degree of weathering (hardness) of the rocks;

- degree of fracturing, especially any open fractures;

- signs of water movement along fractures.

Step 11 Debris and slope Describe,

draw
Indicate the area of the slide that is occupied by debris:

- location and extent of landslide debris;

- composition of debris;

- wetness of debris;

- depth of debris / depth of failure plane;

- location, orientation and size of any cracks in the debris or on the slope;

- any back-tilted slope, where water may collect. (Their presence indicates a
deep-seated circular failure - a slump);

- tilted trees. These can indicate tilted ground;

- disrupted engineering structures, e.g. masonry surface drains;

- points of ground water seepage.

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Step 12 Margins and top Draw

Look for:

- cracks in the ground. Cracks are most frequent above the head of a slide, but
they often occur also around the sides. The presence of cracks shows that the
ground is under tension and that it will probably fail, and soon. Note the location,
dimensions and orientation of the cracks. This information tells you where, and in
which direction, the ground is under tension. The area of cracking tells you the area
over which failure is about to take place;

- streams, springs, irrigation canals or drainage structures, especially masonry

drainage ditches. These features may be sending water into the slide. They may
either have caused it in the first place, or they may be contributing to further failure.
Irrigation canals and masonry drainage ditches should be inspected closely for any
signs of cracking and leakage;

- irregular topography, not due to rock outcrops. This may indicate the
presence of an old landslide, in which case you will have to survey the whole of this,
too.

Continue up the slope above the landslide until there is no further evidence of
instability. This may mean walking at least fifty metres higher than the landslide
scar, and much further if necessary.

Step 13 Base of the slide Describe

Describe the features and ground conditions at the base.

Step 14 Causes and mechanisms of instability Describe

Step 15 History and life progression of slide Describe

Step 16 Severity of instability

Fill in the ticks on the Check list for assessing severity of slope instability.

Assessment of seriousness
It guides the user through the critical areas of assessment required for determining the treatment
needs of any area of degraded or failing land.

The completed pro-forma is what you should end up with after assessing each site in the field, and
will form the basis of your action.

(a) Erosion and failure processes

A number of erosion and failure processes are to be found. The types of erosion and slope failure
found in Nepal are given below. All sites have a combination of these mechanisms at work on them.
During site assessment, you should check for these.

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Mechanism Description

Degraded land, Vegetation cover badly degraded, but no signs of erosion or other failure.
no damage

Erosion on the Rills and small gullies form in weak, unprotected surfaces. Erosion should also be
surface. expected on bare or freshly prepared slopes.

Gully erosion Gullies which are established in the slope continue to develop and grow bigger. Large
gullies often have small landslides along the sides.

Planar sliding Mass slope failure on a shallow slip plane parallel to the surface. This is the most
(translational common type of landslide, slip or debris fall. The plane of failure is usually visible but
landslide or may not be straight, depending on site conditions. It may occur on any scale.
debris slide).

Shear failure Mass slope failure on a deep, curved slip plane. Many small, deep landslides are the
(rotational result of this process. Large areas of subsidence may also be due to these.
landslide).

Slumping or Slumping or flow where material is poorly drained or has low cohesion between particles
flow of material and liquefaction is reached. These sometimes appear afterwards like planar slides, but
when very wet. are due to flow rather than sliding. The resulting debris normally has a rounded profile.

Debris fall or Collapse due to failure of the supporting material. This normally takes the form of a rock
collapse. fall where a weaker band of material has eroded to undermine a harder band above.
These are very common in mixed Churia strata.

Debris flow In gullies and small, steep river channels (bed gradient usually more than 15), debris
flows can occur following intensive rain storms. This takes the form of a rapid but
viscous flow of liquefied mud and debris.

(b) Other factors

In addition to the erosion and failure mechanisms, there are often other factors which affect the site.
Some are internal (e.g. springs) while others are external (e.g. river undercutting). During site
assessment, you must check for signs off any of the potential damaging factors listed below :

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Potential factor Description

Fault lines Small fault lines may cause differential erosion in parts of the site.

