A • Units 699

APPENDIX A

Units
Quantity Common Symbol Unit Unit in Terms of Base SI Units

Acceleration m/s2 m/s2

Amount of substance n mole mol

Angle radian (rad)

Angular acceleration rad/s2 s−2

Angular frequency rad/s s−1

Angular momentum

Angular velocity rad/s s−1

Area A m2 m2

Atomic number Z

Capacitance C farad (F)

Charge q, Q, e coulomb (C)

Charge density:

Line C/m

Surface C/m2

Volume C/m3

Conductivity

Current I ampere A

Current density A/m2 A/m2

Density kg/m3 kg/m3

Dielectric constant

Electric dipole moment

TABLE A1 Units Used in Physics (Fundamental units in bold)
700 A • Units

Quantity Common Symbol Unit Unit in Terms of Base SI Units

Electric field N/C

Electric flux

Electromotive force volt (V)

Energy E,U,K joule (J)

Entropy S J/K

Force newton (N)

Frequency f hertz (Hz) s−1

Heat Q joule (J)

Inductance L henry (H)

Length: meter m

Displacement

Distance d, h

Position

Magnetic dipole moment

Magnetic field tesla (T)

Magnetic flux weber (Wb)

Mass m, M kilogram kg

Molar specific heat C

Moment of inertia I

Momentum

Period T s s

Permeability of free space

Permittivity of free space

Potential V volt (V)

TABLE A1 Units Used in Physics (Fundamental units in bold)

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 A • Units 701

Quantity Common Symbol Unit Unit in Terms of Base SI Units

Power P watt (W)

Pressure p pascal (P)

Resistance R ohm (Ω)

Specific heat c

Speed m/s m/s

Temperature T kelvin K

Time t second s

Torque

Velocity m/s m/s

Volume V m3 m3

Wavelength m m

Work W joule (J)

TABLE A1 Units Used in Physics (Fundamental units in bold)

702 A • Units

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 B • Conversion Factors 703

APPENDIX B

Conversion Factors
m cm km

1 meter 1 102 10−3

1 centimeter 10−2 1 10−5

1 kilometer 103 105 1

1 inch 2.540

1 foot 0.3048 30.48

1 mile 1609 1.609

1 angstrom 10−10

1 fermi 10−15

1 light-year

in. ft mi

1 meter 39.37 3.281

1 centimeter 0.3937

1 kilometer 0.6214

1 inch 1

1 foot 12 1

1 mile 5280 1

TABLE B1 Length

Area

Volume
704 B • Conversion Factors

s min h day yr

1 second 1

1 minute 60 1

1 hour 3600 60 1

1 day 1440 24 1

1 year 365.25 1

TABLE B2 Time

m/s cm/s ft/s mi/h

1 meter/second 1 102 3.281 2.237

1 centimeter/second 10−2 1

1 foot/second 0.3048 30.48 1 0.6818

1 mile/hour 0.4470 44.70 1.467 1

TABLE B3 Speed

Acceleration

kg g slug u

1 kilogram 1 103

1 gram 10−3 1

1 slug 14.59 1

1 atomic mass unit 1

1 metric ton 1000

TABLE B4 Mass

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 B • Conversion Factors 705

N dyne lb

newton 1 105 0.2248

dyne 10−5 1

pound 4.448 1

TABLE B5 Force

Pa dyne/cm2 atm cmHg lb/in.2

1 pascal 1 10

1 dyne/centimeter2 10−1 1

1 atmosphere 1 76 14.70

1 centimeter mercury* 1 0.1934

1 pound/inch2 5.171 1

1 bar 105

1 torr 1 (mmHg)

*Where the acceleration due to gravity is and the temperature is

TABLE B6 Pressure

J erg [Link]

1 joule 1 107 0.7376

1 erg 10−7 1

1 foot-pound 1.356 1

1 electron-volt

1 calorie 4.186 3.088

1 British thermal unit

1 kilowatt-hour

eV cal Btu

1 joule 0.2389

1 erg
TABLE B7 Work, Energy, Heat
706 B • Conversion Factors

J erg [Link]

1 foot-pound 0.3239

1 electron-volt 1

1 calorie 1

1 British thermal unit 1

TABLE B7 Work, Energy, Heat

Power

Angle

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 C • Fundamental Constants 707

APPENDIX C

Fundamental Constants
Quantity Symbol Value

Atomic mass unit u

Avogadro’s number

Bohr magneton ℏ

Bohr radius ℏ

Boltzmann’s constant

Compton wavelength

Coulomb constant

Deuteron mass

Electron mass

Electron volt eV

Elementary charge e

Gas constant R

Gravitational constant G

Neutron mass

TABLE C1 Fundamental Constants Note: These constants are the values recommended in 2006 by CODATA,
based on a least-squares adjustment of data from different measurements. The numbers in parentheses for the
values represent the uncertainties of the last two digits.
708 C • Fundamental Constants

Quantity Symbol Value

Nuclear magneton ℏ

Permeability of free space

Permittivity of free space

Planck’s constant h
ℏ

Proton mass

Rydberg constant

Speed of light in vacuum c

TABLE C1 Fundamental Constants Note: These constants are the values recommended in 2006 by CODATA,
based on a least-squares adjustment of data from different measurements. The numbers in parentheses for the
values represent the uncertainties of the last two digits.

Useful combinations of constants for calculations:

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 D • Astronomical Data 709

APPENDIX D

Astronomical Data
Celestial Mean Distance from Period of Revolution (d = Period of Rotation Eccentricity
Object Sun (million km) days) (y = years) at Equator of Orbit

Sun − − 27 d −

Mercury 57.9 88 d 59 d 0.206

Venus 108.2 224.7 d 243 d 0.007

Earth 149.6 365.25 d 23 h 56 min 4 s 0.017

Mars 227.9 687 d 24 h 37 min 23 s 0.093

Jupiter 778.4 11.9 y 9 h 50 min 30 s 0.048

Saturn 1426.7 29.5 y 10 h 14 min 0.054

Uranus 2871.0 84.0 y 17 h 14 min 0.047

Neptune 4498.3 164.8 y 16 h 0.009

Earth’s 149.6 (0.386 from Earth) 27.3 d 27.3 d 0.055

Moon

Celestial Equatorial Diameter Mass (Earth = 1) Density (g/cm3)

Object (km)

Sun 1,392,000 333,000.00 1.4

Mercury 4879 0.06 5.4

Venus 12,104 0.82 5.2

Earth 12,756 1.00 5.5

Mars 6794 0.11 3.9

Jupiter 142,984 317.83 1.3

Saturn 120,536 95.16 0.7

Uranus 51,118 14.54 1.3

TABLE D1 Astronomical Data

Other Data:
710 D • Astronomical Data

Mass of Earth:

Mass of the Moon:

Mass of the Sun:

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 E • Mathematical Formulas 711

APPENDIX E

Mathematical Formulas
Quadratic formula

If then

Triangle of base and height Area

Circle of radius Circumference Area

Sphere of radius Surface area Volume

Cylinder of radius and height Area of curved surface Volume

TABLE E1 Geometry

Trigonometry

Trigonometric Identities

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.

Triangles

1. Law of sines:
2. Law of cosines:
712 E • Mathematical Formulas

3. Pythagorean theorem:

Series expansions

1. Binomial theorem:

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.
8.

Derivatives

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

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 E • Mathematical Formulas 713

13.
14.

15.

16.

Integrals

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.
714 E • Mathematical Formulas

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 F • Chemistry 715

APPENDIX F

Chemistry
716 F • Chemistry

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 G • The Greek Alphabet 717

APPENDIX G

The Greek Alphabet

Name Capital Lowercase Name Capital Lowercase

Alpha A Nu N

Beta B Xi

Gamma Omicron O

Delta Pi

Epsilon E Rho P

Zeta Z Sigma

Eta H Tau T

Theta Upsilon

lota I Phi

Kappa K Chi X

Lambda Psi

Mu M Omega
TABLE G1 The Greek Alphabet
718 G • The Greek Alphabet

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 Answer Key 719

ANSWER KEY

Chapter 1
Check Your Understanding
1.1 The actual amount (mass) of gasoline left in the tank when the gauge hits “empty” is less in the summer than
in the winter. The gasoline has the same volume as it does in the winter when the “add fuel” light goes on, but
because the gasoline has expanded, there is less mass.
1.2 Not necessarily, as the thermal stress is also proportional to Young’s modulus.
1.3 To a good approximation, the heat transfer depends only on the temperature difference. Since the
temperature differences are the same in both cases, the same 25 kJ is necessary in the second case. (As we
will see in the next section, the answer would have been different if the object had been made of some
substance that changes phase anywhere between and .)
1.4 The ice and liquid water are in thermal equilibrium, so that the temperature stays at the freezing temperature
as long as ice remains in the liquid. (Once all of the ice melts, the water temperature will start to rise.)
1.5 Snow is formed from ice crystals and thus is the solid phase of water. Because enormous heat is necessary for
phase changes, it takes a certain amount of time for this heat to be transferred from the air, even if the air is
above .
1.6 Conduction: Heat transfers into your hands as you hold a hot cup of coffee. Convection: Heat transfers as the
barista “steams” cold milk to make hot cocoa. Radiation: Heat transfers from the Sun to a jar of water with tea
leaves in it to make “Sun tea.” A great many other answers are possible.
1.7 Because area is the product of two spatial dimensions, it increases by a factor of four when each dimension is
doubled . The distance, however, simply doubles. Because the
temperature difference and the coefficient of thermal conductivity are independent of the spatial dimensions,
the rate of heat transfer by conduction increases by a factor of four divided by two, or two:
.
1.8 Using a fan increases the flow of air: Warm air near your body is replaced by cooler air from elsewhere.
Convection increases the rate of heat transfer so that moving air “feels” cooler than still air.
1.9 The radiated heat is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature. Because and
, the rate of heat transfer increases by about 30% of the original rate.

Conceptual Questions
1. They are at the same temperature, and if they are placed in contact, no net heat flows between them.
3. The reading will change.
5. The cold water cools part of the inner surface, making it contract, while the rest remains expanded. The strain
is too great for the strength of the material. Pyrex contracts less, so it experiences less strain.
7. In principle, the lid expands more than the jar because metals have higher coefficients of expansion than
glass. That should make unscrewing the lid easier. (In practice, getting the lid and jar wet may make gripping
them more difficult.)
9. After being heated, the length is ( )( ). After being cooled, the length is
. That answer is not 1 m, but it should be. The explanation is that even if is
exactly constant, the relation is strictly true only in the limit of small . Since values are
small, the discrepancy is unimportant in practice.
11. Temperature differences cause heat transfer.
13. No, it is stored as thermal energy. A thermodynamic system does not have a well-defined quantity of heat.
15. It raises the boiling point, so the water, which the food gains heat from, is at a higher temperature.
17. Yes, by raising the pressure above 56 atm.
19. work
21. (at or near atmospheric pressure)
720 Answer Key

23. Condensation releases heat, so it speeds up the melting.

25. Because of water’s high specific heat, it changes temperature less than land. Also, evaporation reduces
temperature rises. The air tends to stay close to equilibrium with the water, so its temperature does not
change much where there’s a lot of water around, as in San Francisco but not Sacramento.
27. The liquid is oxygen, whose boiling point is above that of nitrogen but whose melting point is below the boiling
point of liquid nitrogen. The crystals that sublime are carbon dioxide, which has no liquid phase at
atmospheric pressure. The crystals that melt are water, whose melting point is above carbon dioxide’s
sublimation point. The water came from the instructor’s breath.
29. Increasing circulation to the surface will warm the person, as the temperature of the water is warmer than
human body temperature. Sweating will cause no evaporative cooling under water or in the humid air
immediately above the tub.
31. It spread the heat over the area above the heating elements, evening the temperature there, but does not
spread the heat much beyond the heating elements.
33. Heat is conducted from the fire through the fire box to the circulating air and then convected by the air into
the room (forced convection).
35. The tent is heated by the Sun and transfers heat to you by all three processes, especially radiation.
37. If shielded, it measures the air temperature. If not, it measures the combined effect of air temperature and
net radiative heat gain from the Sun.
39. Turn the thermostat down. To have the house at the normal temperature, the heating system must replace all
the heat that was lost. For all three mechanisms of heat transfer, the greater the temperature difference
between inside and outside, the more heat is lost and must be replaced. So the house should be at the lowest
temperature that does not allow freezing damage.
41. Air is a good insulator, so there is little conduction, and the heated air rises, so there is little convection
downward.

