Module 1

The Nature of Mathematics

Mathematics in Our World

Mathematics in the Modern World

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Overview

In his book “How Not to Be Wrong: The Power of Mathematical Thinking”,

American mathematician Jordan Ellenberg wrote: “I think we need more
math majors who don't become mathematicians. More math major
doctors, more math major high school teachers, more math major CEOs, more math
major senators. But we won't get there unless we dump the stereotype that math is only
worthwhile for kid geniuses.”
Do you agree with Ellenberg? Do you think the world will be a better place if most
of us were math majors, and yet not necessarily mathematicians? What does it mean
to be a math major yet not a mathematician?
A mathematician is someone who uses an extensive knowledge of mathematics
in his or her work, typically to solve mathematical problems. A math major on the other
hand is someone who learns math skills like logic, analysis, abstract reasoning, and
problem solving, which are valuable skills to his or her future employment.
In this module, we shall learn some math skills that are essential in the practice of
your chosen field of specialization. Our topics include the nature of math, the patterns
that we see in nature and in the world in general. We shall also learn logical patterns,
numerical patterns, and isometries.

Learning Outcomes

After completing the study of this module, you should be able to:

1. Summarize the history of mathematics and its impact to the world;

2. Classify patterns in nature and regularities in the world;

3. Explain the importance of mathematics in one’s life;

Appreciate mathematics as a human endeavor through creating self-designed

4.

patterns;

5. Utilize methods and approaches in proving and solving problems.

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Initial activity (Accessing prior knowledge)

 What is mathematics?
 How do you describe mathematics?

Mathematics has been called the greatest and most original invention of the
human mind. It is one of the great social institutions built up by cooperation during the
long history of civilization. It is a mode of thinking that is necessary for the evolution of
the human race. It relies on both logic and creativity, and it is pursued both for a variety
of practical purposes and for its intrinsic interest.

Those who study mathematics for intrinsic interest believe that the essence of
mathematics lies in its beauty and intellectual challenge. As a theoretical discipline,
mathematics explores the possible relationships among abstractions without concern
for whether those abstractions have counterparts in the real world. This kind of
mathematicians, called pure mathematicians, are interested only in finding a pattern
or proving that there is none, but not in what use such knowledge might have.

Those who study mathematics for practical purposes believe that the chief value
of mathematics is how it applies to a person’s own work, like the scientists, engineers,
economists, etc. Mathematicians of this kind focus their attention on solving problems
that originate in the world of experience.

Sometimes, it takes decades or centuries before a practical mathematician

discovers the usefulness of a certain mathematical concept or theory that a pure
mathematician had introduced. Nevertheless, the discoveries of theoretical
mathematicians frequently turn out to have unanticipated practical value, and the
results of theoretical and applied mathematics often influence each other. It is the pure
mathematicians who set up the framework, the structure, and the pattern that describe
the tangible objects which the scientists (or practical mathematicians) study.

The story of mathematics is considerably as old as humanity itself. Since early

civilization, mathematics has been instrumental to advances in science, engineering,
philosophy, and the way of life in general. It has evolved from simple counting,
measurement and calculation, and the systematic study of the shapes and motions of
physical objects to the broad, complex and often abstract discipline we know today.
Through the application of abstraction, imagination and logic, our great
mathematicians were able to give us foundation in understanding phenomena around
us. Following is a presentation of some of the most significant events in development of
mathematics from the beginning until now.
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Let us now look at how mathematics developed from the beginning until now.

Prehistoric Mathematics

Mathematics was used for counting and

tallying. In Central Africa they used
Ishango bones as early as about 20,000
years ago to record counts and tally.
Image source: [Link]

Geometric designs were used in artifacts, not as

the systematic treatment of figures, patterns,
forms, and quantities. Pre- dynastic Egyptians
and Sumerians, as well as Europeans,
decorated their places with geometric designs
as early as the 5th and 3rd millenium BC.
Image source: [Link]
3400bce-egypt-naqada-i/

Mathematics proper was developed

when civilization settled and as a
response to the need to develop
agriculuture in Mesopotamia, particularly
Sumeria and Babylonia.

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The use of 60 and 360 in the circle

measurements is arguably exhibited in
Stonehenge monument in England, which
dates back to 2300 BC.

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Sumerian/ Babylonian Mathematics

Mathematics was used for developing

agriculture (measurement of plots of land)
and for beaurucratic needs (taxation of
individuals) possibly as early as the 6th
millennium BC.

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[Link]

Starting as early as the 4th millennium BC,

large numbers were described using
symbols to chart the course of day and
night sky which they needed in order to
develop their sophisticated lunar
calendar.

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The Sumerian and Babylonian Number System:

Base 60 was developed.
A circle character for zero was used.
Meteorology, multiplication and reciprocal
tables, tables of squares, square roots and
cube roots, geometrical exercises and division
problems existedfrom around 2600 BC
onwards.
From about 1800 to 1600 BC, some Babylonian
Image source: [Link]
[Link]/news/’2016/01/mat tablets cover topics on fractions, algebra,
h-whizzes-ancient-babylon-figured- linear, quadratic, and cubic equations.
out-forerunner-calculus

The Babylonians used geometric shapes in their

buildings and designs and in dice, which they used for
their leisure games like backgammon. They already
calculated areas of triangles, rectangles, and
trapezoids, as well as volumes of simple shapes like
bricks and cylinders.

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tablet-re-examined/

Pythagorean triangles were already discussed

as early as 1800 BC as evidenced by the 4
Plimpton 322 clay tablet which shows 15 perfect
Pytahgorean triples.

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Egyptian Mathematics

Measurements were based on body parts and a

decimal numeric system was developed based on
the ten fingers. A mathematical text, called Moscow
Papyrus, was known to have existed around 2000-
1800 BC.

Image source: [Link]

take-me-to-your-ruler

The Ancient Egyptian Number System: Base 10

was fully developed as early as 2700 BC.
[Link]
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The Rhind Papyrus existed around 1650 BC. It is a kind of

instruction manual in arithmetic and geometry. It
demonstrates how multiplication and division was carried
out at that time. There are also other math knowledge
contained [Link]
there like prime and composite numbers,
fractions, arithmetic, geometric, and harmonic means, linear
found-near-stonehenge
equations, and arithmetic and geometric series.
[Link]
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A notation for fractions was developed in order to

solve practical problems of trade and the market. It is
called the Eye of Horus. This also led to the first known
geometric series: 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, 1/16,...

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Greek Mathematics

In about 450 BC, the ancient numeral system called

Attic or Herodianic numerals was fully developed in
Greece. It was somewhat similar to the earlier Egyptian
system (base 10) and the later Roman system.

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[Link]

The guidelines for the abstract development of

geometry was laid down by Thales through his Thales'
Theorem and Thales' Intercept Theorem

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One of the best known mathematical theorems was

[Link]
introduced: the Pythagorean theorem.
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The Three Geometrical Problems

[Link] were
stonehenge introduced. These problems were profoundly
influential on future geometry and led to many
fruitful discoveries. In 440 BC, Hippocrates of
Chios published his influential math book "The
Elements", which was the first compliation of the
[Link]
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elements of Geometry and which was an
important source for Euclid's later work.
[Link]
stonehenge Image source: [Link]

The idea of infinity was contested by the Greeks.

In the 5th century BC, Zeno of Elea posed
paradoxes including the Dichotomy Paradox and
the well- known paradox Achilles and the Tortoise.

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and-the-tortoise/
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The idea of proof and the deductive method 6

[Link]
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of using logical steps to prove or disprove
theorems from initial assumed theorems were
developed by the Greek mathematicians.
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Hellenistic Mathematics

Alexandria in Egypt became a great center of learning by

the 3rd century BC. Euclid, Archimedes, Eratosthenes,
Heron, Menelaus and Diophantus were some of the famous
mathematicians who studied and taught in the Library of
Alexandria.

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Euclid- was the great chronicler of the mathematics of the tim.

He virtually invented classical (Euclidean) geometry as we
know it.
Archimedes- one of the greatest pure mathematicians of all
time.
Eratosthenes- invented an algorithm for identifying prime
numbers, [Link]
called the “Sieve of Eratosthenes”.
stonehenge
Heron- became known for his Heronian triangles, Heron’s
Formula for finding the area of a triangle, and Heron’s Method
[Link]
for iteratively computing a square root. He was also the first
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mathematician to confront at least the idea of −1 .
Menelaus- author of the book "Sphaerica”, which delat with
the geometry of the sphere and its application in astronomical
measurements and calculations.
Diophantus- the first to recognize fractions as numbers, and is
considered an early innovator in the field of what would later
become known as algebra.
Image source: [Link]

In the 3rd century BC, Apollonius of Perga became

famous for his work on geometry, particulaly conics
and conic sections which was very influential on later
European mathematicians. It was Apollonius who
gave the ellipse, the parabola, and the hyperbola the
names by which we know them, and showed how
they could be derived from different sections through
a cone.
Image source: [Link]
apollonius-of-perga

[Link]
The first recorded female mathematician, Hypatia,
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lived in the middled of the 1st centry BC. She was a
renowned teacher who had written some respected 7
[Link]
commentaries on Diophantus and Apollonius. She was
stonehenge
dragged to her death by a Christian mob in 415 CE.

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Roman Mathematics

By the middle of the first century, Roman

numerals were the dominant number system for
trade and administration in most of Europe.

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Mayan Mathematics

As early as 2000 BC, Mayans have known the

importance mathematics in astronomy and calendar
calculations. They have constructed quite early a very
sophisticated number system, possibly more
[Link]
advanced than
stonehenge
any other in the world at the time.

[Link]
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stonehenge

As early as 36 BC Mayans and their neighbours had

independently developed the concept of zero, and they
have already been with sums up to the hundreds of millions.
They also produced extremely accurate astronomical
observations using no instruments other than sticks and were
able to measure the length of the solar year to a far higher
degree of accuracy than that used in Europe.
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Chinese Mathematics

In the 2nd millennium BC the Chinese numbering system

was developed. It was a simple but efficient system which
used small bamboo rods arranged to represent the
numbers 1 to 9, which were then placed in columns
representing units, tens, hundreds, thousands, etc. It was
very similar to the decimal place value system that we
use today.
Image source: [Link]

Numbers and mathematical patterns were fascinating to the

ancient Chines; they even believe that some numbers have
cosmic significance. In around 650 BC, they had magic squares of
numbers which were regarded as having great spiritual and
religious significance.
Image source: [Link]
rendus/carres_magiques-[Link]

In the 13th Century, Chinese mathematician Yang Hui

produced a triangular representation of binomial
coefficients identical to the later Pascals’ Triangle; he was
also perhaps the first to use decimal fractions in the modern
form.
Image source:
[Link]

From about 200 BC onwards, the Chinese started putting the thrust of
[Link]
mathematics in the empire’s growing need for mathematically competent
stonehenge
administrators. A textbook called “Jiuzhang Suanshu” or “Nine Chapters on
the Mathematical [Link]
Art” was written probably by several authors over time. It
became an important tool in the conduct of civil service, covering hundreds
stonehenge
of problems in practical areas such as trade, taxation, engineering and the
payment of wages.
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[Link]
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The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art was also a
particularly important guide on how to solve equations.
[Link]
stonehenge
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In 263 AD, China had Liu Hui, who was one of the
first mathematicians known to leave roots
[Link]
stonehenge unevaluated, giving more exact results instead of
approximations. He also formulated an algorithm
which calculated the value of π as 3.14159.
[Link]
stonehenge Image source:
[Link]

In the 3rd century, a technique for solving problems like the

Chinese Remainder Theorem was posed by Sun Tzu and 9
considered one of the jewels of mathematics. It was being used to
[Link]
measure planetary movements by Chinese astronomers in the 6th
Century AD, and even today it has practical uses, such as in
Internet cryptography.
[Link]

Image source: https:// math-physics-

[Link]/wiki/Ancient_Chinese_Mathematics_(1600_BC_-_600_AD)
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Indian Mathematics

Before 1000 BC, Indians already had Vedic math.

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In the 4th century BC, Buddha was already enumerati g

numbers up to 1053, as well as describing six more numbering
systems over and above these, leading to a number
equivalent to 10421.
Image source: [Link]
beliefs?overridemobile=true

As early as the 8th century BC, the Sulba Sutras was written. It
contained lists of Pytagorean triple, solutions of linear and
quadratic equations, and an accurate value of 2.
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As early as the 3rd or 2nd century, Indian

mathematicians were already been discussing
the concept of infinity.
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[Link]

In the 3rd century CE, the Hindu- Arabic number system was
[Link]
perfected by the Indians.
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In the 7th century, Brahmagupta made the brilliant conceptual

leap [Link]
to include zero as a number in its own right, rather than
merely as a placeholder, a blank or empty space within a
number, as it had been treated until that time.
[Link]
Image source: [Link]

In 400 CE, a text called Surya Siddhanta by unkown authors was

[Link]
published. It contained the roots of modern trigonometry, including
the first real use[Link]
of sine, cosine, tangent, inverse sine, and secants.

Image source: [Link]

[Link]

As early as the 6th century BC, Aryabhata have been

aware [Link]
hat π is an irrational number, and that any
calculation can only ever be an approximation, something
not proved in Europe until 1761.
[Link]
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in-the-classical-era-of-aryabhata
[Link]

THe most accomplished mathematician lived In the 12th

century. He was Bhaskara, who was credited with explaining 10
[Link]
the previously misunderstood operation of division by zero.
[Link]
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[Link]

In the 14th century, The Kerata School of Astronomy and

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Islamic Mathematics

In the 8th century, mathematics was raised to the form of an art in

Islam countries . They extensively used complex geometric patterns
to decorate their buildings and other things. Over time, Muslim artists
discovered all the different forms of symmetry that can be depicted
on a 2-dimensional surface.
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The House of Wisdom was set up in Baghdad around 810,

where the major Greek and Indian mathematical and
astronomy works where translated into Arabic.
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hikmah/

In the 9th century, outstanding Persian mathematician,

Muhammad Al- Kwarizmi, advocated the use of the Hindu
numerical system, which he recognized as having the power
and efficiency needed to revolutionize Islamic mathematics.
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Muhammad Al Karaji was the first to use the

method of proof by mathematical induction in
the 10th century.
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mathematical-induction/

[Link]
In the 13th Century, trigonometry was already treated as a
separate mathematical discipline, distinct from
astronomy, through the Persian astronomer, scientist and
mathematician Nasir Al-Din Al-Tusi. He also formulated the
Law of Sines.
[Link]
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72360af651bf4933a3e09bbe35c4e8ec
[Link]
By the 9th century, Arab Thabit ibn Qurra, was already
[Link]
developing a general formula by which amicable
numbers could be derived. Amicable numbers were re-
discovered much later by both Fermat and Descartes.
[Link]

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contributions/

The use of decimals instead of fractions was

introduced by the10th Century Arab mathematician
Abul Hasan al-Uqlidisi.
[Link]
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As early as the 11th century, Persian Ibn al-Haytham who

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made groundbreaking work on optics and physics,
established the beginnings of the link between algebra and
[Link]
geometry.
[Link]
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Medieval European Mathematics

From the 4th to 12th Centuries, European mathematics was

limited mainly to Boethius’ translations of some of the works of
ancient Greek masters. All trade and calculation was made
using the Roman numeral system, and with an abacus based
on Greek and Roman models.

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pakistan-are-uncannily-similar

In the 12th century, the great expansion of trade and commerce

created a growing practical need for mathematics. Common
peple, not only those in academe, started using arithmetic.

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When printing press was invented in the mid-15th Century,

numerous books on arithmetic were published for the purpose
of teaching business people computational methods for their
commercial needs. By this time European mathematics was
gradually given a more important position in education.

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[Link]
In the 13th century, Leonardo of Pisa, intoduced the very
interesting Fibonacci sequence. He was instrumental in
spreading the use of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system
[Link]
throughout Europe, through his Book Liber Abaci. It opened the
way for great advances in European mathematics.
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[Link]

In the 14th century, Frenchman Nicole Oresme used a

[Link]
system of rectangular coordinates centuries ahead his
countryman René Descarte. He was perhaps the first to
make a time-speed-distance graph; the first to use
fractional exponents, and the first to prove that the
harmonic series 1⁄1 + 1⁄2 + 1⁄3 + 1⁄4 + 1⁄5… is a divergent infinite
series.
[Link]
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[Link]
In the 15th century, the German scholar Regiomontatus
published the first great printed book on trigonometry. The book
called De Triangulis described much of the basic trigonometric
knowledge which we learn in today's high school and college. 12

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e4ebca8a-99b1-491d-813f-473cd68a7fdc

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Germany also had a 15th Century mathematician, Nicholas of
Cusa, whose ideas on the infinite and the infinitesimal directly
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16th Century Mathematics

In 1514, a so-called “super magic square” with many

more lines of addition symmetry than a regular 4 x 4
magic square was included in the work of famous artist
Albrecht Dürer. It was a proof and tribute that
mathematics was held in respect in Europe.