Springs There may be seasonal springs within the site, which cause localised problems of
drainage or slumping.

Slip planes The main plane of failure may not be the only one. Many sites have secondary, smaller
slip planes additional to the main failure mechanism

Large gullies Large gullies nearby may erode backwards and damage the site. Alternatively, they may
discharge on to the site, causing deposition on the site.

Landslides Nearby landslides may extend head wards or sideways, or may supply debris on to the
site.

River flooding A large river below the site may flood badly, damaging the site by either erosion or
deposition, or a combination of both.

River cutting Rivers below the site may move in floods, undercutting the toe of the site.

Catchments If there is an extended catchment area above the site, it could lead to a large discharge
which causes bad damage by erosion or deposition.

Drain discharge The discharge of drainage water must be safeguarded to avoid causing erosion or mass
failures. Poorly sited or inadequately protected discharge points can cause severe
problems.

Paddy field and Rice paddy (khet) land or an irrigation channel above a site usually means a large volume
Irrigation of water infiltrating into the slope, with a greater potential for failure or large scale erosion.
channel

Construction Construction activities on or near the site may lead to undermining through excavations, or
activities surcharging through spoil disposal in the wrong places.

(c) Slope angle(s)

Measure the average slope angle of the slope segment and place it in one of 3 classes:

< 30º,

30 – 45º, or

> 45º.

If there is more than one dominant slope, record all main slope angles.

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(d) Slope length

Measure the average slope length of the slope segment and place it in one of 2 classes:

<15 metres or

> 15 metres.

(e) Material drainage

Assess and place in one of 2 classes: good or poor.

Material drainage Tendency towards GOOD drainage Tendency towards POOR drainage
characteristics

Overall drainage Freely draining material; dries quickly Slowly draining material; tends to
after rain storms remain wet for long periods after rain;
behaves like curd

Soil particle size Coarse textures; loams and sandy soils Fine textures; clays and silts

Porosity Large inter-connecting pores Small pores

Material types Stony colluvial debris; fragmented rock; Residual soils of fine texture; debris
sandy and gravelly river deposits from mud flows, slumps, etc; red soils

Slope types Fill slopes; cut slopes in stony debris Cut slopes in original consolidated
(colluvium) ground

(f) Segment moisture

Assess and place in one of 4 classes:

Wet: permanently damp sites (e.g. north-facing gully sites).

Moist: sites those are reasonably well shaded or moist for some other reason.

Dry: generally dry sites.

Very dry: sites that are very dry; these are usually quite hot as well (e.g. south-facing cut slopes
at low altitudes).

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(g) Altitude

Determine: ± 100 metres. Use an altimeter, map or site drawing.

(h) Land management practices

State any practices damaging the site or required to aid rehabilitation. This requires what is
essentially a subjective evaluation the quality of land management practices. You should look out
for aspects such as: excessive grazing; excessive cutting of trees, shrubs or grasses; cultivation in
marginal areas; leakage of water from irrigation channels; or anything else which may cause a
deterioration of site quality. You should also make an initial note on how the problem might be
resolved.

Fig: k tch f La d id aft appi g

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Fig: Landslide map after mapping

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7. Bio-Engineering Technique
Vegetative systems and grass plantation:
• Seeding
• Seedling
• Cutting
Seeding:
• Grass seeding
Grass is sown direct on to the site. It allows easy vegetation coverage of large areas.
This technique is often used in conjunction with mulching and jute netting to aid
establishment.
• Function. The main engineering functions are armour and later also to reinforce.
• Sites. Almost any bare site with slopes up to 45º. Grass seeding is mostly used on
well-drained materials, where increased infiltration does not give rise to problems.

Seedling:
 Tree and shrub planting
 Slope up to 30 degrees.
 Spacing 1m * 1m
 Engineering function
Support, anchor and reinforce

Cutting:
A cutting is a vegetative plant part which is severed from the parent plant in order to
regenerate itself, thereby forming a whole new plant. Take cuttings with a sharp blade to
reduce injury to the parent plant.