Problems
43. That must be Celsius. Your Fahrenheit temperature is Yes, it is time to get treatment.
45. a. ; b. We know that . We also know that and
So, substituting, we have . Partially solving and
rearranging the equation, we have . Therefore, .
47. a. ; b. 575 K
49. Using Table 1.2 to find the coefficient of thermal expansion of marble:
.
(Answer rounded to five significant figures to show the slight difference in height.)
51. We use instead of since this is a volume expansion with constant surface area. Therefore:
.
53. On the warmer day, our tape measure will expand linearly. Therefore, each measured dimension will be
smaller than the actual dimension of the land. Calling these measured dimensions and , we will find a
new area, A. Let’s calculate these measured dimensions:
;

;
Cost change .
Because the area gets smaller, the price of the land decreases by about $17,000.
55. a. Use Table 1.2 to find the coefficients of thermal expansion of steel and aluminum. Then
.

b. By the same method with , we have .

57.
59. If we start with the freezing of water, then it would expand to

of ice.

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 Answer Key 721

61.
63. ; a. ; b. ; c. ; d.
65. . It is copper.
67. a. ;

; b. which is consistent with our results to part (a),

to one significant figure.
69.
71. It should be lower. The beaker will not make much difference:
73. a. ; b. ; c. The ice is much more effective in absorbing heat because it first must be
melted, which requires a lot of energy, and then it gains the same amount of heat as the bag that started with
water. The first of heat is used to melt the ice, then it absorbs the of heat as
water.
75. 58.1 g
77. Let M be the mass of pool water and m be the mass of pool water that evaporates.
;

(Note that for water at is used here as a better approximation than for water.)
79. a. ; b. ; c. 48.5 y
81. a. 9.35 L; b. Crude oil is less dense than water, so it floats on top of the water, thereby exposing it to the
oxygen in the air, which it uses to burn. Also, if the water is under the oil, it is less able to absorb the heat
generated by the oil.
83. a. 319 kcal; b.
85. First bring the ice up to and melt it with heat 4.74 kcal. This lowers the temperature of water by
. Now, the heat lost by the hot water equals that gained by the cold water ( is the final
temperature):
87. Let the subscripts r, e, v, and w represent rock, equilibrium, vapor, and water, respectively.
;

89. a. ; b. One 1-kilowatt room heater is needed.

91. 84.0 W
93. 2.59 kg
95. a. 39.7 W; b. 820 kcal
97. , so that

This gives 0.0288 wall: window, or 35:1 window: wall

99.

101. We found in the preceding problem that as baseline energy use. So the total heat loss
during this period is . At the
722 Answer Key

cost of $1/MJ, the cost is $1960. From an earlier problem, the savings is 12% or $235/y. We need of
insulation in the attic. At , this is a $500 cost. So the payback period is
(excluding labor costs).

Additional Problems
103.
105. .
107. a. cm; b. cm
109.
111. a. ; b. ; c.
113. . All of the ice melted.
115. , all the ice melted
117. a. 83 W; b. ; The single-pane window has a rate of heat conduction equal to 1969/83, or 24
times that of a double-pane window.
119. The rate of heat transfer by conduction is 20.0 W. On a daily basis, this is 1,728 kJ/day. Daily food intake is
. So only 17.2% of energy intake goes as heat transfer by
conduction to the environment at this .
121. 620 K

Challenge Problems
123. Denoting the period by P, we know When the temperature increases by dT, the length
increases by . Then the new length is a.

by the binomial expansion. b. The clock runs slower, as its new period is 1.00019 s. It loses 16.4 s per day.
125. The amount of heat to melt the ice and raise it to is not enough to condense the steam, but it is more
than enough to lower the steam’s temperature by , so the final state will consist of steam and liquid
water in equilibrium, and the final temperature is ; 28 g of steam condenses, so the final state contains
172 g of steam and 128 g of liquid water.
127. a. ; b. ; c. yes
129. a. ; b. ; c. ; d. ; e. ; f.

Chapter 2
Check Your Understanding
2.1 We first need to calculate the molar mass (the mass of one mole) of niacin. To do this, we must multiply the
number of atoms of each element in the molecule by the element’s molar mass.

Then we need to calculate the number of moles in 14 mg.

Then, we use Avogadro’s number to calculate the number of molecules:

2.2 The density of a gas is equal to a constant, the average molecular mass, times the number density N/V. From
the ideal gas law, we see that Therefore, at constant temperature, if the density
and, consequently, the number density are reduced by half, the pressure must also be reduced by half, and

2.3 Density is mass per unit volume, and volume is proportional to the size of a body (such as the radius of a
sphere) cubed. So if the distance between molecules increases by a factor of 10, then the volume occupied
increases by a factor of 1000, and the density decreases by a factor of 1000. Since we assume molecules are
in contact in liquids and solids, the distance between their centers is on the order of their typical size, so the

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 Answer Key 723

distance in gases is on the order of 10 times as great.

2.4 Yes. Such fluctuations actually occur for a body of any size in a gas, but since the numbers of molecules are
immense for macroscopic bodies, the fluctuations are a tiny percentage of the number of collisions, and the
averages spoken of in this section vary imperceptibly. Roughly speaking, the fluctuations are inversely
proportional to the square root of the number of collisions, so for small bodies, they can become significant.
This was actually observed in the nineteenth century for pollen grains in water and is known as Brownian
motion.
2.5 In a liquid, the molecules are very close together, constantly colliding with one another. For a gas to be nearly
ideal, as air is under ordinary conditions, the molecules must be very far apart. Therefore the mean free path
is much longer in the air.
2.6 As the number of moles is equal and we know the molar heat capacities of the two gases are equal, the
temperature is halfway between the initial temperatures, 300 K.

Conceptual Questions
1. 2 moles, as that will contain twice as many molecules as the 1 mole of oxygen
3. pressure
5. The flame contains hot gas (heated by combustion). The pressure is still atmospheric pressure, in mechanical
equilibrium with the air around it (or roughly so). The density of the hot gas is proportional to its number
density N/V (neglecting the difference in composition between the gas in the flame and the surrounding air).
At higher temperature than the surrounding air, the ideal gas law says that is less than that of
the surrounding air. Therefore the hot air has lower density than the surrounding air and is lifted by the
buoyant force.
7. The mean free path is inversely proportional to the square of the radius, so it decreases by a factor of 4. The
mean free time is proportional to the mean free path and inversely proportional to the rms speed, which in
turn is inversely proportional to the square root of the mass. That gives a factor of in the numerator, so
the mean free time decreases by a factor of
9. Since they’re more massive, their gravity is stronger, so the escape velocity from them is higher. Since they’re
farther from the Sun, they’re colder, so the speeds of atmospheric molecules including hydrogen and helium
are lower. The combination of those facts means that relatively few hydrogen and helium molecules have
escaped from the outer planets.
11. One where carbon dioxide is stored, as excess will cause a feeling of suffocating, but excess nitrogen
and insufficient oxygen will not.
13. Less, because at lower temperatures their heat capacity was only 3RT/2.
15. a. false; b. true; c. true; d. true
17. 1200 K

Problems

19. a. 0.137 atm; b. Because of the expansion of the glass, .

Multiplying by that factor does not make any significant difference.
21. a. b. 0.227 mol; c. molecules for the nitrogen, molecules for
the carbon dioxide
23.
25.
27.
29. 6.86 atm
31. a. b. c. 2.15 K; d. no
33. 40.7 km
35. a. 0.61 N; b. 0.20 Pa
37. a. 5.88 m/s; b. 5.89 m/s
39. 177 m/s
41.
43. a. 0.0352 mol; b. c. 139 J
724 Answer Key

45. 21.1 kPa

47. 458 K
49.
51. a. 1.004; b. 764 K; c. This temperature is equivalent to , which is high but not impossible to achieve.
Thus, this process is feasible. At this temperature, however, there may be other considerations that make the
process difficult. (In general, uranium enrichment by gaseous diffusion is indeed difficult and requires many
passes.)
53. 65 mol
55. a. 0.76 atm; b. 0.29 atm; c. The pressure there is barely above the quickly fatal level.
57. ; Yes, that’s an impractically high temperature.
59. polyatomic
61.
63.
65.
67. 0.00157
69. About 0.072. Answers may vary slightly. A more accurate answer is 0.074.
71. a. 419 m/s; b. 472 m/s; c. 513 m/s
73. 541 K
75. 2400 K for all three parts

Additional Problems
77. a. ; b.
79. 7.9 m
81. a. supercritical fluid; b.
83.
85. a. b.
87. 8.2 mm
89. a. ; b.
91. or about 1.10
93. a. 411 m/s; b. According to Table 2.3, the of is significantly different from the theoretical value, so
the ideal gas model does not describe it very well at room temperature and pressure, and the Maxwell-
Boltzmann speed distribution for ideal gases may not hold very well, even less well at a lower temperature.

Challenge Problems
95. 29.5 N/m

97. Substituting and gives

∞ ∞

99. Making the scaling transformation as in the previous problems, we find that
∞ ∞

As in the previous problem, we integrate by parts:

∞ ∞ ∞

Again, the first term is 0, and we were given in an earlier problem that the integral in the second term equals

. We now have

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 Answer Key 725

Taking the square root of both sides gives the desired result: .

Chapter 3
Check Your Understanding
3.1
3.2 Line 1, line 2, and line 3, and and line 4,
and
3.3 So that the process is represented by the curve on the pV plot for the evaluation of work.
3.4

Conceptual Questions
1. a. SE; b. ES; c. ES
3. Some of the energy goes into changing the phase of the liquid to gas.
5. Yes, as long as the work done equals the heat added there will be no change in internal energy and thereby no
change in temperature. When water freezes or when ice melts while removing or adding heat, respectively,
the temperature remains constant.
7. If more work is done on the system than heat added, the internal energy of the system will actually decrease.
9. The system must be in contact with a heat source that allows heat to flow into the system.
11. Isothermal processes must be slow to make sure that as heat is transferred, the temperature does not
change. Even for isobaric and isochoric processes, the system must be in thermal equilibrium with slow
changes of thermodynamic variables.
13. Typically is greater than because when expansion occurs under constant pressure, it does work on the
surroundings. Therefore, heat can go into internal energy and work. Under constant volume, all heat goes into
internal energy. In this example, water contracts upon heating, so if we add heat at constant pressure, work is
done on the water by surroundings and therefore, is less than .
15. No, it is always greater than 1.
17. An adiabatic process has a change in temperature but no heat flow. The isothermal process has no change in
temperature but has heat flow.