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In about the 15th century, Luca Pacioli, published a book on

arithmetic, geometry and book-keeping . It contained
mathematical puzzles and it introduced the symbols for plus and
minus for the first time in a printed book. Pacioli also investigated
the Golden Ratio.
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During the 16th and early 17th Century, the equals, multiplication,
division, radical (root), decimal and inequality symbols were
gradually introduced and standardized. The decimal point notation
[Link]
was popularized in early in the 17th Century. A Flemish
mathematician Simon Stevin was ahead of his time to suggest that
[Link]
all types of numbers, whether fractions, negatives, real numbers or
surds should be treated equally as numbers in their own right.
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In the 16th century, Bologna University, which was famous for its
intense public mathematics competitions exposed a young self-
taught Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia. He revelaed through the
contests the formula for solving first one type, and later all types,
of cubic equations which had stumped the best
[Link]
mathematicians of China, India and the Islamic world..It was an
achievement that was considered impossible at that time.
[Link]
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Tartaglia and two other Italian mathematicians Grrolamo Cardano

and Lodovico Ferrari demonstrated the first uses of complex
numbers. Bolognan mathematician Rafael Bombelli explained what 13
imaginary numbers reallly were and how they could be
[Link]
used. Cardano published perhaps the first systematic treatment of
probability.
[Link]

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17th Century Mathematics

In the early 17th Century Scottish mathematician John Napier invented

the logarithm which contributed to the advance of science, astronomy
and mathematics by making some difficult calculations relatively easy.

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American mathematician Henry Briggs produced extensive lookup

tables of common logarithms, and in 1622 English mathematician William
Oughted had produced a logarithmic slide rule- an instrument which
became indispensible in technological innovation for the next 300 years.

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[Link]

Mersenne primes were studied by Frenchman Marin Mersenne.

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In the mid-17th Century French mathematician René Descartes started the

development of analytic geometry and Cartesian coordinates. This
allowed the orbits of the planets to be plotted on a graph, and it laid the
foundations for the later development of calculus. Descartes is also
[Link]
credited with the first use of superscripts for powers or exponents.
[Link]
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Pierre de Fermat and Blaise Pascal were contemporary mathematicians who

used to[Link]
to exchange letters which led to the development of the concept
of expected values and the field of probability theory. Fermat formulated
many [Link]
theorems on number theory, and contributed some early work on
infinitesimal calculus. Pascal gave us the Pascal’s Triangle of binomial
coefficients.

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[Link]
[Link]

Using the understanding gained by major thinkers who have

[Link]
gone before him, Englishman Sir Isaac Newton formulated the
laws of physics in an unprecedented way. He also laid the
groundwork for almost all of classical mechanics. Becasue of
these, he is considered as one of the greatest mathematicians
of all time. Leibniz is Newton's contemporary who introduced
the calculus notation still in use today.
Both Newton and Leibniz contributed greatly in mathematics,
[Link]
including Newton’s generalized binomial theorem, the theory of
finite differences and the use of infinite power series,
[Link]
and Leibniz’s development of a mechanical forerunner to the 14
computer and the use of matrices to solve linear equations.

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isaac-newton/

Other notable mathematicians of this time were Italian Bonaventura

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18th Century Mathematics

The period was dominated by one family, the Bernoulli’s of Basel in

Switzerland, which gave three generations of exceptional
mathematicians, particularly the brothers, Jacob and Johann. They
further developed Leibniz’s infinitesimal calculus as well
as Pascal and Fermat’s probability and number theory.
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Another mathematician from Basel, Leonhard Euler, was able to find

unexpected links between the different fields of mathematics, all of which
he had distinguishable superiority. He proved many theorems, introduced
new methods, standardized mathematical notation and authored many
important textbooks throughout his long academic life.

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Christian Goldbach was Euler's contemporary. In one of his letters

to Euler, he proposed the Goldbach Conjecture, which states
that every even integer greater than 2 can be expressed as the
sum of two primes.
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During this period, Abraham de Moivre formulated his de Moivre’s formula,

(cosx + [Link]
isinx)n = cos(nx) + isin(nx), which links complex numbers and
trigonometry. He also generalized Newton’s famous binomial theorem into
the multinomial theorem, pioneered the development of analytic
[Link]
geometry, and his work on the normal distribution and probability theory
were of great importance.
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1. Joseph Louis Lagrange- worked on the

calculus of variation, differential equations and
[Link]
number theory, pioneered the theory of
groups, which would become so important
in 19th and 20th Century mathematics.
[Link]

2. Pierre Simon Laplace- made the geometric

study of classical mechanics calculus- based,
opening up a much broader range of
problems; he worked on differential equations,
[Link]
probability and statistics.
[Link]-Marie Legendre- mademportant
[Link]
contributions to statistics, number theory,
abstract algebra and mathematical analysis;
Image source: https:// his extremely accurate measurement of the
[Link]/Musielak/germain-and-proof-of-flt- terrestrial meridian inspired the creationof the
musielak metric system of measures and weights.
[Link]
15
Gaspard Monge was the inventor of descriptive
geometry, a technique which would later become
[Link]
important in the fields of engineering, architecture and
design. His orthographic projection became the
graphical method used in almost all modern
mechanical drawing.
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drawing-tips
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19th Century Mathematics

Napoleon emphasized the practical usefulness of mathematics and his reforms and
military ambitions gave French mathematics a big boost.
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In the 19th Century, another important advance in mathematical analysis was made by
Joseph Fourier in his study of infinite sums in which the terms are trigonometric
[Link], German mathematician Lejeune Direchlet contributed towards
defining exactly what is meant by a function.
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In 1806, Jean-Robert Argand published his paper on how complex numbers could
be represented on geometric diagrams and manipulated using trigonometry and
vectors.
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Galois‘ work laid the groundwork for further developments such as the beginnings of
the field of abstract algebra, including areas like algebraic geometry, group theory,
rings, fields, modules, vector spaces and non-commutative algebra.
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accomplish-so-much-in-so-brief-of-a-life/
Germany supported pure mathematics for its own sake, detached from
the demands of the state and military.
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[Link]
[Link]
Gauss’ ideas were a hundred years ahead of their time, and touched on
[Link]
many different parts of the mathematical world, including geometry, number
theory, calculus, algebra and probability. He is widely regarded as one of the
three greatest mathematicians of all times.
[Link]
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[Link]
Bernhard Riemann formulated his famous Riemann Hypothesis, still unproven
after 150 years, and remains one of the world’s great unsolved mathematical
mysteries and now the testing ground for new generations of mathematicians.
[Link]
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[Link]
The true forerunner of the modern electronic computer was designed
durimg this period by Charles Babbage of England. The machine's design
could automatically perform computations based on a program of
instructions stored on cards or tape. Babbage's large “difference engine”
[Link]
of 1823 was able to calculate logarithms and trigonometric functions.
Image source: [Link]
[Link]
1112-4005-8ff4-3bf9c11b881b
English mathematician George Peacock invented symbolic algebra and
[Link]
extended the scope of algebra beyond the ordinary systems of numbers. In
the mid-19th Century, the British mathematician George Boole devised an
algebra (now called Boolean algebra or Boolean logic), in which the only
[Link]
operators were AND, OR and NOT, and which could be applied to the solution
of logical problems and mathematical functions.
Image source: [Link]
[Link]
mathematical-logic-pdf
Mathematics became ever more complex and abstract, but it reexplored and
emphasized the use of some older methods like mathematical rigour. Some notable
[Link]
mathematicians of this period are William Hamilton (Irish) , Arthur Cayley (Englishman) ,
the priest Bernhard Bolzano (Bohemian), Augustin-Louis Cauchy (French), the Germans16
Karl[Link]
Weierstrass, August Ferdinand Möbius, Carl Jacobi, and Felix Klein, Marius Sophus
Lie (Norweigian), and 16-year Niccolò Paganini (Italian).
Image source: [Link]
[Link]
The first foundations of set theory were established by Georg Cantor and Richard
Dedekind defined concepts such as similar sets and infinite sets (both are Germans). In
1881, the Englishman John Venn introduced his “Venn diagrams” which become useful
 

2oth Century Mathematics

Mathematics increasingly became generalized and abstract. But it

became a major profession. New specialized areas and fields of study in
mathematics has developed.
Image source: [Link]

British mathematician G.H. Hardy and his young Indian protégé Srinivasa
Ramanujan, were two of the great mathematicians of the early 20th Century.
They tried their best to solve problems of the previous century, such as the
Riemann hypothesis.
Image source: [Link]

In 1904, ten years after he started it, Johann Gustav Hermes finally completed his
construction of a regular polygon with 65,537 sides (216 + 1), using just a compass
and straight edge as Euclid would have done.
Image source: [Link]

The field of mathematical logic has began to rise through mathematicians

Giuseppe Peano, L.E.J. Brouwer, David Hilbert, Bertrand Russell, and A.N.
Whitehead
Image source: [Link]
Whitehead/dp/168422330X

A historic convention of mathematicians was held at the Sorbonne

[Link]
in Paris in 1900. There, the young German mathematician David
stonehenge
Hilbert lectured his fellow and set out what he saw as the 23 greatest
unsolved mathematical problems of the day.
[Link]
Image source: [Link]
stonehenge

Completely new mathematical concepts were developed by Hilbert who also

[Link]
formulated
stonehenge several theorems. His approach signalled the shift to the modern axiomatic
method in math. Meanwhile, Austrian Kurt Gödel proved the unthinkable – that there
could be solutions to mathematical problems which were true but which could never be
[Link]
proved.
stonehenge
[Link]
Image source: [Link]
stonehenge
Mathematics was greatly used by Alan Turing in breaking the German
enigma code. His work led to the development of computers and the first
[Link]
considerations
stonehenge of concepts like artificial intelligence.
Image source: [Link]
[Link]

The Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton was establoshed. It

[Link]
attempted to replicate the collegiate atmosphere of the old European
universities in rural New Jersey. It became a refuge to many of the
brightest European mathematicians, including Hermann Weyl, John von
Neumann, Kurt Gödel and Albert Einstein.
[Link]
Image source: [Link]
stonehenge

The[Link]
most important woman in the history of mathematics, the German Emmy
stonehenge
Noether lived in this period. Her work changed the face of abstract algebra and
her theorem on the connection between symmetry and conservation laws was
key in the development of quantum mechanics and other aspects of modern
physics.
[Link] 17
stonehenge
Image source: [Link]
noether-and-the-mathematics-to-understand-relativity/
[Link]
John von Neumann pioneered the game theory. His design model for a
stonehengestored-program digital computer that uses a processing unit and a separate
storage structure to hold both instructions and data is still followed in most
[Link]
stonehenge electronic computer architecture even today. Claude Shannon,
considered the father of information theory, together with von Neumann
 

20th Century Mathematics

Modern axiomatic foundations of probability theory was laid down by Soviet

mathematician Andrey Kolmogorov in the 1930s.
Image source: [Link]

André Weil , another refugee from the war in Europe, worked on some of the
greatest achievements of modern mathematics. He formulated theorems which
connected number theory, algebra, geometry and topology. He was also
responsible for setting up a group of French mathematicians who, under the pen
name Nicolas Bourbaki, wrote many influential books on the mathematics of the
20th Century.
Image source: [Link]

In the 1950s Alexander Grothendieck created a powerful new language which

allowed new solutions in number theory, geometry, and even in fundamental
physics. In 1970s and 1980s Mandelbrot studied complex dynamics and sets. He
coined the term fractal, and became known as the father of fractal geometry.
Image source: [Link]

Jewish mathematician Paul Cohen rocked the mathematical world in the 1960s,
[Link]
when he proved that Cantor‘s continuum hypothesis about the possible sizes of
stonehenge
infinite sets (one of Hilbert’s original 23 problems) could be both true and not true,
and that there were effectively two completely separate but valid mathematical
[Link]
worlds, one in which the continuum hypothesis was true and one where it was not.
stonehenge
Image source: [Link]

In 1970, the young Russian Yuri Matiyasevich finally proved that Hilbert’s tenth
[Link]
problem was impossible, i.e. that there is no general method for determining
stonehenge
when polynomial equations have a solution in whole numbers. To arrive at his
proof, Matiyasevich refered to the work of the American mathematician Julia
Robinson. This is a great s bhow of internationalism at the height of the Cold War.
[Link]
stonehenge
Image source: [Link]
[Link]
mathematicians/
stonehenge

Because of the advent of the electronic computer, complex dynamics and chaos
[Link]
theory was developed. Edward Lorenz was the pioneer of Chaos Theory. In 1976
stonehenge
Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang Haken showed a proof of the four colour theorem,
the first major theorem to be proved using a computer. The four colour conjecture
was first proposed in 1852 by Francis Guthrie. Appel and Haken’s solution required
some 1,200 hours of computer time to examine around 1,500 configurations.
[Link]
stonehenge
Image source: [Link]
Appel-dies-at-80/2261367349696/
[Link]
stonehenge
Origami became recognized as a serious mathematical method,
in some cases more powerful than Euclidean geometry.

Image source: [Link]

[Link] 18
stonehenge
Andrew Wiles finally proved Fermat’s Last Theorem for all numbers in 1995, about 350
years after Fermat posed the problem. Wiles' proof was a joint effort of several steps
[Link]
involving many mathematicians over several years and the proof itself was 100 pagesI
stonehenge
Image source: [Link]
 

20th Century Mathematics

American economist and mathematician John Nash did some

important work in game theory, differential geometry and partial
differential equations. It opened insights into understanding chance
and events in daily life, market economics, computing, artificial
intelligence, accounting and military theory. His life and battle
against paranoid schizophrenia has recently been popularized by
the Hollywood movie “A Beautiful Mind”,

Image source: [Link]

In 1970, the Englishman John Horton Conway established the

rules for the so-called “Game of Life”, an early example of a
“cellular automaton” in which patterns of cells evolve and
grow in a grid, which became extremely popular among
computer scientists.

Image source: [Link]

Mathematics-based recreational puzzles became extremely

[Link]
popular among the general public, including Rubik’s Cube (1974)
stonehenge
and Sudoku (1980), both of which developed into full-blown
crazes. These puzzles generated attention from serious
[Link]
mathematicians interested in exploring the theoretical limits and
stonehenge
underpinnings of the games.

Image source: [Link]

Cube-by-randomly-twisting-the-sides

[Link]
stonehenge
With the advent of the Internet in the 1990s, free computer
softwares were used to discover the 13 largest Mersenne primes .
[Link]
The stonehenge
45th and largest Mersenne prime number was discovered in
2009- it contains nearly 13 million digits! The search also continues
for ever more accurate computer approximations for the irrational
number π, with the current record standing at over 5 trillion
decimal places!

Image source: [Link]

big-data-management/

[Link]
The P versus NP problem, introduced in 1971 by the American-
stonehenge
Canadian Stephen Cook, is a major unsolved problem in
computer science and complexity theory. It is one of the Clay
[Link]
Mathematics Institute’s million dollar Millennium Prize problems.
stonehenge
The problem asks whether every problem whose solution can
be efficiently checked by a computer can also be efficiently 19
solved by a computer.