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Grass planting
 Contour/horizontal lines are mostly used on dry sites, where moisture needs to be
conserved. They are most widely used on well-drained materials where increased
infiltration is unlikely to cause problems. On cultivated slopes less than 35º,
horizontal lines planted at intervals across the field can be used to avoid loss of soil
and to help conserve moisture, as a standard soil conservation measure. Planted
grass lines are essential if cultivation has to be carried out on slopes greater than
35º.

. Horizontal line of grass planting

 Spacing:
 Line to line 50 cm
 Plant to plant 10 cm
 main function: catch, armoring and reduce surface run off

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2. Downslope/vertical lines are mostly used on damp sites, where moisture

needs to be shed off. It is also most widely used on poorly drained materials
where an increase in infiltration can lead to liquefaction of the soil.

Vertical line of grass planting

 Spacing:
 Line to line a=50 cm
 Plant to plant b=10 cm
 function: surface drainage, reduce infiltration and armour
 On slopes up to 65-degree, clay type soil.
 Limitation: likely to develop rills.

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3. Diagonal lines are mostly used on poorly drained materials where an

increase in infiltration can lead to liquefaction of the soil. It is also
useful on damp sites, where moisture needs to be shed. It should be
used whenever there is doubt as to which grass line planting system
should be used, as a result of uncertainties over site environmental
characteristics or material properties.
Diagonal line of grass planting
Spacing:
Line to line 50 cm
Plant to plant 10 cm
function: surface drainage, reduce infiltration and armour, catch
On slopes up to 65-degree, damp sites.

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4. Chevron and herringbone pattern of grass planting

 Widely used in new gully and ridge
 Spacing:
 Line to line 50 cm
 Plant to plant 10 cm
 Function: drain and armour.

[Link] grass planting is normally used only on sites where jute

netting (standard mesh) has already been applied. This implies slopes
steeper than 45º and less than 15 metres in length, where moisture is not
a serious problem.
Random grass planting
 Spacing: 10 cm * 10 cm
 On slopes between 45 to 60 degree and 15 m slope length.
 Function: armour and reinforce.

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Bamboo Plantation
Large bamboos can reduce movement of material and stabilise slopes.
Methods:
(1) the traditional planting method
(2) to plant rooted culm cuttings from a nursery.
 Function. Large clumps of bamboos are one of the most substantial
vegetation structures available to catch, reinforce and support a slope.
However, they do not have deeply penetrating roots and so do not have
an anchoring function; also, they can surcharge upper slope areas.
 Rooted clum cutting, rhizomes, wild or nursery plants of bamboos or
amriso can be planted directly on slopes.
 These plants perform the slope stabilization effectively once they are
established.
 Sites. Base of slopes and gullies, where the slope segment has an angle
of less than 30º.
 Any fill site can be planted. Bamboos do not success on very dry or
excessively stony sites.
 Spacing. 2-5m.

Practical features of grass plantation:

Prepare the site well in advance of planting. Remove all debris and either remove or fill in
surface irregularities so that there is nowhere for erosion to start. If the site is on backfill
material, it should be thoroughly compacted, preferably when wet.
 Always start grass planting at the top of the slope and work downwards.
 Mark out the lines with string, using a tape measure and spirit level. Make sure the
lines run exactly as required by the specification.