Problems
19. is the temperature scale desired and mirrors the ideal gas if under constant volume.
21.
23. 74 K
25. 0.31
27. pVln(4)
29. a. 160 J; b. –160 J
31.
726 Answer Key

33.
35. a. 1:1; b. 10:1
37. a. 600 J; b. 0; c. 500 J; d. 200 J; e. 800 J; f. 500 J
39. 580 J
41. a. 600 J; b. 600 J; c. 800 J
43. a. 0; b. 160 J; c. –160 J
45. a. 20 J; b. –90 J
47. No work is done and they reach the same common temperature.
49. 54,500 J
51. a. ; b. ; c. the sum of parts (a) and (b); d.
and
53. a.

;
b.
55. a. 4000 J; b. −4000 J; c. It does not depend on the process.
57. a. 700 J; b. 500 J
59. a. −3 400 J; b. 3400 J enters the gas
61. 100 J
63. a. 370 J; b. 100 J; c. 500 J
65. 850 J
67. pressure decreased by 0.31 times the original pressure
69.

71. 106 K
73. An adiabatic expansion has less work done and no heat flow, thereby a lower internal energy comparing to an
isothermal expansion which has both heat flow and work done. Temperature decreases during adiabatic
expansion.

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 Answer Key 727

75. Isothermal has a greater final pressure and does not depend on the type of gas.
77.

Additional Problems
79. a. b. c.
d. e. No, because heat was added for both parts AD and DC. There is not
enough information to figure out how much is from each segment of the path.
81. 300 J
83. a. 59.5 J; b. 170 N
85.
87. a. 15,000 J; b. 10,000 J; c. 25,000 J
89. 78 J
91. A cylinder containing three moles of nitrogen gas is heated at a constant pressure of 2 atm. a. −1220 J; b.
+1220 J
93. a. 7.6 L, 61.6 K; b. 81.3 K; c. ; d. −367 J

Challenge Problems
95. a. 1700 J; b. 1200 J; c. 2400 J
97. a. 2.2 mol; b. , ; c. ; d. 30,500 J

Chapter 4
Check Your Understanding
4.1 A perfect heat engine would have , which would lead to A perfect refrigerator
would need zero work, that is, , which leads to ∞
4.2 From the engine on the right, we have From the refrigerator on the right, we have
Thus,
4.3 a. ; b. ; c. ; d. and
4.4 a. ; b. ; c.
4.5 When heat flows from the reservoir to the ice, the internal (mainly kinetic) energy of the ice goes up, resulting
in a higher average speed and thus an average greater position variance of the molecules in the ice. The
reservoir does become more ordered, but due to its much larger amount of molecules, it does not offset the
change in entropy in the system.
4.6 ; ; and
4.7 a. 4.71 J/K; b. −4.18 J/K; c. 0.53 J/K

Conceptual Questions
1. Some possible solutions are frictionless movement; restrained compression or expansion; energy transfer as
heat due to infinitesimal temperature nonuniformity; electric current flow through a zero resistance;
restrained chemical reaction; and mixing of two samples of the same substance at the same state.
3. The temperature increases since the heat output behind the refrigerator is greater than the cooling from the
728 Answer Key

inside of the refrigerator.

5. If we combine a perfect engine and a real refrigerator with the engine converting heat Q from the hot
reservoir into work to drive the refrigerator, then the heat dumped to the hot reservoir by the
refrigerator will be , resulting in a perfect refrigerator transferring heat from the cold reservoir
to hot reservoir without any other effect.
7. Heat pumps can efficiently extract heat from the ground to heat on cooler days or pull heat out of the house
on warmer days. The disadvantage of heat pumps are that they are more costly than alternatives, require
maintenance, and will not work efficiently when temperature differences between the inside and outside are
very large. Electric heating is much cheaper to purchase than a heat pump; however, it may be more costly to
run depending on the electric rates and amount of usage.
9. A nuclear reactor needs to have a lower temperature to operate, so its efficiency will not be as great as a
fossil-fuel plant. This argument does not take into consideration the amount of energy per reaction: Nuclear
power has a far greater energy output than fossil fuels.
11. In order to increase the efficiency, the temperature of the hot reservoir should be raised, and the cold
reservoir should be lowered as much as possible. This can be seen in Equation 4.3.
13. adiabatic and isothermal processes
15. Entropy will not change if it is a reversible transition but will change if the process is irreversible.
17. Entropy is a function of disorder, so all the answers apply here as well.

Problems
19.
21.
23. 0.667
25. a. 0.200; b. 25 J
27. a. 0.67; b. 75 J; c. 25 J
29. a. 600 J; b. 800 J
31. a. 69 J; b. 11 J
33. 1.58
35. 50 J
37.

39. a. 381 J; b. 619 J

41. a. 546 K; b. 137 K
43. –1 J/K
45. –13 J(K mole)
47.
49. a. –709 J/K; b. 1300 J/K; c. 591 J/K
51. a. ; b.
53.
55. 370 J/K

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 Answer Key 729

57. , , , 215 J/K, –190 J/K, 25 J/K

59. , ,
61. a. 1200 J; b. 600 J; c. 600 J; d. 0.50
63.
65. a. 0.33, 0.39; b. 0.91

Additional Problems
67.
69. a. b. 13,000 J; c. 13,000 J; d. –8,000 J; e. –8,000 J; f. 6200 J; g. –6200 J;
h. ; with temperatures efficiency is , which is off likely by rounding errors.
71. –670 J/K
73. a. –570 J/K; b. 570 J/K
75. 82 J/K
77. a. 2000 J; b.
79.
81.

Challenge Problems
83. derive
85. derive
87. 18 J/K
89. proof
91.
93.

Chapter 5
Check Your Understanding
5.1 The force would point outward.
5.2 The net force would point below the −x-axis.
5.3
5.4 We will no longer be able to take advantage of symmetry. Instead, we will need to calculate each of the two
components of the electric field with their own integral.
5.5 The point charge would be where a and b are the sides of the rectangle but otherwise identical.
5.6 The electric field would be zero in between, and have magnitude everywhere else.

Conceptual Questions
1. There are mostly equal numbers of positive and negative charges present, making the object electrically
neutral.
3. a. no; b. yes
5. Take an object with a known charge, either positive or negative, and bring it close to the rod. If the known
charged object is positive and it is repelled from the rod, the rod is charged positive. If the positively charged
object is attracted to the rod, the rod is negatively charged.
7. No, the dust is attracted to both because the dust particle molecules become polarized in the direction of the
silk.
9. Yes, polarization charge is induced on the conductor so that the positive charge is nearest the charged rod,
causing an attractive force.
11. Charging by conduction is charging by contact where charge is transferred to the object. Charging by induction
first involves producing a polarization charge in the object and then connecting a wire to ground to allow some
of the charge to leave the object, leaving the object charged.
730 Answer Key

13. This is so that any excess charge is transferred to the ground, keeping the gasoline receptacles neutral. If
there is excess charge on the gasoline receptacle, a spark could ignite it.
15. The dryer charges the clothes. If they are damp, the presence of water molecules suppresses the charge.
17. There are only two types of charge, attractive and repulsive. If you bring a charged object near the quartz,
only one of these two effects will happen, proving there is not a third kind of charge.
19. a. No, since a polarization charge is induced. b. Yes, since the polarization charge would produce only an
attractive force.
21. The force holding the nucleus together must be greater than the electrostatic repulsive force on the protons.
23. Either sign of the test charge could be used, but the convention is to use a positive test charge.
25. The charges are of the same sign.
27. At infinity, we would expect the field to go to zero, but because the sheet is infinite in extent, this is not the
case. Everywhere you are, you see an infinite plane in all directions.
29. The infinite charged plate would have everywhere. The field would point toward the plate if it were
negatively charged and point away from the plate if it were positively charged. The electric field of the parallel
plates would be zero between them if they had the same charge, and E would be everywhere else. If
the charges were opposite, the situation is reversed, zero outside the plates and between them.
31. yes; no
33. At the surface of Earth, the gravitational field is always directed in toward Earth’s center. An electric field
could move a charged particle in a different direction than toward the center of Earth. This would indicate an
electric field is present.
35. 10

Problems

37. a. ;

b.

39.

41. a. ;

b.

43. ;

45. atomic mass of copper atom times ;

number of copper atoms ;
number of electrons equals 29 times number of atoms or ;

47. ;
;

49. a. charge 1 is ; charge 2 is , to the left,

to the right,
to the right;
b. to the right,
to the right,
to the right,

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 Answer Key 731

;
c. ,
,

51.
53.
55. The tension is . The horizontal component of the tension is
.
The charges can be positive or negative, but both have to be the same sign.
57. Let the charge on one of the spheres be nQ, where n is a fraction between 0 and 1. In the numerator of
Coulomb’s law, the term involving the charges is This is equal to . Finding the
maximum of this term gives
59. Define right to be the positive direction and hence left is the negative direction, then
61. The particles form triangle of sides 13, 13, and 24 cm. The x-components cancel, whereas there is a
contribution to the y-component from both charges 24 cm apart. The y-axis passing through the third charge
bisects the 24-cm line, creating two right triangles of sides 5, 12, and 13 cm.
in the negative y-direction since the force is attractive. The net force from both charges is
.
63. The diagonal is and the components of the force due to the diagonal charge has a factor ;

65. a. up;
b. down
67. a. ;
b. ;
c. on alpha particle;
on electron
69.
71. ,

73.
75. a. ;
b.
77. If the is to the right of the electric field vector from both charges point to the right. a.
;
b.
79. There is right triangle geometry. The x-components of the electric field at cancel. The
y-components give .
At the origin we have a a negative charge of magnitide
.
732 Answer Key

81.
83.

85.
87. At :

At Put the origin at the end of L.

89. a. ; b.

91. a. ,
;
b. ,

93. ,

95. ,
,
,
This is independent of the length of the string.
97. circular arc ,

y-axis: ;

x-axis: ,

99. a. , ; b. is

negative; therefore, , ∞
101.

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 Answer Key 733

103.

105.
734 Answer Key

107. The net dipole moment of the molecule is the vector sum of the individual dipole moments between the two
O-H. The separation O-H is 0.9578 angstroms:

Additional Problems

109. ,

111. Charges Q and q form a right triangle of sides 1 m and Charges 2Q and q form a right triangle of
sides 1 m and

113.

115. a. ; b. ; c.

117.

119. ,

121. Electric field of wire at x: ,

123.