Image source: [Link]

In 2013, the Chinese-born American mathematician,

[Link] Yitang
 

Timeline of the Development of Mathematics

Date Name Nationality Major Achievements

35,000 BCE African First notched tally bones
Earliest documented counting and
3,100 BCE Sumerian
measuring system
Earliest fully-developed base 10
2,700 BCE Egyptian
number system in use
Multiplication tables, geometrical
2,600 BCE Sumerian
exercises and division problems
2,000 – 1,800 Earliest papyri showing numeration
Egyptian
BCE system and basic arithmetic
1,800 – 1,600 Clay tablets dealing with fractions,
Babylonian
BCE algebra and equations
Rhind Papyrus (instruction manual in
1,650 BCE Egyptian arithmetic, geometry, unit fractions,
etc)
First decimal numeration system with
1,200 BCE Chinese
place value concept
Early Vedic mantras invoke powers of
1,200 – 900 BCE Indian ten from a hundred all the way up to
a trillion
“Sulba Sutra” lists several Pythagorean
triples and simplified Pythagorean
800 – 400 BCE Indian theorem for the sides of a square and
a rectangle, quite accurate
approximate to √2
Lo Shu order three (3 x 3) “magic
650 BCE Chinese square” in which each row, column
and diagonal sums to 15
Early developments in geometry,
624 – 546 BCE Thales Greek including work on similar and right
triangles
Expansion of geometry, rigorous
approach building from first
570 – 495 BCE Pythagoras Greek
principles, square and triangular
numbers, Pythagoras’ theorem
Discovered potential existence of
500 BCE Hippasus Greek irrational numbers while trying to
calculate the value of √2
Describes a series of paradoxes
490 – 430 BCE Zeno of Elea Greek
concerning infinity and infinitesimals
20
 

First systematic compilation of

Hippocrates of
470 – 410 BCE Greek geometrical knowledge, Lune of
Chios
Hippocrates
Developments in geometry and
460 – 370 BCE Democritus Greek
fractions, volume of a cone
Platonic solids, statement of the Three
Classical Problems, influential teacher
428 – 348 BCE Plato Greek and popularizer of mathematics,
insistence on rigorous proof and
logical methods
410 – 355 BCE Eudoxus of Cnidus Greek Method for rigorously proving
statements about areas and volumes
by successive approximations
384 – 322 BCE Aristotle Greek Development and standardization of
logic (although not then considered
part of mathematics) and deductive
reasoning
300 BCE Euclid Greek Definitive statement of classical
(Euclidean) geometry, use of axioms
and postulates, many formulas, proofs
and theorems including Euclid’s
Theorem on infinitude of primes
287 – 212 BCE Archimedes Greek Formulas for areas of regular shapes,
“method of exhaustion” for
approximating areas and value of π,
comparison of infinities
276 – 195 BCE Eratosthenes Greek “Sieve of Eratosthenes” method for
identifying prime numbers
262 – 190 BCE Apollonius of Perga Greek Work on geometry, especially on
cones and conic sections (ellipse,
parabola, hyperbola)
200 BCE Chinese “Nine Chapters on the Mathematical
Art”, including guide to how to solve
equations using sophisticated matrix-
based methods
190 – 120 BCE Hipparchus Greek Develop first detailed trigonometry
tables
36 BCE Mayan Pre-classic Mayans developed the
concept of zero by at least this time
10 – 70 CE Heron (or Hero) of Greek Heron’s Formula for finding the area
Alexandria of a triangle from its side lengths,
Heron’s Method for iteratively
computing a square root

21
 

90 – 168 CE Ptolemy Greek/Egyptian Develop even more detailed

trigonometry tables
200 CE Sun Tzu Chinese First definitive statement of Chinese
Remainder Theorem
200 CE Indian Refined and perfected decimal
place value number system
200 – 284 CE Diophantus Greek Diophantine Analysis of complex
algebraic problems, to find rational
solutions to equations with several
unknowns
220 – 280 CE Liu Hui Chinese Solved linear equations using a
matrices (similar to Gaussian
elimination), leaving roots
unevaluated, calculated value of π
correct to five decimal places, early
forms of integral and differential
calculus
400 CE Indian “Surya Siddhanta” contains roots of
modern trigonometry, including first
real use of sines, cosines, inverse sines,
tangents and secants

Date Name Nationality Major Achievements

Method for rigorously proving
410 – 355 BCE Eudoxus of Cnidus Greek statements about areas and volumes
by successive approximations
Development and standardization of
logic (although not then considered
384 – 322 BCE Aristotle Greek
part of mathematics) and deductive
reasoning
Definitive statement of classical
(Euclidean) geometry, use of axioms
300 BCE Euclid Greek and postulates, many formulas, proofs
and theorems including Euclid’s
Theorem on infinitude of primes
Formulas for areas of regular shapes,
“method of exhaustion” for
287 – 212 BCE Archimedes Greek
approximating areas and value of π,
comparison of infinities
“Sieve of Eratosthenes” method for
276 – 195 BCE Eratosthenes Greek
identifying prime numbers

22
 

Work on geometry, especially on

262 – 190 BCE Apollonius of Perga Greek cones and conic sections (ellipse,
parabola, hyperbola)
“Nine Chapters on the Mathematical
Art”, including guide to how to solve
200 BCE Chinese
equations using sophisticated matrix-
based methods
Develop first detailed trigonometry
190 – 120 BCE Hipparchus Greek
tables
Pre-classic Mayans developed the
36 BCE Mayan
concept of zero by at least this time
Heron’s Formula for finding the area
Heron (or Hero) of of a triangle from its side lengths,
10 – 70 CE Greek
Alexandria Heron’s Method for iteratively
computing a square root
Develop even more detailed
90 – 168 CE Ptolemy Greek/Egyptian
trigonometry tables
First definitive statement of Chinese
200 CE Sun Tzu Chinese
Remainder Theorem
Refined and perfected decimal
200 CE Indian
place value number system
Diophantine Analysis of complex
algebraic problems, to find rational
200 – 284 CE Diophantus Greek
solutions to equations with several
unknowns
Solved linear equations using a
matrices (similar to Gaussian
elimination), leaving roots
220 – 280 CE Liu Hui Chinese unevaluated, calculated value of π
correct to five decimal places, early
forms of integral and differential
calculus
“Surya Siddhanta” contains roots of
modern trigonometry, including first
400 CE Indian
real use of sines, cosines, inverse sines,
tangents and secants

Date Name Nationality Major Achievements

Definitions of trigonometric functions,
complete and accurate sine and
476 – 550 CE Aryabhata Indian versine tables, solutions to
simultaneous quadratic equations,
accurate approximation forπ(and

23
 

recognition thatπis an irrational

number)
Basic mathematical rules for dealing
with zero (+, – and x), negative
598 – 668 CE Brahmagupta Indian numbers, negative roots of quadratic
equations, solution of quadratic
equations with two unknowns
First to write numbers in Hindu-Arabic
decimal system with a circle for zero,
600 – 680 CE Bhaskara I Indian
remarkably accurate approximation
of the sine function
Advocacy of the Hindu numerals 1 – 9
and 0 in Islamic world, foundations of
Muhammad Al- modern algebra, including algebraic
780 – 850 CE Persian
Khwarizmi methods of “reduction” and
“balancing”, solution of polynomial
equations up to second degree
Continued Archimedes’ investigations
908 – 946 CE Ibrahim ibn Sinan Arabic of areas and volumes, tangents to a
circle
First use of proof by mathematical
Muhammad Al-
953 – 1029 CE Persian induction, including to prove the
Karaji
binomial theorem
Derived a formula for the sum of
fourth powers using a readily
Ibn al-Haytham
966 – 1059 CE Persian/Arabic generalizable method, “Alhazen’s
(Alhazen)
problem”, established beginnings of
link between algebra and geometry
Generalized Indian methods for
extracting square and cube roots to
1048 – 1131 Omar Khayyam Persian include fourth, fifth and higher roots,
noted existence of different sorts of
cubic equations
Established that dividing by zero yields
infinity, found solutions to quadratic,
cubic and quartic equations
(including negative and irrational
1114 – 1185 Bhaskara II Indian
solutions) and to second order
Diophantine equations, introduced
some preliminary concepts of
calculus
Leonardo of Pisa Fibonacci Sequence of numbers,
1170 – 1250 Italian
(Fibonacci) advocacy of the use of the Hindu-

24
 

Arabic numeral system in Europe,

Fibonacci’s identity (product of two
sums of two squares is itself a sum of
two squares)
Developed field of spherical
1201 – 1274 Nasir al-Din al-Tusi Persian trigonometry, formulated law of sines
for plane triangles
Date Name Nationality Major Achievements
Solutions to quadratic, cubic and
1202 – 1261 Qin Jiushao Chinese higher power equations using a
method of repeated approximations
Culmination of Chinese “magic”
squares, circles and triangles, Yang
1238 – 1298 Yang Hui Chinese Hui’s Triangle (earlier version of
Pascal’s Triangle of binomial
coefficients)
Applied theory of conic sections to
Kamal al-Din al- solve optical problems, explored
1267 – 1319 Persian
Farisi amicable numbers, factorization and
combinatorial methods
Use of infinite series of fractions to give
an exact formula for π, sine formula
1350 – 1425 Madhava Indian and other trigonometric functions,
important step towards development
of calculus
System of rectangular coordinates,
such as for a time-speed-distance
1323 – 1382 Nicole Oresme French graph, first to use fractional
exponents, also worked on infinite
series
Influential book on arithmetic,
geometry and book-keeping, also
1446 – 1517 Luca Pacioli Italian
introduced standard symbols for plus
and minus
Formula for solving all types of cubic
equations, involving first real use of
Niccolo Fontana complex numbers (combinations of
1499 – 1557 Italian
Tartaglia real and imaginary numbers),
Tartaglia’s Triangle (earlier version of
Pascal’s Triangle)
Published solution of cubic and
1501 – 1576 Gerolamo Cardano Italian
quartic equations (by Tartaglia and

25
 

Ferrari), acknowledged existence of

imaginary numbers (based on √−1)
Devised formula for solution of quartic
1522 – 1565 Lodovico Ferrari Italian
equations
Invention of natural logarithms,
popularized the use of the decimal
1550 – 1617 John Napier British
point, Napier’s Bones tool for lattice
multiplication
Clearing house for mathematical
thought during 17th Century,
1588 – 1648 Marin Mersenne French
Mersenne primes (prime numbers that
are one less than a power of 2)
Early development of projective
1591 – 1661 Girard Desargues French geometry and “point at infinity”,
perspective theorem
Development of Cartesian
coordinates and analytic geometry
1596 – 1650 Rene Descartes French (synthesis of geometry and algebra),
also credited with the first use of
superscripts for powers or exponents

Date Name Nationality Major Achievements

“Method of indivisibles” paved way
Bonaventura
1598 – 1647 Italian for the later development of
Cavalieri
infinitesimal calculus
Discovered many new numbers
patterns and theorems (including
Little Theorem, Two-Square Thereom
1601 – 1665 Pierre de Fermat French
and Last Theorem), greatly extending
knowlege of number theory, also
contributed to probability theory
Contributed towards development of
calculus, originated idea of number
1616 – 1703 John Wallis British line, introduced symbol ∞ for infinity,
developed standard notation for
powers
Pioneer (with Fermat) of probability
1623 – 1662 Blaise Pascal French theory, Pascal’s Triangle of binomial
coefficients
Development of infinitesimal calculus
1643 – 1727 Isaac Newton British (differentiation and integration), laid
ground work for almost all of classical

26
 

mechanics, generalized binomial

theorem, infinite power series
Independently developed
infinitesimal calculus (his calculus
notation is still used), also practical
1646 – 1716 Gottfried Leibniz German
calculating machine using binary
system (forerunner of the computer),
solved linear equations using a matrix
Helped to consolidate infinitesimal
calculus, developed a technique for
solving separable differential
1654 – 1705 Jacob Bernoulli Swiss equations, added a theory of
permutations and combinations to
probability theory, Bernoulli Numbers
sequence, transcendental curves
Further developed infinitesimal
calculus, including the “calculus of
1667 – 1748 Johann Bernoulli Swiss variation”, functions for curve of
fastest descent (brachistochrone)
and catenary curve
De Moivre’s formula, development of
analytic geometry, first statement of
1667 – 1754 Abraham de Moivre French
the formula for the normal distribution
curve, probability theory
Goldbach Conjecture, Goldbach-
1690 – 1764 Christian Goldbach German
Euler Theorem on perfect powers
Made important contributions in
almost all fields and found
unexpected links between different
1707 – 1783 Leonhard Euler Swiss fields, proved numerous theorems,
pioneered new methods,
standardized mathematical notation
and wrote many influential textbooks

Date Name Nationality Major Achievements

Rigorous proof thatπis irrational,
introduced hyperbolic functions into
1728 – 1777 Johann Lambert Swiss trigonometry, made conjectures on
non-Euclidean space and hyperbolic
triangles
Comprehensive treatment of classical
Joseph Louis
1736 – 1813 Italian/French and celestial mechanics, calculus of
Lagrange
variations, Lagrange’s theorem of

27
 

finite groups, four-square theorem,

mean value theorem
Inventor of descriptive geometry,
1746 – 1818 Gaspard Monge French
orthographic projection
Celestial mechanics translated
geometric study of classical
Pierre-Simon
1749 – 1827 French mechanics to one based on calculus,
Laplace
Bayesian interpretation of probability,
belief in scientific determinism
Abstract algebra, mathematical
analysis, least squares method for
Adrien-Marie
1752 – 1833 French curve-fitting and linear regression,
Legendre
quadratic reciprocity law, prime
number theorem, elliptic functions
Studied periodic functions and infinite
1768 – 1830 Joseph Fourier French sums in which the terms are
trigonometric functions (Fourier series)
Pattern in occurrence of prime
numbers, construction of
heptadecagon, Fundamental
Theorem of Algebra, exposition of
1777 – 1825 Carl Friedrich Gauss German complex numbers, least squares
approximation method, Gaussian
distribution, Gaussian function,
Gaussian error curve, non-Euclidean
geometry, Gaussian curvature
Early pioneer of mathematical
analysis, reformulated and proved
Augustin-Louis theorems of calculus in a rigorous
1789 – 1857 French
Cauchy manner, Cauchy’s theorem (a
fundamental theorem of group
theory)
Möbius strip (a two-dimensional
surface with only one side), Möbius
August Ferdinand configuration, Möbius transformations,
1790 – 1868 German
Mobius Möbius transform (number theory),
Möbius function, Möbius inversion
formula
Inventor of symbolic algebra (early
1791 – 1858 George Peacock British attempt to place algebra on a strictly
logical basis)
Designed a “difference engine” that
1791 – 1871 Charles Babbage British
could automatically perform

28
 

computations based on instructions

stored on cards or tape, forerunner of
programmable computer.

Date Name Nationality Major Achievements

Developed theory of hyperbolic
1792 – 1856 Nikolai Lobachevsky Russian geometry and curved spaces
independently of Bolyai
Proved impossibility of solving quintic
equations, group theory, abelian
1802 – 1829 Niels Henrik Abel Norwegian
groups, abelian categories, abelian
variety
Explored hyperbolic geometry and
1802 – 1860 Janos Bolyai Hungarian curved spaces independently of
Lobachevsky
Important contributions to analysis,
1804 – 1851 Carl Jacobi German theory of periodic and elliptic
functions, determinants and matrices
Theory of quaternions (first example of
1805 – 1865 William Hamilton Irish
a non-commutative algebra)
Proved that there is no general
algebraic method for solving
polynomial equations of degree
1811 – 1832 Evariste Galois French
greater than four, laid groundwork for
abstract algebra, Galois theory,
group theory, ring theory, etc.
Devised Boolean algebra (using
operators AND, OR and NOT), starting
1815 – 1864 George Boole British point of modern mathematical logic,
led to the development of computer
science
Discovered a continuous function
with no derivative, advancements in
calculus of variations, reformulated
1815 – 1897 Karl Weierstrass German
calculus in a more rigorous fashion,
pioneer in development of
mathematical analysis
Pioneer of modern group theory,
matrix algebra, theory of higher
singularities, theory of invariants,
1821 – 1895 Arthur Cayley British
higher dimensional geometry,
extended Hamilton’s quaternions to
create octonions

29
 

Non-Euclidean elliptic geometry,

Riemann surfaces, Riemannian
geometry (differential geometry in
1826 – 1866 Bernhard Riemann German
multiple dimensions), complex
manifold theory, zeta function,
Riemann Hypothesis
Defined some important concepts of
set theory such as similar sets and
1831 – 1916 Richard Dedekind German infinite sets, proposed Dedekind cut
(now a standard definition of the real
numbers)
Introduced Venn diagrams into set
1834 – 1923 John Venn British theory (now a ubiquitous tool in
probability, logic and statistics)

Date Name Nationality Major Achievements

Applied algebra to geometric theory
of differential equations, continuous
1842 – 1899 Marius Sophus Lie Norwegian
symmetry, Lie groups of
transformations
Creator of set theory, rigorous
treatment of the notion of infinity and
1845 – 1918 Georg Cantor German transfinite numbers, Cantor’s theorem
(which implies the existence of an
“infinity of infinities”)
One of the founders of modern logic,
first rigorous treatment of the ideas of
1848 – 1925 Gottlob Frege German functions and variables in logic, major
contributor to study of the
foundations of mathematics
Klein bottle (a one-sided closed
surface in four-dimensional space),
Erlangen Program to classify
1849 – 1925 Felix Klein German
geometries by their underlying
symmetry groups, work on group
theory and function theory
Partial solution to “three body
problem”, foundations of modern
1854 – 1912 Henri Poincare French chaos theory, extended theory of
mathematical topology, Poincaré
conjecture
Peano axioms for natural numbers,
1858 – 1932 Giuseppe Peano Italian
developer of mathematical logic and

30
 

set theory notation, contributed to

modern method of mathematical
induction
Co-wrote “Principia Mathematica”
Alfred North
1861 – 1947 British (attempt to ground mathematics on
Whitehead
logic)
23 “Hilbert problems”, finiteness
theorem, “Entscheidungsproblem“
1862 – 1943 David Hilbert German (decision problem), Hilbert space,
developed modern axiomatic
approach to mathematics, formalism
Geometry of numbers (geometrical
method in multi-dimensional space
1864 – 1909 Hermann Minkowski German
for solving number theory problems),
Minkowski space-time
Russell’s paradox, co-wrote “Principia
Mathematica” (attempt to ground
1872 – 1970 Bertrand Russell British
mathematics on logic), theory of
types
Progress toward solving Riemann
hypothesis (proved infinitely many
zeroes on the critical line),
1877 – 1947 G.H. Hardy British
encouraged new tradition of pure
mathematics in Britain, taxicab
numbers
Pioneer in field of complex analytic
1878 – 1929 Pierre Fatou French dynamics, investigated iterative and
recursive processes
Date Name Nationality Major Achievements
Proved several theorems marking
breakthroughs in topology (including
1881 – 1966 L.E.J. Brouwer Dutch
fixed point theorem and topological
invariance of dimension)
Proved over 3,000 theorems, identities
and equations, including on highly
Srinivasa
1887 – 1920 Indian composite numbers, partition function
Ramanujan
and its asymptotics, and mock theta
functions
Developed complex dynamics, Julia
1893 – 1978 Gaston Julia French
set formula
Pioneer of game theory, design
1903 – 1957 John von Neumann Hungarian/American
model for modern computer

31
 

architecture, work in quantum and

nuclear physics
Incompleteness theorems (there can
be solutions to mathematical
1906 – 1978 Kurt Godel Austria problems which are true but which
can never be proved), Gödel
numbering, logic and set theory
Theorems allowed connections
between algebraic geometry and
number theory, Weil conjectures
1906 – 1998 Andre Weil French
(partial proof of Riemann hypothesis
for local zeta functions), founding
member of influential Bourbaki group
Breaking of the German enigma
code, Turing machine (logical
1912 – 1954 Alan Turing British
forerunner of computer), Turing test of
artificial intelligence
Set and solved many problems in
combinatorics, graph theory, number
1913 – 1996 Paul Erdos Hungarian theory, classical analysis,
approximation theory, set theory and
probability theory
Pioneer in modern chaos theory,
Lorenz attractor, fractals, Lorenz
1917 – 2008 Edward Lorenz American
oscillator, coined term “butterfly
effect”
Work on decision problems and
1919 – 1985 Julia Robinson American Hilbert’s tenth problem, Robinson
hypothesis
Mandelbrot set fractal, computer
1924 – 2010 Benoit Mandelbrot French
plottings of Mandelbrot and Julia sets
Mathematical structuralist,
revolutionary advances in algebraic
Alexander
1928 – 2014 French geometry, theory of schemes,
Grothendieck
contributions to algebraic topology,
number theory, category theory, etc.
Work in game theory, differential
geometry and partial differential
1928 – 2015 John Nash American equations, provided insight into
complex systems in daily life such as
economics, computing and military

Date Name Nationality Major Achievements

32
 

Proved that continuum hypothesis

could be both true and not true (i.e.
1934 – 2007 Paul Cohen American
independent from Zermelo-Fraenkel
set theory)
Important contributions to game
theory, group theory, number theory,
John Horton geometry and (especially)
1937 - British
Conway recreational mathematics, notably
with the invention of the cellular
automaton called the “Game of Life”
Final proof that Hilbert’s tenth
problem is impossible (there is no
1947 - Yuri Matiyasevich Russian general method for determining
whether Diophantine equations have
a solution)
Finally proved Fermat’s Last Theorem
for all numbers (by proving the
1953 - Andrew Wiles British
Taniyama-Shimura conjecture for
semistable elliptic curves)
Finally proved Poincaré Conjecture
(by proving Thurston’s geometrization
1966 - Grigori Perelman Russian conjecture), contributions to
Riemannian geometry and geometric
topology

Source: [Link]

33
 

Why is math important in education? Why do we have to study a lot of maths from
elementary to college and even beyond?