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 Split the grass plants out to give the maximum planting material. Trim off long roots
and cut the shoots off at about 100 mm above ground level. Wrap the plants in damp
hessian to keep them moist until they are planted. Remember that you will need two
slip cuttings per drill (planting hole) if the grass is a fibrous rooting type (e.g. babiyo,
kans, khar, phurke, etc.) but only one if it is rhizomatous (e.g. amliso, padang bans,
etc.), and only one rooted stem cutting or seedling.
 With a planting bar, make a hole just big enough for the roots. Place the grass into
the hole, taking care not to tangle the roots or have them curved back to the surface.
Fill the soil in around them, firming it gently with your fingers. Take care to avoid
leaving an air pocket by the roots.
 If compost or manure is available, scatter a few handfuls around the grasses. This is
especially important on very stony sites, where compost or manure can help to
improve early growth. You may have to incorporate it into the surface material to
prevent it being washed off.
 If it looks rather dry and there is no prospect of rain for a day or two, consider
watering the plants by hand.
BRUSH LAYERING
 method of planting branches of sprouting living woody plants making small individual
terraces in the slope along the terraces
 Length of cutting: 45 to 60 cm long
 Cutting should be two third inside and one third outside of its length with 6 to 18
months old
 As far as possible, cutting are to be taken same day that they to be planted.
 Should keep moist until planting with diameter of 2 to 4 cm
 If soil is not good, forest top soil at the rate of 1 cu.m per 20 meter of layering.
 Spacing: 2-meter interval in less 30 degree or 1 meter interval between 30 to 45
degrees
 Should be started 50 cm from the base of slope.
 Staggered second layer of cuttings with the first layer.
 Fill by 2 cm thick layer of top soil in between the cuttings.

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Fig: Brush Layering

Palisade/Live staking
❖ Woody cuttings are planted in lines across the slope or along the counters. It forms a
strong barrier and trap soil and derbies moving down the slopes
❖ Make hole bigger than the cuttings with the help of pointed bar starting from top
slope.
❖ Place 2/3 length of cutting inside hole.
Spacing:
 Less than 30 degree 2 m interval and for 30 to 60 degree 1 m interval between
palisade line along contour line.
 and in palisade cutting 5 cm interval along contour
Construction steps:
 Trim and clean site and remove irregular and loose debris.
 With string mark points to be planted.
 Place 2/3 length of cutting inside.
Palisade/Live staking:
Function:
 Catch, Reinforce and amour.

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Site:
 Steep landslide debris slopes up to about 60 degree.
Material:
 Cutting should be from woody material that is 6 to 18 months old, 2 to 4 cm in
diameter and 30 to 50 cm long.

Palisade
Live Check Dam:
Function
These forms a strong barrier and trap material moving downwards.(Catch, Armour and
reinforce)
Site
Used in Gully up to 45 degrees.
Material
6 to 30 months old. And length of cutting (horizontal members) should be based on gully
size and 2 to 5 cm in diameter. And for vertical member 2m long and 3 to 8 cm in diameter.

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FASCINES
❖ Involves bundling of branches of sprouting types of live plants and laying them in
shallow trenches below soil surface.
❖ After laying them in trench, they should well cover by soil.
❖ After trenching them well inside trench and cover by soil roots and shoots sprouts
after the monsoon
❖ Site up to 45 degree and on consolidated debris or soft cut slopes.
Spacing:
 Less than 30-degree 4 m interval and for 30-to-45-degree 2 m interval along contour
line or herringbone pattern as per site condition.
Construction steps:
 Trim and clean site and remove irregular and loose debris.
 Start construction from bottom.
 Dig 5 m long and 10 cm depth and 20cm wide trench at a time, make the bundle of
the cuttings having 4 (min) to 8 cuttings (2 to 4 cm dia) and place into the trench and
back fill as soon as possible.

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Fig: Fascines

Jute/Coir Netting:
Mesh size: 4 x 4 cm, 1.2 m wide and 11.5 m in length.
Function:
 Catch
 Make wet/damp the ground for seeds
 Provide manure by decaying
Site:
 45 to 60 degree on cut slope at dry area (for wet/water logged area coir net is
used)
Construction steps:
 Trim and clean site and remove irregular and loose debris.
 Start laying from top. Fix with help of pegs.
 After laying, Grass planting or seeding as per site condition.