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 Answer Key 735

Substituting z for a, we have:

125. There is a net force only in the y-direction. Let be the angle the vector from dx to q makes with the x-axis.
The components along the x-axis cancel due to symmetry, leaving the y-component of the force.
,

Chapter 6
Check Your Understanding
6.1 Place it so that its unit normal is perpendicular to
6.2
6.3 a. b. c. d. 0
6.4 In this case, there is only
6.5 ; This agrees with the calculation of Example 5.5 where we found the electric field by
integrating over the charged wire. Notice how much simpler the calculation of this electric field is with Gauss’s
law.
6.6 If there are other charged objects around, then the charges on the surface of the sphere will not necessarily
be spherically symmetrical; there will be more in certain direction than in other directions.

Conceptual Questions
1. a. If the planar surface is perpendicular to the electric field vector, the maximum flux would be obtained. b. If
the planar surface were parallel to the electric field vector, the minimum flux would be obtained.
3. False. The net electric flux crossing a closed surface is always zero if and only if the net charge enclosed is
zero.
5. Since the electric field vector has a dependence, the fluxes are the same since .
7. a. no; b. zero
9. Both fields vary as . Because the gravitational constant is so much smaller than , the gravitational
field is orders of magnitude weaker than the electric field. Also, the gravitational flux through a closed surface
is zero or positive; however, the electric flux is positive, negative, or zero, depending on the definition of flux
for the given situation.
11. No, it is produced by all charges both inside and outside the Gaussian surface.
13. No, since the situation does not have symmetry, making Gauss’s law challenging to simplify.
15. Any shape of the Gaussian surface can be used. The only restriction is that the Gaussian integral must be
calculable; therefore, a box or a cylinder are the most convenient geometrical shapes for the Gaussian
surface.
17. No. If a metal was in a region of zero electric field, all the conduction electrons would be distributed uniformly
throughout the metal.
19. Since the electric field is zero inside a conductor, a charge of is induced on the inside surface of the
cavity. This will put a charge of on the outside surface leaving a net charge of on the
surface.

Problems

21. electric field in direction of unit normal;

electric field opposite to unit normal
736 Answer Key

23.

25. a.
b. ; c.
27.

29.

31. a. ; b. ;
c. ;
d.
33.
35. Make a cube with q at the center, using the cube of side a. This would take four cubes of side a to make one
side of the large cube. The shaded side of the small cube would be 1/24th of the total area of the large cube;
therefore, the flux through the shaded area would be
.
37.
39. zero, also because flux in equals flux out
41.

43.

45. a. 0; b. 0; c.
47. a. 0; b.
49. a. Yes, the length of the rod is much greater than the distance to the point in question. b. No, The length of the
rod is of the same order of magnitude as the distance to the point in question. c. Yes, the length of the rod is
much greater than the distance to the point in question. d. No. The length of the rod is of the same order of
magnitude as the distance to the point in question.
51. a.
;
b.

53. ;

55.
57.

59. integrate by parts:

61.

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 Answer Key 737

63. a. Outside: ; Inside ; b.

65. a. E inside equals 0; b.

67.
69. for , inside since

71. a. ; b. ; c. since r would be either inside the second shell or if

outside then q enclosed equals 0.

Additional Problems

73.

75. a. ; b. zero, since the flux through the upper half cancels the flux through the lower half

of the sphere
738 Answer Key

77. ; There are two contributions to the surface integral: one at the side of the rectangle at and
the other at the side at ;

where the minus sign indicates that at , the electric field is along positive x and the unit normal is along
negative x. At , the unit normal and the electric field vector are in the same direction:
.
79. didn’t keep consistent directions for the area vectors, or the electric fields
81. a. , on one and on the other; b.

83. Construct a Gaussian cylinder along the z-axis with cross-sectional area A.
,

85. a. ;

b. ;

c. ;

d. ; e. 0

87. Electric field due to plate without hole: .

Electric field of just hole filled with .

Thus, .

89. a. ; b. ; c. ; d.

Challenge Problems
1
91. Given the referenced link, using a distance to Vega of m and a diameter of 2.4 m for the
2
primary mirror, we find that at a wavelength of 555.6 nm, Vega is emitting at that
wavelength. Note that the flux through the mirror is essentially constant.
93. The symmetry of the system forces to be perpendicular to the sheet and constant over any plane parallel
to the sheet. To calculate the electric field, we choose the cylindrical Gaussian surface shown. The cross-
section area and the height of the cylinder are A and 2x, respectively, and the cylinder is positioned so that it
is bisected by the plane sheet. Since E is perpendicular to each end and parallel to the side of the cylinder, we
have EA as the flux through each end and there is no flux through the side. The charge enclosed by the
cylinder is so from Gauss’s law, and the electric field of an infinite sheet of charge is
in agreement with the calculation of in the text.

95. There is Q/2 on each side of the plate since the net charge is Q: ,

1 [Link]
2 [Link]

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 Answer Key 739

Chapter 7
Check Your Understanding

7.1

7.2 It has kinetic energy of at point and potential energy of which means that as Q
approaches infinity, its kinetic energy totals three times the kinetic energy at since all of the potential
energy gets converted to kinetic.
7.3 positive, negative, and these quantities are the same as the work you would need to do to bring the charges in
from infinity
7.4
7.5 –2.00 C,
7.6 It would be going in the opposite direction, with no effect on the calculations as presented.
7.7 Given a fixed maximum electric field strength, the potential at which a strike occurs increases with increasing
height above the ground. Hence, each electron will carry more energy. Determining if there is an effect on the
total number of electrons lies in the future.
7.8 recall that the electric field inside a
conductor is zero. Hence, any path from a point on the surface to any point in the interior will have an
integrand of zero when calculating the change in potential, and thus the potential in the interior of the sphere
is identical to that on the surface.
7.9 The x-axis the potential is zero, due to the equal and opposite charges the same distance from it. On the
z-axis, we may superimpose the two potentials; we will find that for , again the potential goes to zero
due to cancellation.
7.10 It will be zero, as at all points on the axis, there are equal and opposite charges equidistant from the point of
interest. Note that this distribution will, in fact, have a dipole moment.
7.11 Any, but cylindrical is closest to the symmetry of a dipole.
7.12 infinite cylinders of constant radius, with the line charge as the axis

Conceptual Questions
1. No. We can only define potential energies for conservative fields.
3. No, though certain orderings may be simpler to compute.
5. The electric field strength is zero because electric potential differences are directly related to the field
strength. If the potential difference is zero, then the field strength must also be zero.
7. Potential difference is more descriptive because it indicates that it is the difference between the electric
potential of two points.
9. They are very similar, but potential difference is a feature of the system; when a charge is introduced to the
system, it will have a potential energy which may be calculated by multiplying the magnitude of the charge by
the potential difference.
11. An electron-volt is a volt multiplied by the charge of an electron. Volts measure potential difference, electron-
volts are a unit of energy.
13. The second has 1/4 the dipole moment of the first.
15. The region outside of the sphere will have a potential indistinguishable from a point charge; the interior of the
sphere will have a different potential.
17. No. It will be constant, but not necessarily zero.
19. no
21. No; it might not be at electrostatic equilibrium.
23. Yes. It depends on where the zero reference for potential is. (Though this might be unusual.)
25. So that lightning striking them goes into the ground instead of the television equipment.
27. They both make use of static electricity to stick small particles to another surface. However, the precipitator
has to charge a wide variety of particles, and is not designed to make sure they land in a particular place.
740 Answer Key

Problems
29. a.
b.

31.

33.

35.
37. a. ; b.
39. a. ;
b.

41. a.

b.
43. One possibility is to stay at constant radius and go along the arc from to , which will have zero potential
due to the path being perpendicular to the electric field. Then integrate from a to b: The
potential at point is higher than at since the field points radially outward, and this is consistent with a
positive potential difference going from distance to a larger distance .
45.
47. ;
The charge is positive because the potential is positive.
49. a. ;
b. ;
c.
51. ; a. Relative to origin, find the potential at each point and then calculate the difference.
;
b. To double the potential difference, move the point from 20 cm to infinity; the potential at 20 cm is halfway
between zero and that at 10 cm.
53. a.
and ;
b. and
55. The problem is describing a uniform field, so in the –z-direction.
57. Apply with to the potential calculated earlier,

as expected.
59. a. increases; the constant (negative) electric field has this effect, the reference point only matters for
magnitude; b. they are planes parallel to the sheet; c. 0.006 m/V
61. a. from the previous chapter, the electric field has magnitude in the region between the plates and zero
outside; defining the negatively charged plate to be at the origin and zero potential, with the positively
charged plate located at in the z-direction, so the potential is 0 for
for for
b.
63.
65. In the region , and E is zero elsewhere; hence, the potential difference is
.
67. From previous results , note that b is a very convenient location to define the zero

level of potential:
69. a. ;

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 Answer Key 741

The electric field is towards the surface of Earth. b. The coulomb force is much stronger than gravity.
71. We know from the Gauss’s law chapter that the electric field for an infinite line charge is , and
from earlier in this chapter that the potential of a wire-cylinder system of this sort is by
integration. We are not given , but we are given a fixed ; thus, we know that and hence

. We may substitute this back in to find a. ; b. ; c.

73. a. ;

b.
75. a. ;

b.
77. a. ; b. ; c. ; d. ; e.

79. a. ;

b.

81.

83. a. ;

b. ;

c. The expansion of the steam upon boiling can literally blow the tree apart.
85. a. ; b. A 1-C charge is a very large amount of charge; a sphere of 1.80 km is
impractical.
87. The alpha particle approaches the gold nucleus until its original energy is converted to potential energy.
, so

(Size of gold nucleus is about ).

Additional Problems

89.

91.

93.
95. Recall from the previous chapter that the electric field is uniform throughout space, and that for

uniform fields we have for the relation. Thus, we get for the distance
between 25-V equipotentials.
97. a. Take the result from Example 7.13, divide both the numerator and the denominator by x, take the limit of
that, and then apply a Taylor expansion to the resulting log to get: ; b. which is the result we
expect, because at great distances, this should look like a point charge of
99. a. ; b.
101. a. ;
742 Answer Key

b. ;

c.
103. If the electric field is zero ¼ from the way of , then we know from
; the charge is 9 times larger than .

105. a. The field is in the direction of the electron’s initial velocity.

b.

c.

d.

Challenge Problems
107. Answers will vary. This appears to be proprietary information, and ridiculously difficult to find. Speeds will be
20 m/s or less, and there are claims of grams for the mass of a drop.
109. Apply with to the potential calculated earlier, with

and assume that the axis of the dipole is aligned with the z-axis of the coordinate system. Thus, the

potential is .

Chapter 8
Check Your Understanding
8.1
8.3 3.59 cm, 17.98 cm
8.4 a. 25.0 pF; b. 9.2
8.5 a. ;
b. ;
c.
8.6 a. ; b. 9 times
8.7 a. 3.0; b.
8.9 a. , ; b. , ; c. ; d. ,

Conceptual Questions
1. no; yes
3. false
5. no
7.
9. answers may vary
11. Dielectric strength is a critical value of an electrical field above which an insulator starts to conduct; a
dielectric constant is the ratio of the electrical field in vacuum to the net electrical field in a material.
13. Water is a good solvent.
15. When energy of thermal motion is large (high temperature), an electrical field must be large too in order to
keep electric dipoles aligned with it.
17. answers may vary

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 Answer Key 743

Problems
19. 21.6 mC
21. 1.55 V
23. 25.0 nF
25.
27. 500 µC
29. 1:16
31. a. 1.07 nC; b. 267 V, 133 V
33.
34. 500 capacitors; connected in parallel
35. (series) and (parallel)
37.
39. 0.89 mC; 1.78 mC; 444 V
41.
43. a. 405 J; b. 90.0 mC
45. 1.17 J
47. a. ; b. 0.453 V; c. ; d. no
49. 0.7 mJ
51. a. 7.1 pF; b. 42 pF
53. a. before 3.00 V; after 0.600 V; b. before 1500 V/m; after 300 V/m
55. a. 3.91; b. 22.8 V
57. a. 37 nC; b. 0.4 MV/m; c. 19 nC
59. a. ; b.
61.
63.