The special role of mathematics in education is a consequence of its universal

applicability. The results of mathematics are both significant and useful; the best results
are also elegant and deep. Mathematics teaches us distinctive modes of thought which
are both versatile and powerful, including modeling, abstraction, optimization, logical
analysis, inference from data, and use of symbols. In short, experience with
mathematical modes of thought builds mathematical power--a capacity of mind of
increasing value in this technological age that enables us to read critically, to identify
fallacies, to detect bias, to assess risk, and to suggest alternatives. With mathematical
skills that you have, you are empowered to understand the world in a deeper, sounder,
and more meaningful way.

Please click the link below for further understanding of the lesson:
[Link]

Where do we use mathematics?

We use math in technology, engineering, media, medicine and health, finance

and business, and in almost every aspect of our life. Modern technology depends on
basic research to advance, and research uses math, particularly statistics, to make
meaningful conclusions from the data obtained. That includes the invention of
advanced medical devices, computers, machines, etc. In engineering, math is used to
design and develop new components or products, maintain operating components,
model real-life situations for testing and learning purposes, as well as build and maintain
structures. Math is a core component of every engineering field, which would explain
why engineering students had to deal with many maths. Mathematical concepts and
themes can also be found anywhere in the media. The range of ways that math is
related to the media is quite broad, including the shape of a camera lens, proportion
scale for movie sets, and the use of convincing nature of numbers used in advertising.
In business, ownership and management require more than the skill to create a product
or talent at providing a service. Understanding basic business math is necessary for
profitable operations and accurate record keeping. Math is also an essential concept
of fashion designing. From taking measurements, estimating the quantity and quality of
clothes, choosing the color theme, estimating the cost and profit, producing cloth
according to the customers' needs and tastes, math is followed at every stage.

You might say these applications are all in the industry. How about in our daily
life? When are we ever going to use math in real life?

34
 

We all use math in everyday applications, whether we're aware of it or not. If you
look hard enough, you'll see math emerge from some of the most unlikely places. Math
is in the grocery store. Grocery shopping requires a broad range of math knowledge
from multiplication to estimation and percentages. Math is in the kitchen. When baking
or cooking, following a recipe can sometimes be tricky because measurement of
ingredients and conversions are necessary. Recipes are like mathematical algorithms or
step-by-step sets of operations to be performed. When you travel, math also comes
along for the ride- from estimating the amount of fuel you’ll need to reading maps. Math
also helps you save money. Most experts agree that without strong math skills, people
tend to invest, save, or spend money based on their emotions. You rarely hear math
majors falling into investment scams. You also use math when you exercise, train, and
watch your diet. We set our routine according to our workout schedule, count the
number of repetitions while exercising, count the number of calories we need, etc. The
bottom line is: math is everywhere, operating in real-life ways all around us. It is the
universal language of our environment, helping mankind explain and create.

Please click the following links for a further understanding of the lesson:
[Link]

A. Patterns in Nature and the World

Many of us misinterpret mathematics as the study of Did you know?

numbers and that only those who are excellent with
numbers can be called mathematicians. But it is not really
numbers that matter to a mathematician; rather, it is what
they represent. The mathematician’s true purpose is to
study, discover, or create patterns. While a scientist studies
an actual object, being, or phenomenon, the
mathematician provides him/ her the patterns, structures,
and relationships involved in whatever the scientist studies. The wings of a butterfly often sport
patches of color and stripes that
can imitate eyes or warn of toxins
Patterns provide clear insight into understanding the and therefore deter predators.
natural world. While we know that animals and plants are [Link]

far from thinking beings, they do have certain habits and

characteristics that exist in patterns. Scientists and biologists believe that understanding
these behavioral patterns will provide us a clearer understanding of all living things.
[Link]
1174958764866/

 What does the word pattern mean?

35
 

A pattern is considered as any kind of regularity that can be recognized by the

mind. These could be mathematical or non-mathematical patterns. Learning how to
recognize these patterns would be valuable to you as you gain mathematical maturity
and become a problem solver.

[Link] [Link]

[Link] [Link]
Center_Construction(cropped).jpg

We think of patterns as something that just repeats again and again throughout
space in an identical way, sort of like a wallpaper pattern. But many patterns that we
see in nature aren’t quite like that. We sense that there is something regular or at least
not random about them, but that doesn’t mean that all the elements are identical. One
familiar example of that would be the zebra’s stripes. Everyone can recognize the
zebra’s stripes as a pattern, but no stripe is like any other stripe on its skin. However, the
pattern is still so striking, beautiful, and remarkable. That’s the beauty of natural patterns,
and it makes us wonder: How does nature without any kind of blueprint or design put
together patterns like this?
If we look around us, we will see different kinds of pattern. Some are natural, some
are man- made, some give us a scientific image, some have artistic vibe, and some are
intangible like software patterns. Like math, patterns can be seen all around us. It’s just
about everywhere! In this part of the module, we will focus only on the patterns that we
see in nature.

36
 

Patterns in Nature
“But in my opinion, all things in nature occur mathematically.”
- Rene Descartes

Patterns in nature are the visible regularities of form found in the natural world.
These patterns recur in different contexts and can sometimes be modelled
mathematically.

 What are the different natural patterns?

Natural Patterns include:

1. Symmetries
2. Fractals or Trees
3. Spirals
4. Chaos, flow, meanders
5. Waves, dunes
6. Bubbles, Foam
7. Tessellations
8. Cracks
9. Spots, stripes

 Look at your face in the mirror. Imagine a vertical line going through the
middle of your face. What can you say about the left and right sides of your
face? Now imagine a butterfly with wings wide spread and an imaginary
vertical line going through the center of its body. What can you say about
the left and right sides of the butterfly’s body?

 What kind of pattern do the questions above show you?

This pattern is called symmetry.

1. Symmetry. Figures can have two distinct types of symmetry: reflection (mirror or
bilateral) symmetry and rotation (radial) n- fold symmetry, which we informally
differentiate below.
 A figure has reflection symmetry if there is a line that can be “folded over” so that
one- half of the figure matches the other half perfectly. The “fold line” is called
the figure’s line (axis) of symmetry.
37
 

 A figure has rotation symmetry if there is a point around which the figure can be
rotated, less than a full turn, so that the image matches the original figure
perfectly.

A tiger has reflection symmetry. A starfish has rotation symmetry. A snowflake has rotation
symmetry.

[Link]

2. Fractals or Trees. From the word fraction, or part of a whole, fractals are self-similar,
iterated mathematical constructs where shrinking and moving are applied many
times. In a fractal, you will observe that as new shapes are constructed, they are
similar to each of the previous shapes, that is, the basic components of a fractal are
similar to the whole. This means that you can zoom into forever and find exactly the
same shapes.

Leaf of cow parsley Angelica flowerhead, a sphere made of spheres

(self-similar)

[Link]
[Link]

38
 

Fractal spirals: Romanesco broccoli Trees: dendritic copper crystals Trees: Lichtenberg figure: high
(microscope) voltage

[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

3. Spirals. Spirals are the patterns that we see in many plants and some animals,
notably molluscs. To get a better picture, we will pay attention to a particular kind,
the nautilus shell. In a nautilus, each chamber of its shell is an approximate copy of
the next one, scaled by a constant factor and arranged in a logarithmic spiral. We
can say that growth spiral can be seen as a special case of self-similarity.

Spiral aloe Spiralling shell Spiralling shell

[Link]

39
 

4. Chaos, meanders. In mathematics, a dynamical system is chaotic if it is (highly)

sensitive to initial conditions. Meanders on the other hand are sinuous bends in rivers
or other channels, which form as a fluid, most often water, flows around bends.

Chaos: shell of gastropod mollusk Meanders: sinuous snake crawling Meanders: symmetrical brain
coral

[Link]

5. Waves, dunes. Waves are disturbances that carry energy as they move. While dunes
are created when winds blow over large bodies of sand. Dunes may form a range
of patterns including crescents, very long straight lines, stars, domes, parabolas, and
longitudinal or seif ('sword') shapes.

Waves: breaking wave in a ship's Dunes: barchan crescent sand dune Wind ripples with dislocations
wake
[Link]

40
 

6. Bubbles, foam. A soap bubble forms a sphere. Two bubbles together form a more
complex shape: the outer surfaces of both bubbles are spherical; these surfaces
are joined by a third spherical surface as the smaller bubble bulges slightly into the
larger one. A foam is a mass of bubbles. Mathematical models of bubbles and
foams are considered as collections of surfaces which minimize are under volume
constraints.

Foam of soap bubbles: four edges meet Equal spheres (gas bubbles) in a
at each vertex surface foam

[Link]

 Have you heard of a tessellation?

 What is a tessellation?

7. Tessellations. Tessellations are patterns formed by repeating tiles all over a flat
surface. Among animals, bony fish and reptiles like the pangolin, are protected by
overlapping scales or osteoderms. These form more or less exactly repeating units,
though often the scales in fact vary continuously in size.

Arrays: honeycomb is a natural tessellation Bismuth hopper crystal illustrating the stair step crystal
habit.

[Link]

41
 

Tilings: overlapping scales of common roach Tessellated pavement: a rock formation on the
Tasman Peninsula

[Link]

8. Cracks. Cracks are linear openings that form in materials to relieve stress. When
an elastic material stretches or shrinks uniformly, it eventually reaches its breaking
strength and then fails suddenly in all directions. Conversely, when an inelastic
material fails, straight cracks form to relieve the stress. Further stress in the same
direction would then simply open the existing cracks; stress at right angles can create
new cracks. Thus the pattern of cracks indicates whether the material is elastic or
not. In a tough fibrous material like oak tree bark, cracks form to relieve stress as usual,
but they do not grow long as their growth is interrupted by bundles of strong elastic
fibers. Since each species of tree has its own structure at the levels of cell and of
molecules, each has its own pattern of splitting in its bark

Drying inelastic mud in the Drying elastic mud Palm trunk

[Link]

42
 

9. Spots, stripes. One function of animal patterns is camouflage; another function

is signaling. These patterns have an evolutionary explanation: they
have functions which increase the chances that the offspring of the patterned
animal will survive to reproduce. Leopards and ladybirds are spotted; angelfish and
zebras are striped. But while these evolutionary and functional arguments explain
why these animals need their patterns, they do not explain how the patterns are
formed.

Dirce beauty butterfly, Breeding pattern of cuttlefish, Sepia officinalis

[Link]

Nature uses only the longest threads to weave her patterns, so that each small piece of
her fabric reveals the organization of the entire tapestry.

- - Richard P. Feynman
in The Character of Physical Law

43
 

Learning check
Activity #1:
1. Name seven different natural objects that seem to exhibit patterns.
2. Show a picture of each natural object and tell us which part of the
object seems to exhibit a pattern.
3. Identify the type of pattern/s each object exhibits.

Criteria for Rating:

Score Criteria
21 - 30 Student was able to present 5-7 pictures of different natural objects
exhibiting patterns, identify the pattern, and determine which part
of the object exhibits pattern.
11 - 20 Student was able to present 3-4 pictures of different natural objects
exhibiting patterns, identify the pattern, and determine which part
of the object exhibits pattern.
1-10 Student was able to present less than 3 pictures of different natural
objects exhibiting patterns, was not able to identify all patterns
correctly, and was not able determine which part of the object
exhibits pattern of all pictures.
0 Student did not submit an output.

Please click the following links for a further understanding of the lesson:
[Link]

44
 

B. Numerical and Logical Patterns

Humans have always used observations of patterns to help mankind survive with
a better understanding of the world we live in. Some of these patterns seemed to have
only recreational value when first discovered, but later on, they have been shown to be
valuable tools in describing important aspects of life like weather systems, economic
behaviors, biological interactions, and other.

NUMERICAL PATTERNS
Sometimes, when we first study a math lesson, like mathematical logic, we do not
realize that it has a deep application in our lives. But understanding patterns helps us
improve our mental skills. In order to recognize patterns, we need to have an
understanding of critical thinking and logic, which are clearly important skills to develop.
But do not worry, researchers have found that the skill of recognizing and understanding
patterns can be learned relatively quickly. But like learning other forms of math or any
other subject and skill, you will really need to exert effort with practicing it for the long
term. Remember, with practice comes skill.

Practice Tests: Find the next number in each of the following:

1. 3 10 13 23 36 ______
2. 2 4 4 16 16 ______
3. 3 9 6 15 9 ______
4. ¼ ½ 1 2 4 ______
5. 729 243 81 27 9 ______
6. 1 3 4 7 11 ______
7. 2 4 7 11 16 ______
8. 6 11 21 41 81 ______
9. 2 3 5 9 17 ______
10. 1 4 9 16 25 ______

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 

LOGICAL PATTERNS
The three figures or symbols in each problem set below are related to each other
in a certain way.

Practice Tests: Draw the next shape in each of the following picture patterns.

1.

2.

3.
4x5

3x4

2x3

46
 

1
1 1
1 3 1
1 5 5 1
4. 1 7 13 7 1
1 9 25 25 9 1
? ? ? ? ? ? ?

Learning check
Activity: Answer the Logical Pattern (Abstract Reasoning Problems)

For item numbers 1 through 10, which figure completes the series?

1.)

2.)

47
 

3.)

4.)

5.)

6.)

7.)

48
 

8.)

9.)

10.)

For items number 11 through 14, which figure is the odd one out?
11.)

49
 

12.)

13.)

14.)

For item numbers 15 through 16, which figure completes the series?
15.)

16.)

50
 

For items number 17 through 18, which belongs in neither group? x

17.)

18.)

19.) Which one completes the series?

51
 

20.) Which is the odd one out?

C. Figurative Number Patterns, Sequences and Series

FIGURATIVE NUMBER PATTERNS

Among the many relationships of numbers that have fascinated and intrigued
mathematicians are those that were derived from the arrangement of points
representing numbers into a series of geometrical figures. These numbers are known as
figurate or figurative numbers which appeared in 15th-century arithmetic books and
were probably known to the ancient Chinese but were of special interest to the ancient
Greek mathematicians. To them, everything could be explained by numbers, and
numbers have specific characteristics and personalities. Among other properties of
numbers, they say that numbers had “shapes.” That’s why figurative numbers are
sometimes called polygonal numbers because they are points, or dots, arranged to
form various regular shape polygons, such as a triangle or a pentagon.

52
 

Examples:
Consider the triangular figures below.

Show how these triangular numbers are formed

The first four triangular numbers based on the number of dots are 1, 3, 6, and 10.

What is the next triangular number? Can you draw it? Answer: 15

Try this.
1. Use dots to form the first four square figures, and write their corresponding
square numbers.
2. Based on the four square numbers on item #1, what is the next square
number?

Learning check

Seatwork:
1. a. Use dots to form the first four pentagonal numbers.
b. Write the first four pentagonal numbers.
c. What is the next pentagonal number?