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Design Aspects of Vegetative Engineering Structures

System Functions Method of operation Applications and Time to Limitations
site requirements maturity

Horizontal Catches, Dense line retards Dry, slope <45°, 2 seasons Thin line easily
line grass reinforces, surface water flow erodible, cut slope broken
planting supports

Diagonal Catches, Dense line guides Wet, permeable, 2 seasons Rills break
line grass reinforces, water along the line fine, cut slopes through
planting some support

Grass Catches, Dense grass, mat, Consolidated debris 3 seasons Can cause
reinforces, rooting system slopes <45° liquefaction,
seeding
supports young plants get
washed away or
dried

Palisade Catches, Dense line above Slope <30°, dry, 2 seasons Causes small
reinforces, and below the erodible and slumps, requires
supports ground retards consolidated debris many cuttings,
surface and shallow high mortality
water flow

System Functions Method of operation Applications and Time to Limitations

site requirements maturity

Horizontal Catches, Dense line retards Dry, slope <45°, 2 seasons Thin line easily
line grass reinforces, surface water flow erodible, cut slope broken
planting supports

Diagonal Catches, Dense line guides Wet, permeable, 2 seasons Rills break
line grass reinforces, water along the line fine, cut slopes through
planting some support

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Grass Catches, Dense grass, mat, Consolidated debris 3 seasons Can cause
reinforces, rooting system slopes <45° liquefaction,
seeding
supports young plants get
washed away or
dried

Palisade Catches, Dense line above Slope <30°, dry, 2 seasons Causes small
reinforces, and below the erodible and slumps, requires
supports ground retards consolidated debris many cuttings,
surface and shallow high mortality
water flow

Plant species for bioengineering

Local Name Botanical Name

 Babiyo Eulaliopsis binata

 Amliso Thysanolaena maxima

 Napier Pennisetum purpureum

 Tite nigalo Drepanostachum intermedium

 Kus Vetiver zizanioides

 Stylo Stylosanthes quianensis

 Kans Spontaneum Saccharum

 Kagati ghas Lymbopogon citratus

 Clover Trifolium sp.

 Molasses Melinis minutiflora

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 Kikiyu Pennisetum clandestinum

 Dinanat Pennisetum pedicilatum

 Dhubo Cynodon dactylon

• Kettuke Agava americana

• Taraphula Helianthus tuberosus

• Rahar Cajanus cajan

• Amala Phyllanthus enbilica

• Ainselu Rubus ellipticus

• Titepate Artemesia vulgaris

• Ban chutro Berberis aristata

• Simali Vitex negundo

• Ghangaru Pyracantha crenulata

• Khirro Sepium insegne

• Bayer Zizyphus mauritiana

• Cofee Cofea arabica

• Sajiwan Jatropha curcus

• Nilkanda Duranta repens

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• Bhimsenpati Buddleja asiatica

• Siudi Euphorbia royleana

• Chiuri Aesandra butyracea

• Kutmero Litsea monipetala

• Chilaune Schima wallichii

• Badahar Artocarpus lakoocha

• Dhale katus Castanopsis indica

• Ipil Ipil Leucaena species

• Bakeno Melia azedarach

• Gliricidia Gliricidia sepium

• Dabdabe Garuga pinnata

• Kavro Ficus lacor

• Champ Michelia champaca

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8. Basic Aspect of Vegetation

What is Plant Ecology?

PLANT ECOLOGY is the study of physical environment that is suitable for the growth
of vegetation within the defined locality.
ECOLOGICAL ZONES IN THE HIMALAYAS
• The Terai
• Bhabar
• Sub-Himalaya (Churia and Inner Terai)
• Lesser Himalaya (Mahabharat range and Mid-lands)
• Higher Himalaya
• Trans Himalaya/Tethys Himalaya
FACTORS GOVERNING DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETATION:
• Altitude
• Aspects
• Rainfall and distribution
• Geology and Soils
• Slope angle
VEGETATION ZONES
• Tropical
• Sub-tropical
• Lower temperate
• Upper temperate
• Sub-alpine
• Alpine zones

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WATER AND NUTRIENTS AVAILABLE FOR PLANTS

• Water in the soil
• Availability of water to plants
• Effects of stoniness in reducing available water in the soils
• Requirement of nutrients to plants
• Low status of nutrients in the mountain soils
• Use of leguminous plants to improve soil fertility