Additional Problems
65. a. 0.277 nF; b. 27.7 nC; c. 50 kV/m
67. a. 0.065 F; b. 23,000 C; c. 4.0 GJ
69. a. ; b. 10.8 V
71. a. 0.13 J; b. no, because of resistive heating in connecting wires that is always present, but the circuit
schematic does not indicate resistors

73. a. ; b. You cannot have a negative capacitance. c. The assumption that they were hooked up in
parallel, rather than in series, is incorrect. A parallel connection always produces a greater capacitance, while
here a smaller capacitance was assumed. This could only happen if the capacitors are connected in series.
75. a. 14.2 kV; b. The voltage is unreasonably large, more than 100 times the breakdown voltage of nylon. c. The
assumed charge is unreasonably large and cannot be stored in a capacitor of these dimensions.

Challenge Problems
77. a. 89.6 pF; b. 6.09 kV/m; c. 4.47 kV/m; d. no
744 Answer Key

79. a. 421 J; b. 53.9 mF

81.
83. proof

Chapter 9
Check Your Understanding
9.1 The time for 1.00 C of charge to flow would be , slightly less than
an hour. This is quite different from the 5.55 ms for the truck battery. The calculator takes a very small amount
of energy to operate, unlike the truck’s starter motor. There are several reasons that vehicles use batteries and
not solar cells. Aside from the obvious fact that a light source to run the solar cells for a car or truck is not
always available, the large amount of current needed to start the engine cannot easily be supplied by present-
day solar cells. Solar cells can possibly be used to charge the batteries. Charging the battery requires a small
amount of energy when compared to the energy required to run the engine and the other accessories such as
the heater and air conditioner. Present day solar-powered cars are powered by solar panels, which may power
an electric motor, instead of an internal combustion engine.
9.2 The total current needed by all the appliances in the living room (a few lamps, a television, and your laptop)
draw less current and require less power than the refrigerator.
9.3 The diameter of the 14-gauge wire is smaller than the diameter of the 12-gauge wire. Since the drift velocity is
inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area, the drift velocity in the 14-gauge wire is larger than the drift
velocity in the 12-gauge wire carrying the same current. The number of electrons per cubic meter will remain
constant.
9.4 The current density in a conducting wire increases due to an increase in current. The drift velocity is
proportional to the current , so the drift velocity would increase.
9.5 Silver, gold, and aluminum are all used for making wires. All four materials have a high conductivity, silver
having the highest. All four can easily be drawn into wires and have a high tensile strength, though not as high
as copper. The obvious disadvantage of gold and silver is the cost, but silver and gold wires are used for
special applications, such as speaker wires. Gold does not oxidize, making better connections between
components. Aluminum wires do have their drawbacks. Aluminum has a higher resistivity than copper, so a
larger diameter is needed to match the resistance per length of copper wires, but aluminum is cheaper than
copper, so this is not a major drawback. Aluminum wires do not have as high of a ductility and tensile strength
as copper, but the ductility and tensile strength is within acceptable levels. There are a few concerns that must
be addressed in using aluminum and care must be used when making connections. Aluminum has a higher
rate of thermal expansion than copper, which can lead to loose connections and a possible fire hazard. The
oxidation of aluminum does not conduct and can cause problems. Special techniques must be used when
using aluminum wires and components, such as electrical outlets, must be designed to accept aluminum
wires.
9.6 The foil pattern stretches as the backing stretches, and the foil tracks become longer and thinner. Since the
resistance is calculated as , the resistance increases as the foil tracks are stretched. When the
temperature changes, so does the resistivity of the foil tracks, changing the resistance. One way to combat
this is to use two strain gauges, one used as a reference and the other used to measure the strain. The two
strain gauges are kept at a constant temperature
9.7 The longer the length, the smaller the resistance. The greater the resistivity, the higher the resistance. The
larger the difference between the outer radius and the inner radius, that is, the greater the ratio between the
two, the greater the resistance. If you are attempting to maximize the resistance, the choice of the values for
these variables will depend on the application. For example, if the cable must be flexible, the choice of
materials may be limited.
9.8 Yes, Ohm’s law is still valid. At every point in time the current is equal to , so the current is also a
function of time, .
9.9 Even though electric motors are highly efficient 10–20% of the power consumed is wasted, not being used for
doing useful work. Most of the 10–20% of the power lost is transferred into heat dissipated by the copper

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 Answer Key 745

wires used to make the coils of the motor. This heat adds to the heat of the environment and adds to the
demand on power plants providing the power. The demand on the power plant can lead to increased
greenhouse gases, particularly if the power plant uses coal or gas as fuel.
9.10 No, the efficiency is a very important consideration of the light bulbs, but there are many other considerations.
As mentioned above, the cost of the bulbs and the life span of the bulbs are important considerations. For
example, CFL bulbs contain mercury, a neurotoxin, and must be disposed of as hazardous waste. When
replacing incandescent bulbs that are being controlled by a dimmer switch with LED, the dimmer switch may
need to be replaced. The dimmer switches for LED lights are comparably priced to the incandescent light
switches, but this is an initial cost which should be considered. The spectrum of light should also be
considered, but there is a broad range of color temperatures available, so you should be able to find one that
fits your needs. None of these considerations mentioned are meant to discourage the use of LED or CFL light
bulbs, but they are considerations.

Conceptual Questions
1. If a wire is carrying a current, charges enter the wire from the voltage source’s positive terminal and leave at
the negative terminal, so the total charge remains zero while the current flows through it.
3. Using one hand will reduce the possibility of “completing the circuit” and having current run through your
body, especially current running through your heart.
5. Even though the electrons collide with atoms and other electrons in the wire, they travel from the negative
terminal to the positive terminal, so they drift in one direction. Gas molecules travel in completely random
directions.
7. In the early years of light bulbs, the bulbs are partially evacuated to reduce the amount of heat conducted
through the air to the glass envelope. Dissipating the heat would cool the filament, increasing the amount of
energy needed to produce light from the filament. It also protects the glass from the heat produced from the
hot filament. If the glass heats, it expands, and as it cools, it contacts. This expansion and contraction could
cause the glass to become brittle and crack, reducing the life of the bulbs. Many bulbs are now partially filled
with an inert gas. It is also useful to remove the oxygen to reduce the possibility of the filament actually
burning. When the original filaments were replaced with more efficient tungsten filaments, atoms from the
tungsten would evaporate off the filament at such high temperatures. The atoms collide with the atoms of the
inert gas and land back on the filament.
9. In carbon, resistivity increases with the amount of impurities, meaning fewer free charges. In silicon and
germanium, impurities decrease resistivity, meaning more free electrons.
11. Copper has a lower resistivity than aluminum, so if length is the same, copper must have the smaller
diameter.
13. Device B shows a linear relationship and the device is ohmic.
15. Although the conductors have a low resistance, the lines from the power company can be kilometers long.
Using a high voltage reduces the current that is required to supply the power demand and that reduces line
losses.
17. The resistor would overheat, possibly to the point of causing the resistor to burn. Fuses are commonly added
to circuits to prevent such accidents.
19. Very low temperatures necessitate refrigeration. Some materials require liquid nitrogen to cool them below
their critical temperatures. Other materials may need liquid helium, which is even more costly.

Problems
21. a. ;
b.
23.
no. of electrons =

25.
746 Answer Key

27.
29.
31.
33. a. ; b.
35.
37.

39.

41.

43. a. ;
b. Under normal conditions, no it should not occur.

45. , tungsten

47. a. , gold;

b.

49.

51.

53.
55. a. ; b. ; c. ; d. It is converted into heat.

57. ,

59.

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 Answer Key 747

61. a.

b.

63.

65.

67. a. ;

b.

Additional Problems

69.

71. a.
; b.

73.
75.
77. a. ; b.
79.

Challenge Problems

81.

83. a. 4.38 x 107 m/s b. c.

85.
748 Answer Key

87. a. ; b.

89. a. ; b.
91. (a) 0.870 A
(b) #electrons = 2.54 × 1023 electrons
(c) 132 ohms
(d) q = 4.68 × 106 J
93.

Chapter 10
Check Your Understanding
10.1 If a wire is connected across the terminals, the load resistance is close to zero, or at least considerably less
than the internal resistance of the battery. Since the internal resistance is small, the current through the
circuit will be large, The large current causes a high power to be dissipated by the
internal resistance . The power is dissipated as heat.
10.2 The equivalent resistance of nine bulbs connected in series is 9R. The current is If one bulb burns
out, the equivalent resistance is 8R, and the voltage does not change, but the current increases
As more bulbs burn out, the current becomes even higher. Eventually, the current becomes too high, burning
out the shunt.
10.3 The equivalent of the series circuit would be which is higher
than the equivalent resistance of the parallel circuit The equivalent resistor of any number of
resistors is always higher than the equivalent resistance of the same resistors connected in parallel. The
current through for the series circuit would be which is lower than the sum of the
currents through each resistor in the parallel circuit, This is not surprising since the equivalent
resistance of the series circuit is higher. The current through a series connection of any number of resistors
will always be lower than the current into a parallel connection of the same resistors, since the equivalent
resistance of the series circuit will be higher than the parallel circuit. The power dissipated by the resistors in
series would be which is lower than the power dissipated in the parallel circuit
10.4 A river, flowing horizontally at a constant rate, splits in two and flows over two waterfalls. The water molecules
are analogous to the electrons in the parallel circuits. The number of water molecules that flow in the river
and falls must be equal to the number of molecules that flow over each waterfall, just like sum of the current
through each resistor must be equal to the current flowing into the parallel circuit. The water molecules in the
river have energy due to their motion and height. The potential energy of the water molecules in the river is
constant due to their equal heights. This is analogous to the constant change in voltage across a parallel
circuit. Voltage is the potential energy across each resistor.
The analogy quickly breaks down when considering the energy. In the waterfall, the potential energy is
converted into kinetic energy of the water molecules. In the case of electrons flowing through a resistor, the
potential drop is converted into heat and light, not into the kinetic energy of the electrons.
10.5 1. All the overhead lighting circuits are in parallel and connected to the main supply line, so when one bulb
burns out, all the overhead lighting does not go dark. Each overhead light will have at least one switch in
series with the light, so you can turn it on and off. 2. A refrigerator has a compressor and a light that goes on
when the door opens. There is usually only one cord for the refrigerator to plug into the wall. The circuit
containing the compressor and the circuit containing the lighting circuit are in parallel, but there is a switch in
series with the light. A thermostat controls a switch that is in series with the compressor to control the
temperature of the refrigerator.
10.6 The circuit can be analyzed using Kirchhoff’s loop rule. The first voltage source supplies power:

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 Answer Key 749

The second voltage source consumes power:

10.7 The current calculated would be equal to instead of The sum of the power
dissipated and the power consumed would still equal the power supplied.
10.8 Since digital meters require less current than analog meters, they alter the circuit less than analog meters.
Their resistance as a voltmeter can be far greater than an analog meter, and their resistance as an ammeter
can be far less than an analog meter. Consult Figure 10.36 and Figure 10.35 and their discussion in the text.