2. Write a number in each circle from 1 through 6, and connect them with nodes/
lines to construct a mapping diagram that will satisfy the given set of relations.
The value of all nodes connected to a certain number must add up to the
same value on the right side of that number in the given relation.
1 = 12
2=4
3 = 12
53
 

4=8
5=8
6=3

NUMBER SEQUENCE

A pattern of numbers arranged in a particular order is called a sequence, and

the individual numbers in the sequence are called terms of the sequence. For example,
the counting numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, … , form a number sequence. An ellipsis, the three
periods after the 4, is read “and so on”. Following are several examples of number
sequences.

Sequence Name
2, 4, 6, 8, … the even counting numbers
1, 3, 5, 7, … the odd counting numbers
1, 4, 9, 16, …. the square counting numbers
2 3
1, 3, 3 , 3
1, 3, 9, 27,64 the powers of three
30, 31, 32, 33, 34
1,1, 2, 3, 5, 8, …13 the Fibonacci sequence
Practice exercise 1. Describe the following pattern by answering the questions that
follow:
1+0∙9=1
2 + 1 ∙ 9 = 11
3 + 12 ∙ 9 = 111
4 + 123 ∙ 9 = 1,111
5 + 1234 ∙ 9 = 11,111
6 + 12345 (9) = 111,111
7 + 123456 (9) = 1,111,111
Does the pattern continue? Why or why not? (Try continuing the pattern until
you can make a generalization. Verify your answer in this activity when your
teacher sends the recorded lecture about this lesson.)

54
 

Practice exercise 2. Observe the following square array.

1x1 2x2 3x3 4x4 5x5

Do you see any pattern?

(Draw the next square array and complete the table that follows.)

Squares on a side 1 2 3 4 5 6 … n
Shaded squares (SS) 1 …
Unshaded squares (US) 0 …
Verify your answer in this activity when your teacher sends the recorded lecture about
this lesson.)

Practice exercise 3. Following is a pattern of circular shapes:

If you make this pattern until you have 10 shaded circles in a row, how many
unshaded circles and how many shaded circles will you need?
Your answer: Number of unshaded circles: ___11______
Number of shaded circles: ____55______
(Verify your answer in this activity when your teacher sends the recorded lecture about
this lesson.)
Practice exercise 4. Observe the following pattern:

1 + 3 = 22
1 + 3 + 5 = 32
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 42
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 = 52

a. Based on the pattern, can you find the following sum without actually
adding each term? 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + ⋯ + 35
b. State the generalization that you can make (about the sum of consecutive
odd numbers starting from 1) based on this pattern.

55
 

(Verify your answer in this activity when your teacher sends the recorded lecture about
this lesson.)

ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE AND GEOMETRIC SEQUENCE

A sequence is an ordered collection of objects. Some special sequences can be

classified by the way their terms are found. In the sequence 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12,14 …,
each term after the first can be found by adding 2 to the preceding term. This type
of sequence, in which successive terms differ by the same number, is called an
arithmetic sequence. Using variables, an arithmetic sequence has the form
a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, a + 4d ….
2,4,6,8,… = d = 2 a = 2
8,6,4,2,… d = -2 a = 8

Here "a" is the initial term (sometimes it is denoted by a1 ) and "d" is the amount by
which successive terms differ. The number "d" is called the common difference of the
sequence. The value of d may be positive or negative. If the arithmetic sequence is
decreasing, the value of d is negative. If the arithmetic sequence is increasing, the
value of d is positive.

In the sequence 1, 3, 9, 27, 81 …, each term after the first can be found by
multiplying the preceding term by 3. This is an example of a geometric sequence. By
using variables, a geometric sequence has the form a, ar, ar 2 , ar 3 , ar^4 …
a =1
r=3
The number “r" by which each successive term is multiplied is called the common
ratio of the sequence.
2, 4, 6, 8,… 99th term = ?
a + (n − 1)d = 2 + (99 – 1 )2 = 198 = 99th term
151st term = 2, 4, 6, 8, ….302
12, 9, 6, 3,… = 125th term = ?
a + (n − 1)d = 12 + (125 - 1) (-3) = - 360

56
 

2,4,6,8,… Give me the general rule / formula

a=2
d=2
a + (n − 1)d = 2 + (n – 1) (2) = 2 + 2n – 2 = 2n (general rule)
99th term = 2n = 2(99) = 198
12,9,6,3,…
a + (n − 1)d = 12 + (n – 1) (-3) = 12 + (n – 1) (-3) = 12 – 3n + 3 = -3n + 15
125th term = -3n + 15 = -3(125) + 15 = -360
The table below displays the terms for general arithmetic and geometric
sequences.

General Rule (Formula) for the nth Term of a Sequence

Term 1 2 3 4 … Nth term

Arithmetic sequence a a+d a + 2d a + 3d … a + (n − 1)d

Geometic sequence A ar ar 2 ar 3 … ar n−1

This table tells us that to find the general formula for any arithmetic sequence, you
will need to find first the values of a and d. Again, remember that a stands for the first
term of the sequence, and d stands for the common difference in the sequence.

Example: Find the general formula for the following arithmetic sequence.
5, 9, 13, 17, …
General rule = 4n + 1
Give the value of 131st term = 525
Give the value 182nd term = 729
Give the value of 345th term = 1381

20, 18, 16, 14, 12, 14, …

General rule = -2n + 22
Give the value of 131st term = -240
Give the value 182nd term = -340
Give the value of 345th term = -668

57
 

Solution: The format for the general formula for the nth term of an arithmetic sequence
is:
an = a + (n − 1)d

We need the values of a and d that we will plug into this formula. So let’s start
working on it. The first term in the sequence is 5, so the value of a is equal to 5. The
common difference between the terms of the sequence is 4 because the “gap”
between the terms is 4. So the value of d is 4. (A systematic way of getting the common
difference in an arithmetic sequence is to subtract the first term from the second term.
Then verify if you have the correct value by subtracting the second term from the third
term, or in general, subtract the nth term from the (n+1)th term.) So plugging these
values a=5 and d= 4 to the format above, we have:

an = 5 + (n − 1)4

Remember that here we do not need to replace n by any value because we are
just looking for the general formula for the nth term of this sequence. Furthermore, this
formula can be rewritten in its other form like:

an = 5 + 4n − 4 (after distribution property)

or an = 4n + 1 (after combining like terms)

So, it looks like that the general formula for the nth term of this sequence is
an = 4n + 1. But before we say so, let us not forget to check if it is correct. We do that by
applying this formula to verify any given term in the sequence. For example, let us check
if we will get 13 if we substitute 3 to n in this formula. (13 is the third term in the given
sequence that’s why we will substitute 3 for n.)
a3 = 4(3) + 1 (Notice that all n in the formula are replaced by 3.)
a3 = 12 + 1
a3 = 13 (Here we have verified that the formula gives a3 = 13.)

Since we have checked that the formula works for the given sequence, we can
now confidently say that the general formula for the nth term of this sequence is an =
4n + 1.

58
 

This means that we can find any term in the sequence using this formula. So
suppose we want to find a20 or the 20th term in the sequence. To find this, we will just
replace n in the formula by 20. Let’s do that.

a20 = 4(20) + 1
a20 = 80 + 1
a20 = 81. (You can try looking for any term of the sequence using the formula.)

What you have solved is an arithmetic formula in linear form that’s why the
expression involved is of first degree: an= an + b. First degree expression means that the
highest exponent of the unknown is 1.

Sometimes you will be asked to find the first term of a sequence, given other
information like the common difference and the value of the nth term. In that case, you
will need to manipulate the formula to give you the desired value.
To find the first term, given d and a value for any term, use: 𝐚 = 𝐚𝐧 − (𝐧 − 𝟏)𝐝
In the same way, if you want to find the value of d, and you are given other information
like the first term and the value of the nth term of a sequence, then you will just need to
manipulate the formula to give you the desired value. To find the common difference,
𝐚 −𝐚
given the first term and a value for any term, use: 𝐝 = 𝐧
𝐧−𝟏

Still, some problems would require a different formula. That’s when you use your
creativity and critical thinking to manipulate the original formula and derive an
appropriate expression to solve the problem.

At this point, we will solve a similar problem, but we will no longer describe the
step- by-step solution.

Example: Find the general rule to generate the terms of the sequence:
20, 18, 16, 14, 12, 14, …
then find a12 .

Solution: You can see below a diagram of differences between successive terms.
This shows you that the common difference of this sequence is -2. You will see later in
the lesson why we labeled this “first difference”.

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 

Sequence 20 18 16 14 12 14

First Difference -2 -2 -2 -2 -2

Hence, 𝐚 = 𝟐𝟎, and 𝐝 = −𝟐

General Rule: an = a + (n − 1)d

an = 20 + (n − 1)(−2)
an = 20 − 2n + 2
an = −2n + 22

(Checking if the formula really works is left for you to do.)

Solving for a12 : a12 = −2(12) + 22

a12 = −2

Let us now discuss the quadratic form of an arithmetic sequence. Its general format is
an = an2 + bn + c
where c=the zeroth (0th ) term
a+b=first entry in the level of first difference
2a= first entry in the level of second difference

Example: Find the general rule to generate the terms of the sequence
5, 12, 21, 32, 45, …

Solution: Since in the formula we will need a zeroth term, let us see how it is derived.

First, we take the difference between terms starting from the 5th term, going left.
Terms 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th
Sequence 5 12 21 32 45
start here and
First Difference 7 9 11 13 go left

Notice that the differences are not the same, so we proceed to finding the
“second difference”, again, start working from the right going left.

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 

Terms 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

Sequence 5 12 21 32 45

First Difference 7 9 11 13
start here and
Second Difference 2 2 2 go left

At this point, we have found the common difference on “second level”; that
makes it easy for us to remember because our sequence is quadratic or second degree.
Now, let us introduce the zeroth term in the sequence by working backwards in the
figure. This time, we start from the bottom and we shall use red broken lines to indicate
that they are derived from introducing a zeroth term.

Terms 0th 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

c Sequence 0 5 12 21 32 45 c = 0

a + b First Difference 5 7 9 11 13 a+b=5

2a Second Difference 2 2 2 2 2a = 2

start here and go up

It is important that you start from the bottom to know what needs to be subtracted
from the differences in each level to be able to arrive at the correct zeroth term.
Remembering that in our formula, 2a stands for the first entry in the level of second
difference; a+b stands for the first entry in the level of first difference; and c stands for
the zeroth (0th ) term, we now have the following equations.

𝟐𝐚 = 𝟐 𝐚+𝐛=𝟓 and 𝐜=𝟎

𝟐𝐚 𝟐
= 1+b=5
𝟐 𝟐
a=1 b=5–1
b=4

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 

𝐚𝐧 = 𝐚𝐧𝟐 + 𝐛𝐧 + 𝐜
= 1n2 + 4n + 0
= n2 + 4n general rule

5, 12, 21, 32, 45, …

n2 + 4n = 5th term
52 + 4(5) = 25 + 20 = 45
57th term 5, 12, 21, 32, 45,…
An = n2 + 4n
= 572 + 4 (57)
= 3249 + 228
= 3477 57th term
We now proceed to solving for a and b so that we can already plug the values
to the format of the general formula.

Solving for a, we have 2a = 2

𝐚 = 𝟏 (after dividing both sides of equation by 2)

Solving for b, we have a+b=5

1 + b = 5 (after substituting the derived value of a
above)
b = 4 (after transposing 1 to the right side of the
equation)

Therefore, 𝐚 = 𝟏, 𝐛 = 𝟒, and 𝐜 = 𝟎. And plugging these into the format of the

formula
𝐚𝐧 = 𝐚𝐧𝟐 + 𝐛𝐧 + 𝐜, we will have
𝐚𝐧 = 𝟏𝐧𝟐 + 𝟒𝐧 + 𝟎
or 𝐚𝐧 = 𝐧𝟐 + 𝟒𝐧 (after simplifying)

To check if this formula for finding the nth term of our sequence is correct, let us
check it against any of the given terms. Let’s say we try it against a4 . In our sequence,
a4 is 32. Let’s check if our formula will yield 32 if we replace n by 4.
a4 = (4)2 + 4(4)
a4 = 32 (Correct!)

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 

This means that, indeed, the formula for finding the nth term of the sequence
5, 12, 21, 32, 45, … is 𝐚𝐧 = 𝐧𝟐 + 𝟒𝐧.

So, suppose we are asked to find the 11th term of this sequence. We will just need
to replace n in the formula by 11. That is,

𝐚𝟏𝟏 = (𝟏𝟏)𝟐 + 𝟒(𝟏𝟏)

𝐚𝟏𝟏 = 𝟏𝟔𝟓 the 11th term of the sequence

Now, for the cubic form of an arithmetic sequence, we have the format
an = an3 + bn2 + cn + d
where d= zeroth term
6a= the first entry in the third difference
6a+2b= the first entry in the second difference
a+b+c= the first entry in the first difference

Example:
Find the general rule to generate the terms of the sequence 10, 15, 36, 76, 138, . . .

Solution: Solving cubic sequences is just like extending the solution in a quadratic
sequence. First, we take the difference between terms starting from the 5th term, going
left.

Terms 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

Sequence 10 15 36 76 138
start here and
First Difference 5 21 40 62 go left

Notice that the differences are not the same, so we proceed to finding the “second
difference”, again, start working from the right going left.

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 

Terms 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

Sequence 10 15 36 76 138

First Difference 5 21 40 62
start here and
Second Difference 16 19 22 go left

Still, the differences are not the same so we extend the process of finding the difference
between terms.
Terms 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th
Sequence 10 15 36 76 138

First Difference 5 21 40 62
start here and
Second Difference 16 19 22 go left

Third Difference 3 3

At this point, we have found the common difference on “third level”; that makes it easy
for us to remember because our sequence is cubic or third degree. Now, let us introduce
the zeroth term in the sequence by working backwards in the figure. This time, we start
from the bottom and we shall use red broken lines to indicate that they are derived from
introducing a zeroth term.
Terms 0th 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th
Sequence 18 10 15 36 76 138 d = 18

First Difference -8 5 21 40 62 a+b+c= -8

Second Difference 13 16 19 22 6a+2b= 13

Third Difference 3 3 3 6a = 3

start here and go up

It is important that you start from the bottom to know what needs to be subtracted from
the differences in each level to be able to arrive at the correct zeroth term.
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 

Remembering that in our formula a+b+c corresponds to the first entry in the first
difference; 6a+2b corresponds to the first entry in the second difference; 6a corresponds
to the first entry in the third difference; and d corresponds to the zeroth (0th ) term, we
now have the following equations.

𝐚 + 𝐛 + 𝐜 = −𝟖 6𝐚 + 𝟐𝐛 = 𝟏𝟑 𝟔𝐚 = 𝟑 and 𝐝 = 𝟏𝟖

We now proceed to solving for a, b, and c so that we can already plug the
values into the format of the general formula.
Solving for a, we have 6a = 3
𝟏
𝐚= (after dividing both sides of the equation by 6)
𝟐

Solving for b, we have 6a + 2b = 13

1
6 ( ) + 2b = 13 (after substituting the derived value of a above)
2
2b = 13 − 3 (after simplifying and transposing)
2b = 10
𝐛=𝟓

Solving for c, we have a + b + c = −8

1
+ 5 + c = −8
2
11
c = −8 −
2
𝟐𝟕
𝐜=− or -13.5
𝟐

𝟏 𝟐𝟕
Therefore, 𝐚 = , 𝐛 = 𝟓, 𝐜 = − , and 𝐝 = 𝟏𝟖.
𝟐 𝟐
And plugging these values into the format of the formula
𝐚𝐧 = 𝐚𝐧𝟑 + 𝐛𝐧𝟐 + 𝐜𝐧 + 𝐝, we will have
𝟏 𝟐𝟕
𝐚𝐧 = 𝐧𝟑 + 𝟓𝐧𝟐 − 𝐧 + 𝟏𝟖 Gen. Formula
𝟐 𝟐

To check if this formula for finding the nth term of our sequence is correct, let us
check it against any of the given terms. Let’s say we try it against a3 . In our sequence,
a3 is 36. Let’s check if our formula will yield 36 if we replace n by 3.

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 

10 15 36 76 138
𝟏 𝟑 𝟐𝟕
𝐚𝐧 = 𝐧 + 𝟓𝐧𝟐 − 𝐧 + 𝟏𝟖
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟐𝟕
𝐚𝟑 = (𝟑)𝟑 + 𝟓(𝟑)𝟐 − (𝟑) + 𝟏𝟖
𝟐 𝟐
= 13.5 + 45 – 40.5 + 18
a3 = 36 (Correct!)

This means that, indeed, the formula for finding the nth term of the sequence
𝟏 𝟐𝟕
10, 15, 36, 76, 138, … is 𝐚𝐧 = 𝐧𝟑 + 𝟓𝐧𝟐 − 𝐧 + 𝟏𝟖.
𝟐 𝟐

So suppose we are asked to find the 8th term of this sequence. We will just need
to replace n in the formula by 8. That is,

𝟏 𝟐𝟕
𝐚𝟖 = (𝟖)𝟑 + 𝟓(𝟖)𝟐 − (𝟖) + 𝟏𝟖
𝟐 𝟐
𝐚𝟖 = 𝟒𝟖𝟔 the 8th term of the sequence

That’s it! It's time for you to practice your newly learned skill.