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9. Small Scale Civil Engineering Structures

• Civil • Func- • Vegetative • Func- • Compatibility

system tion systems tion

• Jute • Catch • Horizontal • Catch • YES

net line of
grass
planting

• Check • Catch • Horizontal • Catch • No

dam line of
grass
planting

• Wattle • Catch • Shrubs • Catch • Yes

fence below
wattle
fence

Things to be considered in choosing the combination of Plants and Civil Structures

• Life span of civil engineering structure/system
• Time period needed for vegetative system to develop the required strength
• Function to be performed

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Small Scale Civil Engineering Structures

– Retaining walls
– Toe walls
– Breast walls
– Revetment walls
– Prop walls
– Dentition walls
– Check dams
– Surface and sub-surface drains
– Stone pitching
– Riprap
– Spurs
– Wire bolster cylinders
– Additional temporary civil engineering systems
– Wattle fences
– Jute netting (standard mesh)
– Jute netting (wide mesh

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 C
Bio-Engineering Elective II, OCEM
pa i f tai iBy gSantosh
wa Poudel
typ(Dabrosanto)

Wall type Width: Height ratio Advantages/Limitations

Dry masonry 1:1 to 0.6:1 Well drained; flexible; relatively low cost; low
strength threshold.

Composite masonry 0.75:1 to 0.5:1 Better drained than mortared masonry, but with
reduced strength

Mortared masonry 0.75:1 to 0.5:1 Relatively easy to construct on steep terrain; cannot
tolerate settlement; poor drainage

Gabion Width =½ h+0.5 Flexible without rupturing; tolerates poor

foundations; well drained; relatively low cost for
strength

Reinforced earth Depends on design Reinforcing expensive or difficult to obtain; difficult

to achieve tension

Reinforced concrete Depends on design Relatively costly; requires advanced technical skills
to build; poor drainage

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Type Retaining walls

Timber Dry Banded Cement Gabion Reinforced

crib stone dry stone masonry Earth
masonry
Low High

Top width, m 2 0.6-1 0.6-1 0.5-1 1 1-2 4or 0.7-0.8

Base width, m - 0.5- 0.6-0.65H 0.5-0.65H 0.6-0.75H 0.55-0.65H 4or 0.7-0.8

0.7H

Front batter 4:1 Vertical Varies 10:1 6:1 6:1 3:1

Back batter 4:1 Varies Vertical Varies Varies Varies 3:1

Inward dip of 1:4 1:3 1:3 Horizon- 1:6 1:6 Horizontal

foundation tal or 1:6

Foundation depth 0.5-1m 0.5m 0.5-1m 0.5-1m 0.5m 1m 0.5m

below drain

Range of height 3-9m 1-6m 6-8m 1-10m 1-6m 6-10m 3-25m

Hill slope angle, o <30 <35 20 35-60 35-60 35-60 <35

Toe protection in case Boulder pitching No

of soft rock/soil

Table: Selection of Retaining Walls

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Type Breast/ Revetment walls

Dry stone Banded dry Cement Gabion Horizontal

stone masonry drum walls
masonry

Top width, m 0.5 0.5 0.5 2 1

Base width, m 0.29H 0.3H 0.33H -0.23H 2 1

Front batter Varies 10:1 6:1 3:1

Back batter 3:1 4:1 5:1 3:1 3:1 3:1- 5:1 3:1

Inward dip of 1:3 1:4 1:5 1:3 1:3 1:5 1:3

foundation

Foundation 0.5m 0.5m 0.5m 0.5m 0.5m 0.5-1m 0.5m

depth below
drain

Range of height 6 4 3 3-8m 1-10m 1-8m 2.2m

Hill slope angle, 35-60 35-60 35-70 35-60 35

o

Toe protection No pitching No

in case of soft
rock/soil

Fig: Selection of Breast Wall

FACTOR OF SAFETY
➢ The factor of safety against sliding shall be a minimum of 1.5.
➢ For granular backfill it shall be a minimum of 1.5. For cohesive backfill it shall be a minimum
of 2.
➢ For granular backfill it shall be a minimum of 2. For cohesive backfill it shall be a minimum of
3.
➢ The resultant of all the forces should fall within the middle third of the base.