Conceptual Questions
1. Some of the energy being used to recharge the battery will be dissipated as heat by the internal resistance.

3.

5. It would probably be better to be in series because the current will be less than if it were in parallel.
7. two filaments, a low resistance and a high resistance, connected in parallel
9. It can be redrawn.

11. In series the voltages add, but so do the internal resistances, because the internal resistances are in series.
In parallel, the terminal voltage is the same, but the equivalent internal resistance is smaller than the
smallest individual internal resistance and a higher current can be provided.
13. The voltmeter would put a large resistance in series with the circuit, significantly changing the circuit. It
would probably give a reading, but it would be meaningless.
15. The ammeter has a small resistance; therefore, a large current will be produced and could damage the meter
and/or overheat the battery.
17. The time constant can be shortened by using a smaller resistor and/or a smaller capacitor. Care should be
taken when reducing the resistance because the initial current will increase as the resistance decreases.
19. Not only might water drip into the switch and cause a shock, but also the resistance of your body is lower
when you are wet.

Problems
21. a.

b. 0.476W; c. 0.691 W; d. As is lowered, the power difference decreases; therefore, at higher volumes,
there is no significant difference.
23. a. ; b. No, there is only one independent equation, so only r can be found.
25. a. ; b. 40.0 W; c.
27. largest, , smallest,
29. 29.6 W
31. a. 0.74 A; b. 0.742 A
750 Answer Key

33. a. 60.8 W; b. 1.56 kW

35. a. ; b. ;
c. ; d. ; e.

37. a. ;
b. ; c. ;
d.
39.
41. a. ; b. ;
c.
43.
45. a.

;
b. 0.617 A; c. 3.81 W; d.
47.
49.
51. a. ; b. 2.00 s
53. a. 12.3 mA; b. c. 4.53 mA; d. 3.89 V
55. a. b. No, in practice it would not be difficult to limit the capacitance to less than 100 nF, since
typical capacitors range from fractions of a picofarad (pF) to milifarad (mF).
57.
59. 12.0 V
61. 400 V
63. a. 6.00 mV; b. It would not be necessary to take extra precautions regarding the power coming from the wall.
However, it is possible to generate voltages of approximately this value from static charge built up on gloves,
for instance, so some precautions are necessary.
65. a. b. 10.0 kV; c. ; d.

Additional Problems
67. a. ; b. ; c. 0.069 s

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 Answer Key 751

69. a. ;
b. ;
c. ;
d. ;
e.

71. a. ; b.

73. a. ; b.

75.
77. a. ; b. ;
c. ;
d. ; e.
79. a. ; b.
81. a. ; b. You cannot have negative resistance. c. The assumption that is unreasonable.
Series resistance is always greater than any of the individual resistances.
83.
85. a. ;
b.
87. a. 4.99 s; b. ; c. ; d. No, this change does not seem significant. It probably would not be
noticed.

Challenge Problems
89. a. 0.273 A; b.
91. a. ; b.
93. a. ; b. 1.26 mA; c.
95.

97. a. ;
b. ; Yes, the breaker will trip.
c. ; Yes, the breaker will trip.
99.

,
752 Answer Key

Chapter 11
Check Your Understanding
11.1 a. 0 N; b. c. d.
11.2 a. toward the south; b.
11.3 a. bends upward; b. bends downward
11.4 a. aligned or anti-aligned; b. perpendicular
11.5 a. 1.1 T; b. 1.6 T
11.6 0.32 m

Conceptual Questions
1. Both are field dependent. Electrical force is dependent on charge, whereas magnetic force is dependent on
current or rate of charge flow.
3. The magnitude of the proton and electron magnetic forces are the same since they have the same amount of
charge. The direction of these forces however are opposite of each other. The accelerations are opposite in
direction and the electron has a larger acceleration than the proton due to its smaller mass.
5. The magnetic field must point parallel or anti-parallel to the velocity.
7. A compass points toward the north pole of an electromagnet.
9. Velocity and magnetic field can be set together in any direction. If there is a force, the velocity is
perpendicular to it. The magnetic field is also perpendicular to the force if it exists.
11. A force on a wire is exerted by an external magnetic field created by a wire or another magnet.
13. Poor conductors have a lower charge carrier density, n, which, based on the Hall effect formula, relates to a
higher Hall potential. Good conductors have a higher charge carrier density, thereby a lower Hall potential.

Problems
15. a. left; b. into the page; c. up the page; d. no force; e. right; f. down
17. a. right; b. into the page; c. down
19. a. into the page; b. left; c. out of the page
21. a. north b. The force is very small, so this implies that the effect of static charges on
airplanes is negligible.
23.
25. 4.27 m
27. a. b. 3; c. This ratio must be an integer because charges must be integer numbers of the
basic charge of an electron. There are no free charges with values less than this basic charge, and all charges
are integer multiples of this basic charge.
29. (a) 3.27 x 103 m/s (b) 1252.5 m (c) 29.2 m (d) 0.683 m.
31. a. b. c.
33. a. left; b. into the page; c. up; d. no force; e. right; f. down
35. a. into the page; b. left; c. out of the page
37. a. 2.50 N; b. This means that the light-rail power lines must be attached in order not to be moved by the force
caused by Earth’s magnetic field.
39. a. so decreases by 5.00% if B decreases by 5.00%; b. 5.26% increase
41. 10.0 A
43.
45.
47.
49.
51.
53. a. b. 0.21 m
55. a. b. 12 MeV; c. 12 MV; d. e. 12 MeV, 12 V,
57. a. b. Yes, this distance between their paths is clearly big enough to separate the U-235 from
the U-238, since it is a distance of 2.5 cm.

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 Answer Key 753

Additional Problems
59.
61. the magnetic and gravitational forces must balance to maintain dynamic equilibrium
63.
65.
67. a. circular motion in a north, down plane; b.
69. The proton has more mass than the electron; therefore, its radius and period will be larger.
71.
73. 1:0.707:1
75. 1/4
77. a. b.
79. a. b. 4.80 N
81. a. 0.283 N; b. 0.4 N; c. 0 N; d. 0 N
83. 0 N and 0.012 Nm
85. a. b. 0.16 Nm
87.
89. a. b. 0.016 Nm; c. 0.028 J
91. (Proof)
93.
95. Since where the width is twice the radius,
so

The Hall voltage is inversely proportional to the diameter of the wire.

97. 0.602 m
99. a. b. not an integer multiple of e; c. need to assume all charges have multiples of e, could be
other forces not accounted for
101. a. B = 5 T; b. very large magnet; c. applying such a large voltage

Challenge Problems
103.
105.

107.
109. 0.23 N

Chapter 12
Check Your Understanding
12.1 1.41 meters
12.2
12.3 4 amps flowing out of the page
12.4 Both have a force per unit length of
12.5 0.608 meters
12.6 In these cases the integrals around the Ampèrian loop are very difficult because there is no symmetry, so this
method would not be useful.
12.7 a. 1.00382; b. 1.00015
12.8 a. ; b. 0.60 T; c.

Conceptual Questions
1. Biot-Savart law’s advantage is that it works with any magnetic field produced by a current loop. The
disadvantage is that it can take a long time.
3. If you were to go to the start of a line segment and calculate the angle to be approximately , the wire can
754 Answer Key

be considered infinite. This judgment is based also on the precision you need in the result.
5. You would make sure the currents flow perpendicular to one another.
7. A magnetic field line gives the direction of the magnetic field at any point in space. The density of magnetic
field lines indicates the strength of the magnetic field.
9. The spring reduces in length since each coil will have a north pole-produced magnetic field next to a south
pole of the next coil.
11. Ampère’s law is valid for all closed paths, but it is not useful for calculating fields when the magnetic field
produced lacks symmetry that can be exploited by a suitable choice of path.
13. If there is no current inside the loop, there is no magnetic field (see Ampère’s law). Outside the pipe, there
may be an enclosed current through the copper pipe, so the magnetic field may not be zero outside the pipe.
15. The bar magnet will then become two magnets, each with their own north and south poles. There are no
magnetic monopoles or single pole magnets.

Problems
17.
19. out of the page
21. ; the current in the wire to the right must flow up the page.
23. 20 A
25. Both answers have the magnitude of magnetic field of
27. At P1, the net magnetic field is zero. At P2, into the page.
29. The magnetic field is at a minimum at distance a from the top wire, or half-way between the wires.
31. a. away from the other wire; b. toward the other wire
33.
35. 0.019 m
37.

39.

41. a. b. 0; c. d. 0
43. a. b. 0; c. d.
45. at the radius R
47.

49.
51. roughly eight turns per cm
53.
55. 0.0181 A
57. 0.0008 T
59. 317.31

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 Answer Key 755

61.

63. 0.18 T

Additional Problems
65.
67. in an arc away from the wire
69. a. above and below in the middle b. above and below in the middle
71.
73. a. 5026 turns; b. 0.00957 T

75.

77.
79. derivation
81. derivation
83. As the radial distance goes to infinity, the magnetic fields of each of these formulae go to zero.

85. a. ; b.
87.

Challenge Problems

89.

91. a. ; b. 82% of Earth’s magnetic field

Chapter 13
Check Your Understanding
13.1 1.1 T/s
13.2 To the observer shown, the current flows clockwise as the magnet approaches, decreases to zero when the
magnet is centered in the plane of the coil, and then flows counterclockwise as the magnet leaves the coil.
13.4 with O at a higher potential than S
13.5 1.5 V

13.6 a. yes; b. Yes; however there is a lack of symmetry between the electric field and coil, making a

more complicated relationship that can’t be simplified as shown in the example.

13.7
756 Answer Key

13.8
13.9 a. b.

Conceptual Questions
1. The emf depends on the rate of change of the magnetic field.
3. Both have the same induced electric fields; however, the copper ring has a much higher induced emf because
it conducts electricity better than the wooden ring.
5. a. no; b. yes
7. As long as the magnetic flux is changing from positive to negative or negative to positive, there could be an
induced emf.
9. Position the loop so that the field lines run perpendicular to the area vector or parallel to the surface.
11. a. CW as viewed from the circuit; b. CCW as viewed from the circuit
13. As the loop enters, the induced emf creates a CCW current while as the loop leaves the induced emf creates a
CW current. While the loop is fully inside the magnetic field, there is no flux change and therefore no induced
current.
15. a. CCW viewed from the magnet; b. CW viewed from the magnet; c. CW viewed from the magnet; d. CCW
viewed from the magnet; e. CW viewed from the magnet; f. no current
17. Positive charges on the wings would be to the west, or to the left of the pilot while negative charges would be
pulled east or to the right of the pilot. Thus, the left hand tips of the wings would be positive and the right
hand tips would be negative.
19. The work is greater than the kinetic energy because it takes energy to counteract the induced emf.
21. The conducting sheet is shielded from the changing magnetic fields by creating an induced emf. This induced
emf creates an induced magnetic field that opposes any changes in magnetic fields from the field underneath.
Therefore, there is no net magnetic field in the region above this sheet. If the field were due to a static
magnetic field, no induced emf will be created since you need a changing magnetic flux to induce an emf.
Therefore, this static magnetic field will not be shielded.
23. a. zero induced current, zero force; b. clockwise induced current, force is to the left; c. zero induced current,
zero force; d. counterclockwise induced current, force is to the left; e. zero induced current, zero force.