Learning check
Activity:
1. Write the general rule for the nth term of sequence 9, 6, 3, 0, -3, -6, … Then
find its 25th term.
2. Write the general rule for the nth term of this quadratic number sequence
– 3, 8, 23, 42, 65, … Then find the a24 .
3. Write the general rule for the nth term of the sequence 4, 14, 40, 88, 164, …
Then find its 31st term.
4. The twelfth term of a sequence is 94 and the common difference between
terms is 8. Find the first term and write the first 5 terms of the sequence.
5. Find the common difference in a sequence where the first term is 12 and
a15 = −86. Then enumerate the first 5 terms of the sequence.
6. Write the general formula of a sequence with two given terms, a5 = 19 and
a18 = 110. Then list down the first 5 terms of the sequence.

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 

Geometric Sequence

At this point, we shall discuss the geometric sequence- a kind of number sequence
where each term after the first can be found by multiplying the preceding term by a
common number. This common number, denoted by “r" , is called the common ratio of
the sequence.
The table below, which we also saw in the previous lesson, shows us the formula for
finding the nth term of a geometric sequence.

General Rule (Formula) for the nth Term of a Sequence

Term 1 2 3 4 … Nth term

Arithmetic sequence a a+d a + 2d a + 3d … a + (n − 1)d

Geometic sequence a ar ar 2 ar 3 … 𝐚𝐫 𝐧−𝟏

This table tells us that to find the general formula for any geometric sequence,
you will need to find first the values of a and r. Again, remember that a stands for the
first term of the sequence, and r stands for the common ratio in the sequence.
Let us try this example on a geometric sequence with common ratio r, r ≠ 1.

Example 1:
Find the general rule to generate the terms of the sequence and find the 25th
term
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 

1, - 2, 4, - 8, 16, _-32__, _64__, _-128__, … , ___

Solution: The format for the general formula for the nth term of a geometric sequence
is:
an = ar n−1
a=1
r = -2
an = ar n−1
= 1 (-2)n-1
= (-2)n – 1 General rule
5th term
n=5
(-2)n – 1
(-2)5 – 1
(-2)4
(-2)(-2)(-2)(-2) = 16

25th term
n = 25
(-2)n – 1
(-2)24
16,777,216

We need the values of a and r that we shall plug into this formula. So let’s start
working on it. The first term in the sequence is 1, so the value of a is equal to 1. The
common ratio of the terms of the sequence is -2 because the “common number” that
we can multiply to any preceding term to get the next term is -2. (A systematic way of
getting the common ratio in a geometric sequence is to divide the second term by the
first term. Then verify if you have the correct value by dividing the third term by the
second term, or in general, divide the (n+1)th term by nth term.)
The diagram below should help you to better understand what I am saying.
(Check out the computation for r in the box.)

Sequence 1 -2 4 -8 16
−2
𝑟1 = = −2
1
4 Common ratio (r) -2 -2 -2 -2
𝑟2 = = −2
−2
8
𝑟3 = − = −2 68
4
16
𝑟4 = = −2
−8
 

(When you multiply 1 by -2, you get -2; when you multiply -2 by -2,
you get 4; when you multiply 4 by -2, you get -8, and so on.)
So a = 1 and r = −2. Plugging these values to the format above, we have:

an = 1(−2)n−1

Remember that here we do not need to replace n by any value because we are just
looking for the general formula for the nth term of this sequence. Furthermore, this
formula can be rewritten in its simplified form like:

an = (−2)n−1 (justified by the identity property for multiplication)

So, it looks like that the general formula for the nth term of this sequence is
an = (−2)n−1 . But before we say so, let us not forget to check if it is correct. We do that
by applying this formula to verify any given term in the sequence. For example, let us
check if we will get 4 if we substitute 3 to n in this formula. (4 is the third (3 rd) term in the
given sequence that’s why we will substitute 3 for n.)

Checking: a3 = (−2)3−1 (Notice that all n in the formula are replaced by 3.)
a3 = (−2)2
a3 = 4 (Here we have verified that the formula gives a3 = 4.)

Since we have checked that the formula works for the given sequence, we can now
confidently say that the general formula for the nth term of this sequence is an = (−2)n−1
This means that we can find any term in the sequence using this formula. So suppose we
want to find a20 or the 20th term in the sequence. To find this, we will just replace n in the
formula by 20. Let’s do that.

a20 = (−2)20−1
an = (−2)19
a20 = −524,288 You can try looking for any term of the sequence using
the formula.)

Going back to the problem, the terms that must be in the blank are -32, 64, and -128,
respectively.

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 

Note: The common ratio of this sequence is a negative, which resulted in an alternating
sequence. An alternating sequence will have numbers that alternate or switch back
and forth between positive and negative signs. Notice that when the exponent is even,
you get a positive power (answer); and when the exponent is odd, you get a negative
power (answer).

Example 2.
List down the first five terms of a geometric sequence if the first term is 8 and the
1
common ratio is . Also, find the value of a13 .
2

Solution: Let us write down the given values first and see if we can directly proceed to
substituting them into the formula format.
1
a = 8; r =
2
Our formula requires just these two values so we can proceed directly to substitution.
That is,
an = ar n−1
1 n−1
an = (8) ( ) General Formula
2

1 1
Unlike in example 1, here we cannot multiply 8 and just yet because has an
2 2
exponent. (Remember PEMDAS?) So our formula can no longer be simplified. Let us now
check if it is correct.

Checking: Try it for a (first term), since there’s no other given terms.
n=1
1 1−1
a1 = (8) ( )
2
1 0
a1 = (8) ( )
2
a1 = (8)(1)
a1 = 8 (Correct!)

We can now generate the next four terms (or any other term, for that matter) of this
sequence. And these are:
1 2−1
n = 2 a2 = (8) ( ) =4
2

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 

1 3−1
n = 3 𝑎3 = (8) ( ) =2
2

1 4−1
n = 4 𝑎4 = (8) ( ) =1
2

1 5−1 1
𝑛 = 5 𝑎5 = (8) ( ) =
2 2
8, 4, 2, 1, 1/2
Of course, you can list down these values without deriving the general formula. All you
1
need to do is to multiply the first term 8 by and do the same thing for each succeeding
2
term. However, I’m sure you would not want to continue doing that until you get the
13th term. So deriving the formula is a wise solution.
1 13−1 1
n =13 𝑎13 = (8) ( ) =
2 512

1
To answer the problem, the first five terms of the sequence are 8, 4, 2, 1, and ; and the
2
1
13th term is .
512

Practice exercise 1. Analyze the given sequence for its general rule/ formula and identify
the next three terms.
1, 10, 100, 1,000, …

(Verify your answer when your teacher sends the recorded lecture of this lesson.)

Practice exercise 2. Extend the sequence below for three more terms then find an
expression for the nth term. Afterwards, find 𝑎17 .
1, -2, 4, -8, 16, __, __,__,…__

(Verify your answer when your teacher sends the recorded lecture of this lesson.)
Practice exercise 3. Examine the sequence 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, …
a. what is the next term?
b. what formula or rule can be used to generate the terms?
c. Find the 25th term of the sequence.

(Verify your answer when your teacher sends the recorded lecture of this lesson.)

The first two examples involved direct substitution to the general formula of a geometric
sequence. But some problems would require a different formula. That’s when you use
your creativity and critical thinking to manipulate the original formula and derive an
71
 

appropriate expression to solve the problem. Here are some other formulas derived from
the general formula of a geometric sequence that you might find useful.

𝒂𝒏
𝒂= (if you need to find the first term and you are given the value
𝒓𝒏−𝟏
of nth term and the common ratio)
𝟏
𝒂 𝒏−𝟏
𝒓= ( 𝒏) (if you need to find the common ratio and you are given the
𝒂
value of the first and nth term)

Example 3:

Find𝑎15 of a geometric sequence if the first few terms of the sequence are given
21 21
by −42, 21, − , , …
2 4

Solution:
We are given the value of a (first term), which is -42; but we still need to derive the
value of r (common ratio) to be able to plug these into the formula. So let’s do it!

21 1
𝑟= = − (divide the second term by the first term)
−42 2

−21⁄2 1
𝑟= = − (verify the value of d by dividing the third term by the
21 2
second term)

So we now have the values that we need to plug into 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 . These are 𝑎 = −42, and
1
𝑟=− .
2
1 𝑛−1
𝑎𝑛 = −42 (− ) .
2

Let us check if the formula is correct by checking if it works for 𝑎3 . (But of course, you
can use other terms in checking.)

1 3−1
Checking: 𝑎3 = −42 (− )
2

1 2
𝑎3 = −42 (− )
2
21
𝑎3 = − (Correct!)
2

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 

Since we have verified that our formula is correct, we can now proceed to finding 𝑎15 .
1 15−1
𝑎15 = −42 (− )
2

1 14
𝑎15 = −42 (− )
2
21
𝑎15 = −
8192

Example 4:
Find r given that 𝑎 = 10 and 𝑎20 = 10−18 . Then find the 6th term of the sequence.

Solution:
This problem is different from the previous three, and obviously it requires a
𝟏
𝒂 𝒏−𝟏
different version of our formula. Here we will need to use 𝒓 = ( 𝒏) because we need
𝒂
to find the common ratio given the value of the first term and an nth term, specifically,
𝑎20 . So if we plug the values to our formula, we will have:
𝟏
𝒂 𝒏−𝟏
𝒓= ( 𝒏)
𝒂

𝟏
𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟖 𝟐𝟎−𝟏
𝒓=( ) (take time to understand the substitution here)
𝟏𝟎

Simplifying this expression leads us to:

𝟏
𝟏
(review laws of exponents if you have trouble arriving at
𝟏𝟗
𝒓=( )
𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟗
this expression)

1
𝑟= or 0.1 (a calculator can help you simplify the previous
10
expression to arrive at this value of r)

So we now have the necessary values to get a formula for finding the 6th term of the
sequence. Let’s derive the formula for the nth term of this sequence.
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1
1 𝑛−1 1
𝑎𝑛 = (10) ( ) (Again, we cannot multiply 10 by because of PEMDAS)
10 10

Let’s check if our formula is correct by trying it on 𝑎20 . (We should get 10−18 to be able
to say tat our formula is correct.)

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 

1 20−1
Checking: 𝑎20 = (10) ( )
10

1 19
𝑎20 = (10) ( )
10

1
𝑎20 = (10) ( )
1019

10
𝑎20 =
1019

1
𝑎20 =
1018

𝑎20 = 10−18 (Correct!)

Since our checking yielded a correct statement, we can now get the value of the 6th
term.
1 6−1
𝑎6 = (10) ( )
10
1 5
𝑎6 = (10) ( )
10
= (10)(1/100000)

1
𝑎6 = (or 10−4 )
10,000

Example 5:
Find 𝑎 given that 𝑟 = 2 and 𝑎18 = 393,216. Then find the 8th term of the sequence.
𝒂𝒏
𝒂 = 𝒏−𝟏
𝒓

Solution:
This problem also requires a different version of our formula. Here we will need to
𝒂𝒏
use 𝒂 = 𝒏−𝟏 because we need to find the first term of the sequence given the common
𝒓
ratio and an nth term, specifically, 𝑎18 . So if we plug the values to our formula, we will
have:

𝟑𝟗𝟑,𝟐𝟏𝟔
𝒂= (after substituting values appropriately to the formula)
𝟐𝟏𝟖−𝟏

Simplifying this expression leads us to:

𝟑𝟗𝟑,𝟐𝟏𝟔
𝒂 = 𝟏𝟕
𝟐

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 

𝒂=𝟑 (a calculator can help you simplify the previous

expression to arrive at this value of a)

So we now have the necessary values to get a formula for finding the 8th term of the
sequence. Let’s derive the formula for the nth term of this sequence.
𝑎𝑛 = (3)(2)𝑛−1 (Again, we cannot multiply 3 by 2 because of PEMDAS)

Let’s check if our formula is correct by trying it on 𝑎18 . (We should get 393,216 to be able
to say that our formula is correct.)

Checking: 𝑎18 = (3)(2)18−1

𝑎18 = (3)(2)17

𝑎18 = 393,216 (Correct!)

Since our checking yielded a correct statement, then we can now proceed to getting
the value of the 8th term.
𝑎8 = (3)(2)8−1

𝑎8 = (3)(2)7

𝑎8 = 384

Example 6:
1
Given the terms 𝑎3 = and 𝑎5 = 8 of a geometric sequence, find the exact value
2
of the term 𝑎15 if the terms of the sequence are all positive.

Solution:
To solve this problem, we first need to get the value of r (common ratio) and a
(first term). But we cannot find the common ratio by getting the quotient of n+1 by n,
because we are not given any consecutive terms of the sequence. So, how do we
approach this problem? Remember this part of the table earlier?

Term 1 2 3 4 … n

Geometic sequence a ar ar 2 ar 3 … ar n−1

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 

This table reminds us that each new term is found by multiplying the previous term by
the common ratio r. That means, if we begin from 𝑎3 , we will reach
𝑎5 by multiplying 𝑎3 by r twice (see the table below)

𝑎 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎4 𝑎5
1
Terms ? ? 2 ? 8

1
1 1
Terms ? ? 2 ( )𝑟 ( 𝑟) 𝑟
2 2

1
From this table, we can see that the equation 𝑎5 = 8 can also be written as 𝑎5 = ( 𝑟) 𝑟
2
1 2
or 𝑎5 = 𝑟 . If you cannot remember the properties of equality, let’s just use logic to
2
make a conclusion from these equations:
1
If 𝑎5 = 8 and 𝑎5 = 𝑟 2 then __________.
2

1
Logic dictates us that 8 = 𝑟 2 . In fact, this is justified by transitive property of equality. So,
2
from this equation, we can derive the value of r. Let’s now work on it:

1
8 = 𝑟2
2
16 = 𝑟 2 (after multiplying both sides by 2 or after cross-
multiplication)
𝑟 2 = 16 (justified by symmetric property of equality)
𝑟 = ±4

At this point, we have to decide which root of the equation to take: the positive root
(4), or the negative root (-4)? From our example earlier where we had a negative value
of r, we learned that if r is negative, the signs of the terms will alternate between positive
and negative. Going back to the problem, it says that all terms in the sequence are
positive, so we will take the positive root (4) as the correct value of r.
The next step is to find the value of a (first term), and we do that by using any one
of the values that are given. Let’s say we use 𝑎5 .

From the format of the formula for the nth term of a geometric sequence, 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 ,
we will have
𝑎5 = 𝑎(4)5−1 (after substituting 5 to n and 4 to r)
8 = 𝑎(4) 4
(because 𝑎5 = 8)
8 = 256𝑎 (because 44 = 256)

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 

256𝑎 = 8 (symmetric property, this is not a significant step here)

1
𝑎= (after dividing both sides of equation by 256)
32

So no we have r and a! That means we no w have the values that we need in the
formula format. Let’s plug them already!
1
𝑎𝑛 = (4)𝑛−1
32

Checking: (We will check using 𝑎3 but remember that you can also use 𝑎5 , or any other
term that’s given in the problem.)
1
𝑎3 = (4)3−1
32
1
𝑎3 = (4)2
32
1
𝑎3 = (Correct!)
2

We now proceed to find 𝑎15 as required by the problem.

1
𝑎15 = (4)15−1
32
𝑎15 = 8,388,608

Learning check

Solve each problem as detailed as we did in the examples, that is, include
checking and make sure to answer the primary question in each problem.

1. Find the 11th term of a geometric sequence if 𝑎1 = 45 and the common ratio
𝑟 = 0.2.

2. The first term of a geometric sequence is 3 and the ninth term is 768. Find the
common ratio of the sequence and the value of 𝑎12 .

1 2 4 8
3. Given the geometric sequence, , , , , …, determine the formula for the
3 9 27 81
nth term and find 𝑎10 .

4. The common ratio of a geometric sequence is 4 and its 5th term is 192. Find
the value of the first term and determine the 9th term of the sequence.

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 

5. In 2017, the number of Kathleen’s Facebook friends is 284. It is estimated that

the number of her Facebook friends will increase by 4% each year.
a. Write a formula for the number of Kathleen’s Facebook friends.
(Remember that r can be a fraction/ decimal.)
b. Estimate the number of Facebook friends Kathleen will have in 2021.
(State your final answer in a sentence and round off value if necessary
because there are no “fraction” or “decimal” friends.)

6. A bike shop business starts a new website. Initially, the number of hits is 293
due to the curiosity factor. The business estimates the number of hits will
increase by 2.6% per week.
a. Write a formula for the number of hits. (Remember that r can be a
fraction/ decimal.)
b. Estimate the number of hits in 5 weeks. (State your final answer in a
sentence and round off value if necessary because there are no
“fraction” or “decimal” hits.)

ARITHMETIC SERIES AND GEOMETRIC SERIES

After learning about arithmetic and geometric sequences, we now study

arithmetic and geometric series. But what are they?

An arithmetic series is the sum of the terms in an arithmetic sequence, while a

geometric series is the sum of the terms in a geometric sequence.