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CHECK AGAINST SLIDING

• Factor of safety against sliding,

Fs = Ft / Ph  1.5
CHECK AGAINST OVERTURNING
• Fo =Resisting moments/ Overturning moments
CHECK AGAINST BEARING CAPACITY FAILURE

• qmax = R/B*  1 + 6 e/B 

• and qmin = R/B*  1 - 6 e/B 

Preliminary design of cut slopes for heights of cut less than 10m

S. Type of soil/rock protection Stable cut slope without any Stable cut slope with
N. work( vertical to horizontal) breast wall or minor protection
work (vertical to horizontal)

1 Soil or soil mixed with boulders 1:1 n:1

• Disturbed vegetation Vertical for rock portion and Vertical for rock portion and
• -do-overlaid on firm rock !:1 for soil portion n:1 for soil portion

2 Same as above but with dense 1:0.5 5:1

vegetation forests, medium rock,
and shales

3 Hard rock, shale, or harder rocks 1:0.25-1:0.10 and vertical or Not needed
with inward dip overhanging

4 Same as above but with outward At dip angle or 1:0.5 or dip of 5:1
dip or badly fractured rock/shale intersection of joint planes

5 Conglomerates/ very soft shale/ Vertical cut to reduce erosion 5:1

sand rock which erode easily

n=5,4 and 3 for H<3m, H=3-4m and 4-6m respectively

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A)
 Bank erosion at one location
 Width/depth ratio less than 50 Hold River in Existing
 Irregular channel pattern Channel
 Good flow alignment

B)
 Bank erosion at many to locations
 Bed appears to be rising
 Many flow channels (split, braided) Relocate main flow
 Width/depth ratio less than 100 channel
 Poor alignment upstream

C)
 Bed distinctly being lowered, down
cutting
 Banks slumping over long length

Hold Vertical position of river bed

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Function Application Position Life span Site Limitations

requirements

Catch Cheap easy to Mid slope 1 season Stakes can be Weak

install driven
Wattle fence Undermining
Very small amount of
material

Jute net Cheap Top & mid 1-2 Smooth plane Shrinks
slope seasons slope
Unbituminised Sandy soil Not on fine plastic soils
Homogeneous
> 300 slope Not on cobble size soil
materials
Cannot be used in riling
soil

Bituminised Sandy soil Top & mid 5 years + Smooth plane Weak, light in weight and
slope slope requires many pegs
Jute netting > 300 slope
Homogeneous Small amount & size of
materials material

Wire netting Hard rock Up & mid 20 years + Stakes can be Not on fine plastic soils
slope slope driven
Not on cobble size soil

Wire fence > 300 slope Mid slope 10 – 20 Good Cannot be used in riling
years foundation soil Expensive Difficult to
install
Not on soft rock

Check dam Small gullies Gullies 25 years + Need to be Expensive

well keyed
Mid & Small amounts retained
down slope

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Armour Permeable Top & mid 1–3 Temporary measure

slope slope seasons
Slope cover Wind damage
Any slope
Installation difficult for
large area
Damaged by debris & swift
water