Problems
25. a. 3.8 V; b. 2.2 V; c. 0 V

27.

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 Answer Key 757

29. Each answer is 20 times the previously given answers.

31.

33. a. ; b. CCW from the same view as the magnetic field

35. a. 150 A downward through the resistor; b. 46 A upward through the resistor; c. 0.019 A downward through
the resistor
37. 0.0015 V
39.
41.
43. a. ; b. 1.25 V/m; c. 0.3125 V; d. 16 m/s
45. 0.018 A, CW as seen in the diagram
47. 0.1875 V/m

49. Inside, so, (inside). Outside,

so, (outside)

51. a. , ; b. ; c. 0 J; d.

53.
55. three turns with an area of 1 m2

57. a.

b.
c.
59. a. B is proportional to Q; b. If the coin turns easily, the magnetic field is perpendicular. If the coin is at an
equilibrium position, it is parallel.
61. a. 1.33 A; b. 0.50 A; c. 60 W; d. 37.5 W; e. 22.5W

Additional Problems
63. 4.8 × 106 A/s
65. , the direction as follows for increasing magnetic field:
758 Answer Key

67. 0.375 V
69. a. 0.94 V; b. 0.70 N; c. 3.52 J/s; d. 3.52 W
71.
73. a. ;
b. ;
c.

Challenge Problems
75. N = 1
77. 0.848 V

79.

81. a. ; b. ; c. 0 V
83. a. b. ; c. ; d. current would reverse direction but bar would still slide at the
same speed
85. a.

b. ;

c. ; d. ;

e. no, because there is no cylindrical symmetry

87. a. ; b. This angular velocity is unreasonably high, higher than can be
obtained for any mechanical system. c. The assumption that a voltage as great as 12.0 kV could be obtained
is unreasonable.

89.
91.

Chapter 14
Check Your Understanding
14.1
14.2 a. decreasing; b. increasing; Since the current flows in the opposite direction of the diagram, in order to get a
positive emf on the left-hand side of diagram (a), we need to decrease the current to the left, which creates a
reinforced emf where the positive end is on the left-hand side. To get a positive emf on the right-hand side of
diagram (b), we need to increase the current to the left, which creates a reinforced emf where the positive end
is on the right-hand side.
14.3 40 A/s

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 Answer Key 759

14.4 a. ; b.
14.5 a. ; b.
14.6 0.50 J
14.8 a. 2.2 s; b. 43 H; c. 1.0 s
14.10 a. ; b. ; c.
14.11 a. overdamped; b. 0.75 J

Conceptual Questions

1.
3. The induced current from the 12-V battery goes through an inductor, generating a large voltage.
5. Self-inductance is proportional to the magnetic flux and inversely proportional to the current. However, since
the magnetic flux depends on the current I, these effects cancel out. This means that the self-inductance
does not depend on the current. If the emf is induced across an element, it does depend on how the current
changes with time.
7. Consider the ends of a wire a part of an RL circuit and determine the self-inductance from this circuit.
9. The magnetic field will flare out at the end of the solenoid so there is less flux through the last turn than
through the middle of the solenoid.
11. As current flows through the inductor, there is a back current by Lenz’s law that is created to keep the net
current at zero amps, the initial current.
13. no
15. At , or when the switch is first thrown.
17. 1/4
19. Initially, and , and after a long time has passed, and .
21. yes
23. The amplitude of energy oscillations depend on the initial energy of the system. The frequency in a LC circuit
depends on the values of inductance and capacitance.
25. This creates an RLC circuit that dissipates energy, causing oscillations to decrease in amplitude slowly or
quickly depending on the value of resistance.
27. You would have to pick out a resistance that is small enough so that only one station at a time is picked up,
but big enough so that the tuner doesn’t have to be set at exactly the correct frequency. The inductance or
capacitance would have to be varied to tune into the station however practically speaking, variable capacitors
are a lot easier to build in a circuit.

Problems
29.
31. a. ; b.
33.
35. 0.24 H
37. 0.4 A/s
39.
41. 0.15 V. This is the same polarity as the emf driving the current.
43. a. 0.089 H/m; b. 0.44 V/m
45.
47. 0.01 A
49. 6.0 g
51.
53. a. 4.0 A; b. 2.4 A; c. on R: ; on L:
55.
57. a. 2.52 ms; b.
59. a. ; b. ; c. ; d.
61. proof
63.
760 Answer Key

65. a. ; b.
67.

69.

71. 6.9 ms

Additional Problems
73. Let a equal the radius of the long, thin wire, r the location where the magnetic field is measured, and R the
upper limit of the problem where we will take R as it approaches infinity.

proof

∞
75.
77. a. 100 T; b. 2 A; c. 0.50 H
79. a. 0 A; b. 2.4 A
81. a. ; (b) The voltage is so extremely high that arcing would occur and the current would not be
reduced so rapidly. (c) It is not reasonable to shut off such a large current in such a large inductor in such an
extremely short time.

Challenge Problems
83. proof
85. a. b. ; c. 4.4 nA

Chapter 15
Check Your Understanding
15.1 10 ms
15.2 a. ; b. ; c.

15.3

15.4
15.5 2.00 V; 10.01 V; 8.01 V
15.6 a. 160 Hz; b. ; c. ; d. 0.023 rad
15.7 a. halved; b. halved; c. same
15.8
15.9 a. 12:1; b. 0.042 A; c.

Conceptual Questions
1. Angular frequency is times frequency.
3. yes for both
5. The instantaneous power is the power at a given instant. The average power is the power averaged over a
cycle or number of cycles.
7. The instantaneous power can be negative, but the power output can’t be negative.
9. There is less thermal loss if the transmission lines operate at low currents and high voltages.
11. The adapter has a step-down transformer to have a lower voltage and possibly higher current at which the

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 Answer Key 761

device can operate.

13. so each loop can experience the same changing magnetic flux

Problems
15. a. ; b. ; c.
17. a. ; b. ; c.
19. 360 Hz
21.
23. a. ; b.
25. a. ; b. 0.16 A; c. ; d. ;

27. a. ; b. 0.15 A; c. ; d. , 0.092 A,

29. a. ; b. ; c. ​
31. a. 0.89 A; b. 5.6A; c. 1.4 A
33. a. 5.3 W; b. 2.1 W
35. a. inductor; b.
37.
39. a. 820 Hz; b. 7.8
41. a. 50 Hz; b. 50 W; c. 6.32; d. 50 rad/s
43. The reactance of the capacitor is larger than the reactance of the inductor because the current leads the
voltage. The power usage is 30 W.
45. a. 45:1; b. 0.68 A, 0.015 A; c.
47. a. 41 turns; b. 40.9 mA

Additional Problems
49. a. ; b. ; c.
51. a. ; b.
53. a. 19 A; b. inductor leads by
55.
57. 14 W
59. a. ; b.

Challenge Problems
61. a. 335 MV; b. the result is way too high, well beyond the breakdown voltage of air over reasonable distances;
c. the input voltage is too high
63. a. ; b. 0.5 A; c. , lagging;

d. e. 0.995; f. 6.25 J
​
65. a. ; b. ; c. ; d. ; e. ; f.
67. The units as written for inductive reactance Equation 15.8 are . Radians can be ignored in unit analysis.
The Henry can be defined as . Combining these together results in a unit of for reactance.
69. a. 156 V; b. 42 V; c. 154 V
71. a. and ; b. and

Chapter 16
Check Your Understanding
16.1 It is greatest immediately after the current is switched on. The displacement current and the magnetic field
from it are proportional to the rate of change of electric field between the plates, which is greatest when the
762 Answer Key

plates first begin to charge.

16.2 No. The changing electric field according to the modified version of Ampère’s law would necessarily induce a
changing magnetic field.
16.3 (1) Faraday’s law, (2) the Ampère-Maxwell law
16.4 a. The directions of wave propagation, of the E field, and of B field are all mutually perpendicular. b. The speed
of the electromagnetic wave is the speed of light independent of frequency. c. The ratio of
electric and magnetic field amplitudes is
16.5 Its acceleration would decrease because the radiation force is proportional to the intensity of light from the
Sun, which decreases with distance. Its speed, however, would not change except for the effects of gravity
from the Sun and planets.
16.6 They fall into different ranges of wavelength, and therefore also different corresponding ranges of frequency.

Conceptual Questions
1. The current into the capacitor to change the electric field between the plates is equal to the displacement
current between the plates.
3. The first demonstration requires simply observing the current produced in a wire that experiences a changing
magnetic field. The second demonstration requires moving electric charge from one location to another, and
therefore involves electric currents that generate a changing electric field. The magnetic fields from these
currents are not easily separated from the magnetic field that the displacement current produces.
5. in (a), because the electric field is parallel to the wire, accelerating the electrons
7. A steady current in a dc circuit will not produce electromagnetic waves. If the magnitude of the current varies
while remaining in the same direction, the wires will emit electromagnetic waves, for example, if the current
is turned on or off.
9. The amount of energy (about ) is can quickly produce a considerable change in temperature, but
the light pressure (about ) is much too small to notice.
11. It has the magnitude of the energy flux and points in the direction of wave propagation. It gives the direction
of energy flow and the amount of energy per area transported per second.
13. The force on a surface acting over time is the momentum that the force would impart to the object. The
momentum change of the light is doubled if the light is reflected back compared with when it is absorbed, so
the force acting on the object is twice as great.
15. a. According to the right hand rule, the direction of energy propagation would reverse. b. This would leave the
vector , and therefore the propagation direction, the same.
17. a. Radio waves are generally produced by alternating current in a wire or an oscillating electric field between
two plates; b. Infrared radiation is commonly produced by heated bodies whose atoms and the charges in
them vibrate at about the right frequency.
19. a. blue; b. Light of longer wavelengths than blue passes through the air with less scattering, whereas more of
the blue light is scattered in different directions in the sky to give it is blue color.
21. A typical antenna has a stronger response when the wires forming it are orientated parallel to the electric
field of the radio wave.
23. No, it is very narrow and just a small portion of the overall electromagnetic spectrum.
25. Visible light is typically produced by changes of energies of electrons in randomly oriented atoms and
molecules. Radio waves are typically emitted by an ac current flowing along a wire, that has fixed orientation
and produces electric fields pointed in particular directions.
27. Radar can observe objects the size of an airplane and uses radio waves of about 0.5 cm in wavelength. Visible
light can be used to view single biological cells and has wavelengths of about .
29. ELF radio waves
31. The frequency of 2.45 GHz of a microwave oven is close to the specific frequencies in the 2.4 GHz band used
for WiFi.

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 Answer Key 763

Problems

33.