SUM OF AN ARITHMETIC SERIES

If 𝑎, 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 are terms in an arithmetic sequence with common difference d,
then the sum 𝑆𝑛 of these n terms is given by the following formula:

𝑛(𝑎 + 𝑎𝑛 )
𝑆𝑛 =
2

where 𝑆𝑛 = the sum of all terms in the arithmetic sequence

𝑛 = the number of terms involved in the arithmetic sequence
𝑎 = the first term in the arithmetic sequence
𝑎𝑛 = the nth term in the arithmetic sequence

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 

If we do not have a value for 𝑎𝑛 , we can rewrite this formula to plug in our formula for
𝑛[𝑎 +𝑎+(𝑛−1)𝑑]
the nth term of an arithmetic sequence. We will have 𝑆𝑛 = .
2

3 5 7
Example: Find the sum of the first 35 terms of the arithmetic sequence , 2, , 3, , … if
2 2 2
37
𝑎35 = .
2

Solution: In the formula, we need the values of 𝑛, 𝑎, and 𝑎𝑛 . The number of terms 𝑛
3
involved in this sequence is 35, the first term 𝑎 is , and the value of the nth term 𝑎𝑛 (in
2
37
this case, the 35th term) is . It looks like we have everything that we need! So, now we
2
can directly substitute these values to the formula for finding the sum of an arithmetic
series.
𝑛(𝑎 + 𝑎𝑛 )
𝑆𝑛 =
2
3 37
35(2 + 2 )
𝑆35 =
2
𝑆35 = 350

3 5 7
So, the sum of the first 35 terms in the sequence , 2, , 3, , …, is 350.
2 2 2

Did you know that there's a famous (although apocryphal) story about the
mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss and the arithmetic series? The story goes
something like this:
When Gauss was just 9 years old, he was enrolled in a math class with regular
students. Because he was already a genius, even at this young age, he would get bored
in his class and would always play around even when class is going on. This disrupts the
class and gets him into trouble. One day his teacher wanted to punish him for fooling
around once more and told him: “If you’re so smart, why don't you go sit in the corner
and add up all the integers from 1 to 100?” That’s 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + … . + 97 + 98 + 99 + 100!
Remember, there were no calculators in those days! But Gauss went and sat in the
corner, and yet he didn't pick up his pencil. The teacher confronted and challenged
79
 

him: “Carl! Why aren't you working? Did you figure it out already?” Gauss responded
with, “Yes – it's 5,050.” The teacher couldn't believe how Gauss managed to answer
correctly and so quickly!

So how did Gauss find the answer so fast? The answer is simple, really – it's all about
pattern recognition. Let's look at the problem more closely.
Gauss was tasked to get the sum of:

1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + … . + 97 + 98 + 99 + 100

Upon looking at the list, Gauss recognized that if he took the sum of two extreme
values, like 1 and 100, he would get 101. If he did the same thing with 2 and 99, he would
also get 101, and if he continued until the two middlemost pair 50 and 51, he would also
get 101! This was how Gauss saw the problem:

So Gauss noticed that the sums of each pair of numbers in the series were all the same
valuen(101). And since he had 50 such pairs, he multiplied 101 by 50 and obtained 5050.
This is the sum of the integers from 1 to 100.

Gauss was able to quickly solve the problem and establish a relationship that we still use
today when working with arithmetic series.

𝑛(𝑎 + 𝑎𝑛 ) 𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = Gauss had 𝑎 and 𝑎𝑛 too (1 and 100), and his was 50.
2 2

Gauss grew up to become a famous mathematician who contributed to many

mathematics and science fields and is named one of the greatest mathematicians of
all times, along with Archimedes and Newton.

Example 2: Find the sum of integers from 1 to 85.

Solution: List down the given. 𝑎 = 1, 𝑎85 = 85; and 𝑛 = 85

80
 

Substitute these values to the formula.

85(1 + 85)
𝑆85 =
2
𝑆85 = 3,655 the sum of integers from 1 to 85

Example 3: Find the sum of the first 45 terms of the series 1 + 4 + 7 + 10 + 13 + ⋯

Solution: Here, we do not know the value of 𝑎𝑛 (which is 𝑎45 ), so we still need to work
on it. Remember the formula 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑? We will need that again. Either we input
𝑛[𝑎 +𝑎+(𝑛−1)𝑑]
that to the arithmetic series formula and have 𝑆𝑛 = or just solve for 𝑎𝑛 first
2
and input the derived value to the arithmetic series formula. For this time, we will do the
second one, that is, we will solve for the value 𝑎𝑛 separately. I hope you still remember
how to get 𝑎, 𝑛, and 𝑑 in the arithmetic sequence formula.

𝑎45 = 1 + (45 − 1)3 substitute 𝑎, 𝑛, and 𝑑 in the arithmetic sequence formula

𝑎45 = 133 this will be our 𝑎𝑛 in the arithmetic series formula

From the given series, these are the values that we will need for the arithmetic series
formula. 𝑛 = 45; 𝑎 = 1; 𝑎45 = 133

45(1 +133)
𝑆45 =
2
𝑆45 = 3,015 sum of the first 45 terms of the series 1 + 4 + 7 + 10 + 13 + ⋯

Example 4: Find 1 (4 + 7𝑛).

∑38

Solution: This problem is read: “Find the summation of 4+7n where n is from 1 to 38”.
This problem used the symbol called “summation notation” and it is a compact way of
writing the arithmetic series 11 + 18 + 25 + 32 + ⋯ + 270. (Wait, what?) These terms in
the series are found by substituting 1, 2, 3, 4, and 38, respectively to the expression 4+7n.
We can say that 4+7n is the formula for the nth term of the series. (See below.)

𝑎 = 4 + 7(1) = 11 𝑎2 = 4 + 7(2) = 18 𝑎3 = 4 + 7(3) = 25

𝑎4 = 4 + 7(4) = 32 𝑎38 = 4 + 7(38) = 270

The numbers 1 and 38 in the summation notation above are called lower limit and upper
limits. These tell us that we have to add the terms of the arithmetic sequence given by
the formula 4 + 7𝑛 starting from the first (1st) term up to the thirty- eighth (38th) term.

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 

Now that we understand the new symbol and what the problem really is, we can
proceed to solving for what we are really asked: the sum of the series. The values that
we will need for the formula are 𝑎 = 11, 𝑛 = 38, and 𝑎𝑛 = 270. Let’s now substitute these
to the arithmetic formula.

38(11+270)
𝑆38 =
2
𝑆38 = 5,339 the value of ∑38
1 (4 + 7𝑛)

Example 5: Find 12(4n − 5).

∑30

Solution: This problem is read: “Find the summation of 4n - 5 where n is from 12 to 30”.
Notice that the lower limit is not 1, so we cannot say that there are 30 terms involved in
our series. You might say, we can just subtract the lower limit 12 from the upper limit 30
to get the actual number of terms involved. That’s 30-12=18. However, if we count the
number of terms from 𝑎12 to 𝑎30 , there are actually 19! So, we have to be careful with
tricky problems like this. The technique here is to subtract the upper and lower limits but
add 1 to the difference to ensure that the lower limit is included in the counting of terms.
Here the number of terms involved is given by 30 − 12 + 1 = 19, so our 𝑛 is 19. Let us now
solve for the other values that we will need for the arithmetic series formula.

Solving for the first term 𝑎12 : 𝑎12 = 4(12) − 5 = 43

Solving for the last term 𝑎30 : 𝑎30 = 4(30) − 5 = 115

Substituting these to the arithmetic series formula, we will have:

19 (43+115)
𝑆19 =
2
𝑆19 = 1,501 the value of ∑30
12(4𝑛 − 5)

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 

SUM OF A GEOMETRIC SERIES

If 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 form a geometric sequence with common ratio 𝑟 ≠ 1, then the

sum 𝑆𝑛 of these n terms is given by the following:
𝑎 − 𝑟𝑎𝑛
𝑆𝑛 =
1−𝑟

where 𝑆𝑛 = the sum of all terms in the geometric sequence

𝑛 = the number of terms involved in the geometric sequence
𝑎 = the first term in the geometric sequence
𝑎𝑛 = the nth term in the geometric sequence
𝑟 = the common ratio in the geometric sequence

If we do not have a value for 𝑎𝑛 , we can rewrite this formula to plug in our formula for
𝑎−𝑟(𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 )
the nth term of a geometric sequence. We will have 𝑆𝑛 = , which can be
1−𝑟
𝑎 (1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
simplified to 𝑆𝑛 = .
1−𝑟

Example 1: Find the sum of the first 25 terms of a geometric sequence that begins with
𝑎 = 1 and has common ratio 𝑟 = 2.

Solution: We list down the values we can gather from the problem.
𝑎 = 1; 𝑟 = 2; 𝑛 = 25

Since we do not yet know the value of 𝑎25 (which we will replace to 𝑎𝑛 in the geometric
series formula), we can solve for it first using the formula for finding the nth term of a
geometric sequence or we can just use the simplified form of our second formula:
𝑎 (1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
𝑆𝑛 =
1−𝑟
1 (1 − 225 )
𝑆25 =
1−2
𝑠25 = 33,554,431 the sum of the first 25 terms of the sequence

Example 2: Evaluate 𝑆8 for the geometric sequence 250, 100, 40, 16, …

83
 

Solution: This problem asks us to get the sum of the first 8 terms of the given sequence.
2
From the problem, we can gather that 𝑛 = 8 , 𝑎 = 250, and 𝑟 = . (I hope you still
5
remember how to get these values.)
28
250 (1 − 5 )
𝑆8 = 2 substitute the values to the geometric series formula
1−5

𝑆8 = 416.3936 the sum of the first 8 terms of the sequence

26 1
Example 3: Find 𝑎𝑛 if 𝑆4 = and 𝑟 = .
27 3

Solution: Again, we will use the second formula for geometric series, this time not to
find 𝑆𝑛 but to find the first term 𝑎, which we will need in our final solution later.
1 4
26 𝑎 (1 − ( ) )
plug in values to the formula
3
= 1
27 1 −3
1
26 𝑎 (1 − 81)
= 2 perform innermost operations
27
3
52 80
= 𝑎 cross multiply and simplify
81 81
13
𝑎= the first term in the sequence
20

To solve for 𝑎𝑛 , we substitute 𝑎 and 𝑟 to the format of the formula for finding the
nth term of a geometric sequence, 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 .

13 1 𝑛−1
𝑎𝑛 = ( ) the formula for the nth term of the sequence
20 3

Example 4: Evaluate ∑10

1 3(−2)
𝑛−1
.

This problem is read: “Find the summation of three times -2 raised to n minus 1, where n
is from 1 to 10”. The notation tells us to get the sum of the first 10 terms of the series whose
nth term is given by 3(−2)𝑛−1 . From this, we can gather that the first term of the series is
3 and the common ratio is -2. (Try to explain to yourself why.) For better understanding,
let’s solve for a few terms of the sequence.

𝑎 = 3(−2)1−1 = 3 𝑎2 = 3(−2)2−1 = −6 𝑎3 = 3(−2)3−1 = 12

84
 

𝑎4 = 3(−2)4−1 = −24 𝑎10 = 3(−2)10−1 = −1,536

Of the above terms, only 𝑎 and 𝑎10 are necessary to derive because we will need them
in our formula. But if we will use the second formula again, we don’t need them. Let’s
have two solutions and decide for yourself which one you find easier.

𝑎 − 𝑟𝑎𝑛 𝑎(1−𝑟 𝑛 )
Using formula 1: 𝑆𝑛 = Using formula 2: 𝑆𝑛 =
1−𝑟 1−𝑟

3 −[(−2)(−1536)] 3[1−(−2)10 ]
𝑆10 = 𝑆10 =
1−(−2) 1−(−2)

3 −(3072) 3(−1023)
𝑆10 = 𝑆𝑛 =
3 3

𝑆10 = −1,023 𝑆𝑛 = −1,023

Example 5: Find the sum of the terms of a Pascal Triangle up to 10th row.

1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1

85
 

Solution: The Pascal’s triangle shown here is up to the 8th row only. But if we can find
a pattern from this, we will be saved from having to write and complete the triangle.

Well, of course we have to try to find a pattern because we don’t want to add all these
numbers one by one, right? Let’s look at the following figure.

If we look at the sum of the terms in each row, we see that they form a pattern,
specifically, a geometric sequence!
1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128,

This is a geometric sequence whose first term 𝑎 is 1, and whose common ratio 𝑟 is 2. So
easily, and without completing Pascal’s triangle, we can continue the pattern and get
the 10th term of the sequence or just solve directly for the 10th term by using the formula
for the nth term of a geometric sequence.

𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1
𝑎10 = 1(2)10−1
𝑎10 = 512

If you choose to continue the pattern, you can just continue multiplying each previous
term by 2 until you reach the 10th term. But this is not practical if you are asked to look
for higher terms, like 20th, 28th, etc. So, I suggest you practice what we did above.
Anyway, the geometric sequence formed by the sum of the terms in each row of the
Pascal’s triangle is:
1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512, …

86
 

Since these numbers form a geometric sequence, we can use the formula for the sum
of a geometric series to solve our problem.

1 − 2(512)
𝑆10 =
1−(2)
−1023
𝑆10 =
−1
𝑆10 = 1,023 the sum of the terms of a Pascal Triangle up to 10th row

Learning check

Solve the following problems as comprehensively as we did in our examples.

(Caution! If the kind of sequence or series is not mentioned in the problem, you
have to identify first whether it is arithmetic or geometric to avoid using incorrect
formula.)

1. Find the sum of the first 45 terms of the sequence 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, …

2. Find the sum of all even numbers between 35 and 427.

3. Find the sum of the series 1 + 3.5 + 6 + 8.5 + ⋯ + 101.

4. Find the sum of the geometric series 2 + 6 + 18 + 54 + ⋯ if there are 12 terms

in the series.

5. Find 𝑆10 for the sequence 8, −4, 2, −1, ….

6. Find the sum of the first 24 terms of the sequence 4, −3, −10, …

7. A grocery store displays their canned sardines in towers of eighteen rows,

with each row having one less can than the row below it. If the bottom row
has twenty‐eight cans, how many cans are in the display?

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 

D. The Fibonacci Sequence and The Golden Ratio

The discussion of number sequences would not be complete without mentioning

a sequence known as the Fibonacci sequence. It is named after Leonardo of Pisa, also
known as Fibonacci, and one of the best-known mathematicians of Medieval Europe.

Before we continue studying this famous number sequence, let us first grasp its
inventor, Fibonacci.

Leonardo of Pisa (aka Fibonacci)

Leonardo was born in Pisa, Italy, around 1170. He is

considered one of the most distinguished mathematicians of
the Middle Ages. His father, Guglielmo del Bonacci, was a
wealthy Pisan merchant who took Leonardo with him when
he traveled because he wanted his son to become a
merchant, too.
Leonardo was sent by his father to study mathematics
[Link]
om/medieval_fibonacci.html with an Arab master (teacher), who guided him in learning
calculation techniques, especially those concerning Hindu- Arabic numbers, which was
not yet introduced in Europe at that time. (We learned about this in our lesson about
the history of mathematics.)
Fibonacci’s education started in Bejaia and also continued in Egypt, Syria, and
Greece, places he visited with his father along the trade routes, before returning
permanently to Pisa. For the next 25 years, Fibonacci dedicated himself to writing

88
 

mathematical manuscripts. When he began writing, he referred to himself as Fibonacci,

which roughly means “son of Bonacci”- the name by which he is known today.
In addition to the famous sequence bearing his name, Fibonacci is also credited
with introducing the Hindu- Arabic number system in Europe. His 1202 book, Liber Abacci
(Book of the Abacus), explained the use of this number system and emphasized the
importance of the number zero.
Leonardo’s reputation as a mathematician became so great that Emperor
Federico II asked an audience while in Pisa in 1225. After 1228, not much is known of
Leonardo’s life, except that he was awarded the title of “Discretus et sapiens magister
Leonardo Bigollo” in recognition of the great progress he made to mathematics.
Fibonacci died sometime after 1240, presumably in Pisa.
THE FIBONACCI SEQUENCE

The Fibonacci sequence was introduced by Fibonacci in his book Liber Abacci,
when he posed an original problem that he investigated. It was about how fast rabbits
could breed in ideal circumstances. The problem was stated like this:

Suppose a newly-born pair of rabbits, one male, one

female, are put in a field. After a month, these rabbits
have produced no offspring, but they have grown
fertile, so they are able to mate. At the end of the
second month, the female rabbit gave birth to another
pair of rabbits, conveniently, a male and a female
again. Every month thereafter, the pair of rabbits
produces another pair of rabbits, and the offspring
reproduce in exactly the same manner. Suppose that none of the rabbits dies, how
many pairs will there be in one year?

89
 

The solution to this problem led to the development of the sequence that bears
its inventor’s name: the Fibonacci sequence. The first few terms of the Fibonacci
sequence are:
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, …

In the Fibonacci sequence, the first and second terms are 1. The sum of these two
terms is the third term. The sum of the second and third terms is the fourth term, and so
on. Following is the formal definition of the Fibonacci numbers.

THE FIBONACCI NUMBERS

𝐹1 = 1, 𝐹2 = 1, and 𝐹𝑛 = 𝐹𝑛−1 + 𝐹𝑛−2 for 𝑛 ≥ 3.