Stone pitching Erodible soil River banks 25 years +

slope
Gully base
& floor

Rendering Non- Usually at 25 years + Smooth face No resistance to any stress

weatherable toe
fractured rock
Coarse
consolidated
material
Up to 900
slope

Revetment wall Debris slope 25 years + Foundation

needed
> 500 slope
Space needed
for
shape

Dentition Alternate rock Usually 25 years +

slope mid slope
300 - >450
slope
Homogeneous
slope

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[Link] Technique
General assessment
• Is the site very long, steep and in danger of a massive failure below the surface?
• Is the foot of the slope undermined, threatening the whole slope above?
• Is there a distinct overhang or are there large boulders supported by a soft, eroding band?
• Is the slope made up mostly of hard rock, so that planting nursery stock would be impossible?
• Is the slope rough, covered in loose debris or does it have any locally very steep or overhanging
sections, however small?
Initial treatment
• Use retaining walls to break the slope into smaller, more stable lengths.
• Consider building toe walls.
• Consider building prop walls.
• Consider direct seeding as an option.
• It must be trimmed.
Detail information about site
• Erosion process active on the site
– Surface erosion as rill and gullying
– Planner sliding
– Shear failure
– Slumping of material when very wet
– Falling of debris due to failure of supporting material
• Other factors affecting the site
– Internal factors: small fault lines, seasonal springs, small slip planes
– External factors: gully, landslide, river toe under cut
Knowledge/Assessment of engineering function required
• Catch
• Armour
• Reinforce
• Support
• Anchor
• Drain
Guidelines:
• Slope angle
• Slope length
• Aspect
• Material drainage

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Slope angle Slope length Aspect Material drainage Optimal technique

>45 >15m N, NE (NW, E) Good Diagonal grass lines

S, SW (SE, W) Poor Contour grass lines

N, NE (NW, E) Good 1. Down slope grass lines and strengthened rills or

2. Chevron grass lines and strengthened rills

S, SW (SE, W) Poor Diagonal grass lines

<15m Any Good Jute netting and planted grass

N, NE (NW, E) Poor 1. Down slope grass lines or

2. Diagonal grass lines

S, SW (SE, W) Poor 1. Jute netting and planted grass or

2. Contour grass lines

3. Diagonal grass lines

30-45 >15m Any Good 1. Horizontal bolster cylinders and tree planting or

2. Down slope grass lines and strengthened rills or

3. Grass seeding, mulch and wide mesh jute netting

Poor Herringbone bolster cylinders and tree planting

<15m Any Good 1. Bush layering with woody cutting or

2. Contour grass lines or

3. Grass seeding, mulch and wide mesh jute netting

Poor 1. Diagonal grass lines or

2. Herringbone fascines and tree planting or

3. Herringbone bolster cylinders and tree planting

<30 Any Any Good 1. Contour strips of grass and trees or

2. Tree planting

Poor 1. Diagonal lines of grass and trees or

2. Tree planting

Any Any Any Rocky material Direct seeding of shrubs or small trees

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12. Role of Vegetation

Mechanical effects of plants

➢ Stems and trunks trap materials that are moving down the slope.
➢ Roots bind soil particles and reduce their susceptibility to erosion.
➢ Roots penetrating through the soil cause it to resist deformation.
➢ Woody roots may open rock joints due to thickening as they grow (but only certain
species).
➢ The root cylinder of trees holds up the slope above through buttressing and arching.
➢ Tap root or vertical roots penetrate into the firmer stratum below and pin down the
overlying materials.
➢ Plants exposed to wind transmit dynamic forces into the slope.

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Hydrological effects of plants

➢ Leaves intercept raindrops before they hit the ground.
➢ Water evaporates from the leaf surface.
➢ Water is stored in the canopy and stems.
➢ Large or localised water droplets fall from the leaves.
➢ Surface run-off is checked by stems and grass leaves.
➢ Stems and roots increase the roughness of the ground surface and the permeability of the soil.
➢ Roots extract moisture from the soil which is then released to the atmosphere through transpiration.

Soil Strength

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Increase of Shear Strength

Root strength:

Tr = nD m

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• T- tt i t gth
– D- t dia t
– a d – pi ica c ta t f a giv t p ci
– = 29.1-87, =(-0.76)-(-0.45)
• t gth with ti f wi g c tti g
- t
• Tt=T
– T -T i t gth f tw d a p df iv t
– T t -T i t gth f t a p df t p c tt th f
a pi g
– - p a i ity f d cay
– t- ag f t p (ti tw f i g a d a p i g)
– - – xp i f th t gth d cay at
-
• t0.5 = g 0.5/ g
– t0.5-th t t gth ‘ha f- if ’ aft f i g

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