35. a. ; b. ;

c. ; which is the sum of and

consistent with how the displacement current maintaining the continuity of current.
37.
39.
41. 499 s
43. 25 m
45. a. 5.00 V/m; b. ; c. 31.4 cm; d. toward the +x-axis;
e.
47.
49. The magnetic field is downward, and it has magnitude .
51. a. b. 394 m
53. 11.5 m
55.
57.
59.
61. a. ; b.
63. a. ; b. ; c. 1.12 W
65.

67.

69. a. b. it is reduced to half the pressure,

71. a.
73. a. ; b. X-rays
75. a. The wavelength range is 187 m to 556 m. b. The wavelength range is 2.78 m to 3.41 m.
77.
79. time for difference in travel time is
81. a. b. c.
83. the non-oscillating geomagnetic field of 25–65 is much larger
85. a. ; b. ; c.
87. a. ; b. radio wave; c.

Additional Problems
89.
91. , which is much greater than Earth’s circumference
93. a. 564 W; b. ; c. ; d.
95. a. ; b. ; c.
97. a. ; b.
764 Answer Key

99.

101. 0.431
103. a. ; b. ; c. 33 ns

105.

Challenge Problems
107. a. ; b. The radiation pressure is greater than the Sun’s gravity if the particle size is smaller, because
the gravitational force varies as the radius cubed while the radiation pressure varies as the radius squared. c.
The radiation force outward implies that particles smaller than this are less likely to be near the Sun than
outside the range of the Sun’s radiation pressure.

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 Index 765

INDEX

A camera flashes 597 coulomb 172, 172, 510

absolute temperature scale 8 capacitance 325 Coulomb force 179
absolute zero 8 capacitive reactance 627 credit card 576
ac current 624 capacitor 323, 627 critical point 24
ac voltage 624 Carnot 144 Critical pressure 24
Adiabatic compressions 121 Carnot cycle 144 critical temperature 24, 71, 391
adiabatic expansion 121 Carnot engine 144 current density 370
adiabatic process 118 Carnot’s principle 147 cyclic process 118
Alternating current (ac) 624 cathode 408 cyclotron 486
amber 171 Cell membranes 332 cylindrical symmetry 241
ammeter 437 Cell phone 682
Celsius scale 8
D
ampere 362, 510
dalton 68, 80
Ampère 362, 465 Chadwick 174
Dalton’s law of partial pressures
Ampère’s law 515 charging by induction 177
80
analog meter 439 Charles 65
Davy 465
anode 408 Charles’s law 65
Debye 23
Arago 465 circuit 365
Debye temperature 23
area vector 221 Clausius 137
dees 486
Aurorae 472 Clausius statement of the second
defibrillator 341
average power 637 law of thermodynamics 137
degree Celsius 8
Avogadro 68 closed system 104
degree Fahrenheit 8
Avogadro’s number 68 coaxial cable 331, 537, 601
degree of freedom 85
coefficient of linear expansion 10
B coefficient of performance 141
density of water 14
back emf 574 Diamagnetic materials 526
coefficient of volume expansion
bandwidth 641 dielectric 323
13
Bardeen 392 dielectric breakdown 347
cold reservoir 138
battery 407 dielectric constant 343
Comet McNaught 657
Battery testers 412 dielectric strength 307, 348
comets 677
BCS theory 392 diesel cycle 166
commutator 479
Bernoulli 74 digital meter 439
compass needle 464
Biot 465 Digital signal processing 593
condensation 23
Biot-Savart law 502 diode 383
conduction 31
Bluetooth 684 dipole 177
conduction electron 176
Boltzmann 66 dipole antenna 670
conductor 176
Boltzmann constant 66 dipole moment 203
constant-volume gas
boundary 104 Direct current (dc) 624
thermometer 9
Boyle 65 disorder 155
continuous charge distribution
Boyle’s law 65 displacement current 659
190
braking systems 568 drift velocity 367
convection 38
dry ice 25
C conventional current 365
calorie 17 Cooper 392 E
calorimeter 22 Cooper pairs 392 eddy current 566
calorimetry 22 cosmic rays 472 efficiency (e) 139
766 Index

electric charge 172 flash camera 443 induced electrical field 346
electric dipole 288 flux 220 induced emf 547
electric dipole moment 290 forced convection 38 induced surface charges 346
electric field 184 Franklin 172, 366 Inductance 592
electric flux 221, 659 free electrons 246 inductive reactance 629
electric force 173 freezing 23 inductive time constant 603
electric potential 274 freezing of water 13 inductor 596, 629
electric potential difference 275 infinite plane 197
electric power 384
G infinite straight wire 194
gamma ray ( ray) 686
electrical conductivity 372 infrared radiation 684
Gauss 219, 466
electrical current 362 ink jet printer 310
Gaussian surface 230
electrical potential energy 268 insulation 36
Gay-Lussac’s law 66
electrolytic capacitor 331 insulator 176
generators 570
electromotive force (emf) 406 intensity 672
giant magnetoresistance 465,
electron 174 intensive variable 106
576
electron-volt 278 internal combustion engine 138
Gilbert 172
electrostatic attraction 173 internal energy 16, 76, 109
gradient 297
electrostatic force 182 internal resistance 409
greenhouse effect 45
electrostatic precipitators 310 ion 175
ground fault circuit interrupter
electrostatic repulsion 173 irreversibility 137
449
electrostatics 182 irreversible process 137
grounding 300
emf 546 isentropic 156
emissivity 43 H isobaric process 118
energy conservation 111 half-wave antenna 670 isochoric process 118
energy density 340, 671 Hall 482 isothermal expansion 107
energy flux 672 Hall effect 482 isothermal process 117
entropy 149 hard drives 576
entropy statement of the second
J
heat 16
Josephson junction 394
law of thermodynamics 151 heat engine 138
Joule 17
environment 104 heat of fusion 28
junction rule 426
equation of state 105 heat of sublimation 30
equilibrium 105 heat of vaporization 28 K
equipartition theorem 85 heat pump 140, 148 Kamerlingh Onnes 391
equipotential line 299 heat transfer 6 Kelvin scale 8
equipotential surface 299 helical motion 471 Kelvin statement of the second
equivalent resistance 413 Henry 592 law of thermodynamics 142
escape velocity 78 henry (H) 592 kilocalorie 17
evaporation 23 Hertz 663 kinetic theory of gases 73
expansion joints 10 hot reservoir 138 Kirchhoff 425
extensive variable 106 hybrid vehicles 577 Kirchhoff’s rules 425
hysteresis 529
F L
Fahrenheit scale 8 I laser printer 309
farad 325 ideal gas 66 latent heat coefficient 28
Faraday 325, 465, 546 ideal gas law 66 law of conservation of charge
Faraday’s law 593 impedance 633 173
ferromagnetic material 526 induced dipole 203 Law of Dulong and Petit 87
field line 198 induced electric field 562 LC circuit 607
field line density 200 induced electric-dipole moment lead acid battery 408
first law of thermodynamics 110 347 Lenz 550

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 Index 767

Lenz’s law 550 normal vector 222 radar 682

Leyden jar 172 north magnetic pole 464 radiation 31
light sail 678 nucleus 174 radiation pressure 676
lightning rod 307 radio waves 681
linear charge density 191
O rail gun 556
Oersted 465
loop rule 426 rate of conductive heat transfer
ohm 372, 381
Lorentz force equation 661 34
Ohm’s law 381, 382
RC circuit 440
M ohmic 381
refrigerator 140, 423
magnetic damping 566, 567 ohmmeter 440
relative humidity 81
magnetic dipole 480 open system 104
resistance 375
magnetic dipole moment 480 Otto cycle 166
resistivity 372
magnetic domains 528
magnetic energy density 600
P resistor 626
pacemaker 444 resonant frequency 641
magnetic field lines 469
parallel circuit 413 reversible process 119, 136
magnetic flux 547
parallel combination 335 right-hand rule 506
magnetic force 466
parallel-plate capacitor 324 right-hand rule 2 550
magnetic monopoles 470
paramagnetic material 525 right-hand rule-1 466
magnetic resonance imaging 523
partial pressure 80 RLC circuit 610
magnetic susceptibility 527
peak speed 90 RLC series circuit 631
mass spectrometer 485
perfect engine 142 rms current 628
Maxwell 85, 658
perfect refrigerator 142 rms voltage 628
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution
permanent dipole 202 root-mean-square (rms) speed
88
permeability of free space 502 77
Maxwell’s equations 658
permittivity of free space 659 Rutherford 174
mean free path 82
permittivity of vacuum 180
mean free time 82 S
phase angle 632
mechanical equivalent of heat 17 Savart 465
phase diagram 24
Meissner effect 392 scalar field 186
phase transition 72
melting 23 schematic 365
Phase transitions 23
metal detectors 568, 597 Schrieffer 392
phasor diagrams 626
microwaves 682 self-inductance 595
photoconductor 309
molar heat capacity at constant series circuit 413
pinch effect 509
pressure 120 series combination 334
planar symmetry 244
molar heat capacity at constant shock hazard 446
polarization 176, 246
volume 83, 120 short circuit 446
potential difference 406
mole 68 smartphone 592
potential drop 410, 427
most probable speed 90 Snow 135
power factor 638
motionally induced emf 556 solar cells 437
Power plants 138
Motors 479 solenoid 520, 551
Poynting vector 672
multi-loop circuit 425 south magnetic pole 464
principle of superposition 181
mutual inductance (M) 592 spark chamber 283
proton 174
specific heat 18
N pV diagram 71
speed of light 667
natural convection 38
net rate of heat transfer by
Q spherical symmetry 235
quality factor 642 SQUID 394
radiation 44
quasi-static process 107, 116 standard temperature and
neutron 174
pressure (STP) 68
non-quasi-static processes 117 R starter motor 363
nonohmic 381 R factor 36
state functions 111
768 Index

state variable 18 thermodynamic variables 116 vapor pressure 25, 81

static electricity 170 thermographs 44 variable air capacitor 331
Stefan-Boltzmann law of Thermometers 7 vector field 186
radiation 43 third law of thermodynamics 156 velocity selector 482
step-down transformer 647 Thomson 173 Visible light 684
step-up transformer 647 three-wire system 448 volt (V) 275
Stirling engine 152 time constant 441 Volta 275
sublimation 25 traffic signals 597 voltage 275
superconductivity 391 transcranial magnetic stimulation voltaic pile 406
supercritical 73 (TMS) 577 voltmeter 437
supercritical fluid 24 transformer 645 volume charge density 191
superposition 189 transformer equation 647
surface charge density 191 transmission lines 645
W
weber 548
surroundings 104 triple point 9, 24
WiFi 683
T U work 106
tablet computers 576 ultraviolet radiation 685 working substance 139
television 682 unified atomic mass unit (u) 68
temperature 6 universal gas constant 69
X
X-ray 685
terminal voltage 408
tesla 466
V xerography 308
Van Allen radiation belts 472
thermal agitation 682
Van de Graaff generator 286,
Y
thermal conductivity 34 Young 662
308
thermal equilibrium 6, 105
thermal expansion 10
van der Waals 71 Z
van der Waals equation of state zeroth law of thermodynamics 6,
thermal hazard 446
71 105
thermal stress 15
van der Waals gas 108
thermodynamic process 116
vapor 25
thermodynamic system 104

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Index 769