Where 𝐹1 = the first term in the Fibonacci sequence

𝐹2 = the second term in the Fibonacci sequence
𝐹𝑛 = the nth term in the Fibonacci sequence
𝑛 = the number of terms in the Fibonacci sequence

Example: Use the definition of Fibonacci numbers to find the seventh and eighth
Fibonacci numbers.

Solution: This method of getting a term in the Fibonacci sequence is practical only for
relatively small terms because you have to know the two preceding terms to
get the new term. Formulas like this is called a recursive formula. Unless you
memorize every term in the sequence, this method requires that you list down
the Fibonacci sequence from the first term, going forward. Anyway, suppose
we remember that the 5th and 6th terms in the Fibonacci sequence are 5 and
8, respectively, then our 𝐹7 will be given by
𝐹7 = 𝐹6 + 𝐹5
𝐹7 = 8 + 5
𝐹7 = 13
From this, our 𝐹8 will be given by
𝐹8 = 𝐹7 + 𝐹6
𝐹8 = 13 + 8
𝐹7 = 21
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 

Again, this formula is practical only if you are required to find early terms in the
Fibonacci sequence. But what if we were asked to find the 20th term? Or the 30th term?
Fortunately, we have the following formula.

Binet’s Formula
The Binet’s formula for finding the nth Fibonacci number is given by:
𝑛 𝑛
1 1+√5 1−√5
𝐹𝑛 = [( ) −( ) ]
√5 2 2

where 𝐹𝑛 = the nth term of the Fibonacci sequence

𝑛 = the number of terms in the sequence

1+√5
(The ratio is called the golden ratio, which we shall discuss later.)
2

The advantage of this formula over the recursive formula 𝐹𝑛 = 𝐹𝑛−1 + 𝐹𝑛−2 is that you can
determine the nth Fibonacci number without finding the two preceding Fibonacci
numbers. You have to master the use of a scientific calculator, though.

Example: Use Binet’s formula and a calculator to find the 20th, 30th, and 40th Fibonacci
numbers.

Solution: Most calculators will let you evaluate this directly, just make sure that you
use appropriate symbols to input values correctly. For example, in calculating 𝐹20 , this
was what I have pressed in my scientific calculator. (Go from left to right, down left to
right.)

( 1 𝑎 𝑏 ⁄𝑐 √ 5 ) ( ( ( 1 + √ 5 ) ÷ 2 ) ∧
2 0 - ( ( 1 - √ 5 ) ÷ 2 ) ∧ 2 0 ) =

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 

20 20
1 1+√5 1−√5
𝐹20 = [( ) −( ) ] = 6,765
√5 2 2

30 30
1 1+√5 1−√5
𝐹30 = [( ) −( ) ] = 832,040
√5 2 2

40 40
1 1+√5 1−√5
𝐹40 = [( ) −( ) ] = 102,334,155
√5 2 2

Binet’s Formula Simplified

Although Binet’s formula saved us from rewriting the Fibonacci sequence from the
beginning each time we try to get a Fibonacci number, we recognize that the formula
is quite cumbersome. Fortunately, yet again, it can be simplified! The Binet’s formula
when simplified is given by:
𝑛
1 1+√5
𝐹𝑛 = 𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡 [ ( ) ]
√5 2

where 𝐹𝑛 = the nth term of the Fibonacci sequence

𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡 = an abbreviation for “the nearest integer to”

This is a lighter formula but unlike the original Binet’s formula where you get only integers,
here it is possible that you will get a decimal. In that case, just round your calculator
results to the nearest integer. (That’s where 𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡 comes.) In cases where you get an
integer, you don’t have to round off because it's exactly the “𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡”.

Example: Use the simplified form of Binet’s formula to find the 16th, 21st, and 32nd
Fibonacci numbers.

Solution:

To get 𝐹16 , here are the keys to press in your scientific calculator. “𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡′ is not found in
any calculator, it just tells you to round your results to the nearest integer.

( 1 𝑎 𝑏 ⁄𝑐 √ 5 ) ( ( 1 + √ 5 ) ÷ 2 ) ∧ 1 6 =

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 

Your result must be 987.0002026. Round this result to the nearest integer, 987. Therefore,
𝐹16 = 987. In the following notation, notice that “𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡” was no longer written in the final
answer. That is because we have already rounded the answer to the nearest integer
987.
16
1
1 + √5
𝐹16 = 𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡 [ ( ) ] = 𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡 987.0002 = 987
√5 2

21
1 1+√5
Solving for 𝐹21 : 𝐹21 = 𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡 [ ( ) ] = 𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡 10,945.99998 = 10,946
√5 2

32
1 1+√5
Solving for 𝐹32 : 𝐹32 = 𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡 [ ( ) ] = 𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡 2,178,309 = 2,178,309
√5 2

In the last example, we still write 𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡 although the result is an integer, but we also
remove it in the final answer.

The Fibonacci Sequence in Nature

The Fibonacci sequence and the related topic of the golden ratio appear in many
places in nature and play an important role in geometry, art, and music.

 The Fibonacci sequence can be seen in the seed arrangement of many species
of plants. For instance, when the flowering head of the sunflower matures to seed,
the seeds’ spiral arrangements become clearly visible. If you count the clockwise
and counterclockwise spirals that reach the outer edge of the sunflowers’ seeds,
you'll usually find that it gives you 89 steeply curving to the right, 55 curving more
shallowly to the left, and 34 again shallowly to the right. These numbers are
consecutive terms of the Fibonacci sequence. The largest known specimen to be
examined had spiral counts of 144 right, 89 left, and 55 right, which are also
consecutive terms of the Fibonacci sequence. (Read: [Link]
Sunflowers Show Complex Fibonacci Sequences)

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 

 The Fibonacci sequence can be seen on petal counts of various flowers.

Euphorbia has 2 petals

Calla Lily has 1 petal Anthurium has 1 petal

Clematis has 8 petals 1

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 

Hibiscus (Gumamela) has 5 petals

Iris has 3 petals

Aster has 21 petals 1

Corn marigold has 13 petals

Blanket flower has 34 petals

dahlia has 55 petals Dahlia pinnata has 89 petals

 The Fibonacci sequence can also be seen on the structure of pinecones: The
tablike or scalelike structures that make up the main body of the pinecone form
a set of spirals that start from the cone’s attachment to the branch.

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 

A count on the steep spiral will reveal a Fibonacci number, and a count on the gradual
one will reveal the adjacent smaller Fibonacci number, or if not, the next smaller
Fibonacci number. One investigation of 4,290 pinecones from 10 species of pine trees
found in California revealed that only 74 cones, or merely 1.7%, deviated from this
Fibonacci pattern.

Read: [Link]

 The structure of pineapples also shows Fibonacci sequence. Pineapple scales are
roughly hexagonal in shape, which means that three distinct sets of spirals can be
counted. Generally, the number of pineapple scales in each spiral are Fibonacci
numbers. (Read: [Link]
and-pineapples/)

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 

[Link]

 It’s also interesting to learn that the number of ancestors of a male bee follows
the Fibonacci sequence. Did you know that in a bee family, a female bee can
either be a queen or a worker? If the female bee is fertile, she is a queen. If the
female bee is infertile, she is a worker. When a queen bee mates with a male bee,
the offspring is always a female bee (either a worker or a future queen). But a
queen bee can also produce an offspring even without mating with a male bee,
in which case, the offspring is always a male bee. In essence, then, female bees
have two parents, whereas male bees only have one parent. We can see the
Fibonacci sequence as we move back through the male bees’ generations. Here
is an illustration of a family tree for a male bee.

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 

 The Fibonacci sequence can also be seen in the way (some) tree branches form
or split. A main trunk will grow until it produces a branch, which creates two growth
points. Then, one of the new stems branches into two, while the other one lies
dormant. This pattern of branching is repeated for each of the new stems.

[Link]

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 

Fibonacci Numbers and the Golden Number (𝝓, 𝒑𝒉𝒊)

In 1753, while studying the Fibonacci sequence, Robert Simson, a mathematician
at the University of Glasgow, noticed that when he took the ratio of any term to the term
that immediately preceded it, the value he obtained remained in the vicinity of one
specific number. To illustrate this, let’s look at the table on the following page.

Fibonacci Numbers Ratio

1
1, 1 =1
1
2
1, 2 =2
1
3
2, 3 = 1.5
2
5
3, 5 ≈ 1.667
3
8
5, 8 = 1.6
5
13
8, 13 = 1.625
8
21
13, 21 ≈ 1.615
13
34
21, 34 ≈ 1.619
21
55
34, 55 ≈ 1.618
34
89
55, 89 ≈ 1.618
55

Simson proved that the ratio of the (n+1) term to the nth term as n gets larger and
√5+1
larger is the irrational number , which begins 1.61803… But this number was already
2
well known to mathematicians at that time as the golden number!

There are evidences that the ancient Greeks, in about the sixth century B.C.,
sought unifying principles of beauty and perfection, which they believed could be
described by using mathematics. In their study of beauty, the Greeks used the term
√5+1
golden ratio, and its value was . Also, many years ahead of Simon, Bavarian
2
astronomer and mathematician Johannes Kepler wrote that for him, the golden number
symbolized the Creator’s intention “to create like from like”.
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 

The Golden Ratio and the Golden (Divine) Proportion

A C B

When this line segment is divided at a point C such that the ratio of the whole,
segment AB, to the larger part, segment AC, is equal to the ratio of the larger part,
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐶
segment AC, to the smaller part, segment CB, each ratio and is referred to as a
𝐴𝐶 𝐶𝐵
√5+1
golden ratio, and each equal to the golden number, . (You may need to trace each
2
segment mentioned in the statement for better understanding.)

𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐶
The proportion these ratios form, = , is called the golden proportion.
𝐴𝐶 𝐶𝐵

𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐶 √5+1
That is, = = ≈ 1.618.
𝐴𝐶 𝐶𝐵 2
The Golden Ratio

In mathematics and the arts, two quantities Did you know?

are in a golden ratio if their ratio is the same as the
ratio of their sum to the larger of the two
quantities. If you only examine the dimension of
things around us like the screen of your cell
phones, tablets, computers, or television, notice
that the quotient of its length and width is close to
1.61803… This is because, some artists, architects,
and manufacturers believe that rectangles whose Supermodel Bella Hadid has been declared the
most beautiful woman in the world after she
areas are close to the golden ratio are pleasing to passed a science test that determines what
look at. constitutes the 'perfect face'. The 23-year-old
was found to be 94.35% 'accurate' to the
Golden Ratio of Beauty Phi - a measure of
During the ancient times, Greeks set their physical perfection.
obra maestro to this proportion to make their
[Link]
artworks visually pleasing to others.
[Link]

The golden ratio is often symbolized by the Greek letter phi (). It is the number 
1+√5
= 1.61803… and the irrational number . It is sometimes called the “divine proportion”
2
because of its frequency in the natural world. But in medieval times, people referred to

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 

the golden proportion as the divine proportion, reflecting their belief in its relationship to
the will of God.

Examples of objects with divine proportions are faces of both human and non-
human. The mouth and nose are each positioned at golden sections of the distance
between the eyes and the bottom of the chin. Similar proportions can be seen from the
side, and even the eye and ear itself.

[Link]
=2ahUKEwiMtICf6pnmAhWSHqYKHUUSBTEQ_AUoAXoECA8QAw&biw=1536&bih=754&dpr=1.25#imgrc=W
jEHAg17IOFxqM:

According to Dr. Stefan Markuort’s theory, you can see how beautiful a face is if
its characteristics are arranged according to the golden ratio – a ratio equal to 1.618 :
1. The golden ratio is the basis that most people use in determining what they perceive
to be beautiful. However, this is done on a subconscious level by some people who are
inclined to arts such as artists or architects who purposefully designed the object to
reflect mathematical proportions.

Here are some other examples showing the divine proportion in nature:

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 

[Link]
8JnmAhXdxosBHd83C4QQ_AUoAXoECBEQAw&biw=1536&bih=754&dpr=1.25#imgdii=ttyCeJxYVCL93M:
&imgrc=i-BdKeN4Ae41XM:

The Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt, built about

2600 B.C., is the earliest known example of use
of the golden ratio in architecture. The ratio of
any of its sides of the square base (775.75 ft) to
its altitude (481.4 ft) is about 1.611. Do you think
the Pyramid of Giza is sturdy because its
measurements follow the golden ratio? Some
do, some don’t.

Read: [Link] and

[Link]

In the 19th century, German physicist and psychologist Gustav Fechner tried to
determine which dimensions were most pleasing to the eye. Fechner, along with
psychologist Wilhelm Wundt, found that most people do unconsciously favor the golden
dimensions when purchasing greeting cards, mirrors, and other rectangular objects. This
discovery has been widely used by commercial manufacturers in their packaging and
labeling designs, by retailers in their store displays, and in other areas of business and
advertising. Another research (Slavka T. Nikolic, et. al.) in 2011 verified that the golden
ratio generally affects consumer preferences. (We shall not show pictures of products
using the golden ratio packaging or presentation because it is not ethical in module-
writing.)

In the twentieth century, architect Le Corbusier developed a scale of proportions for

the human body that he called the Modulor. It was intended to develop a scale which
could improve both the appearance and function of architecture by solely using
human proportions, the double unit, the Fibonacci numbers, and the golden ratio. In
the Modulor, you can see the golden sections that form (approximately) golden
proportions like the measurement from the navel (1130) to the floor and the top of the

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 

1130
head to the navel is the golden ratio (1829-1130=699), that’s = 1.617. Look at the
699
Modulor below, then use the red and black rectangles and the given measurements to
discover what else in the human body tend to follow the golden ratio.

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 

You Do the Math!

The Golden Ratio and the Human Body

1. Find someone at home who can help you get the measurement (in inches)
of the following:
a. Distance from the ground to your umbilicus.
b. Distance from your navel to the top of your head.
c. Distance from the ground to your knees.
d. Distance from your wrist to your elbow.
e. Length of your hand.

2. Calculate the following ratios:

a. Distance from the ground to your umbilicus__
Distance from your navel to the top of your head

b. Distance from the ground to your umbilicus_ __

Distance from the ground to your knees

c. Distance from your wrist to your elbow __

Length of your hand

Can you see anything special about these ratios?

The face of both human and nonhuman

also abounds with examples of the Golden Ratio.
The mouth and nose are positioned at the golden
sections of the distance between the eyes and
the bottom of the chin. Similar proportions can be
seen from the side and even the eye and ear itself.
Animal bodies also exhibit similar tendencies,
including dolphins (the eye, fins, and tail all fall at
Golden sections).

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In the field of reproductive science, a gynaecologist at the University Hospital

Leuven in Belgium, studied the measurements of the uterus. Dr. Jasper Veguts, said that
doctors can tell whether a uterus looks normal and healthy based on its relative
dimensions- dimensions that approximate the golden ratio. To come up to this
conclusion, he had measured the uteruses of 5,000 women using ultrasound and drawn
up a table of the average ratio of a uterus’s length to its width for different age bands.
The data showed that this ratio is about 2 at birth, and then it steadily decreases through
a woman’s life to 1.46 when she is in old age. Dr. Verguts was thrilled to discover that
when women are at their most fertile, between the ages of 16 and 20, the ratio of length
to width of a uterus is 1.6- a very good approximation to the golden ratio. (Read: The
Guardian’s Golden Ratio Discovered in Uterus.) Furthermore, it is known that the DNA
molecule measures 34 angstroms long by 21 angstroms wide for each full cycle of its
double helix spiral, that’s another golden ratio. It has been said that the more closely
our proportions adhere to the golden number phi, the more “attractive” those traits are
perceived. It’s quite possible that, from an evo- psych perspective, we are primed to
like physical forms that adhere to the golden ratio- a potential indicator of reproductive
fitness and health.

THE GOLDEN RATIO AND GOLDEN RECTANGLE

From the golden proportion, the golden rectangle can be formed.

A C B

a a

a b

Note that when a square is cut off one end of a golden rectangle (see previous
figure), the rectangle has the same properties as the original golden rectangle (creating
“like from like” as Johannes Kepler had written) and is, therefore, itself a golden
rectangle.

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 

Furthermore, the curve derived from a succession of diminishing golden

rectangles (see the four figures above) is the same as the spiral curve of the chambered
nautilus. The same curve appears on the horns of rams and some animals, in sunflowers
and other flower heads, pinecones and pineapples, and others.

In forums over the internet, people ask why a spiral design seems ever present in
our natural world and the universe? As of now, we don’t know why, but nothing in nature
happens without reason. All of these patterns have an important reason to exist and
they also happen to be beautiful to watch. In the case of the flower’s spiral
arrangement of petals, it is believed is nature’s design so that new leaves don't block
the sun from older leaves or so that the maximum amount of rain or dew gets directed
down to the roots. For the sunflower’s seed arrangement, the reason seems to be that
this arrangement forms an optimal packing of the seeds so that, no matter how large
the seed head, they are uniformly packed at any stage, all the seeds being the same
size, no crowding in the center and not too sparse at the edges. The same happens in
many seed and flower heads in nature.

The Golden Ratio, Golden Rectangle, and Fibonacci Numbers in Art

The Ancient Greek civilization used the golden rectangle in art and architecture.
The main measurements of many buildings of antiquity, including the Parthenon in
Athens, are governed by golden ratios and golden rectangles. Greek statues, vases,
urns, and other works of art also exhibit characteristics of the golden ratio. It is for Phidas,
considered the greatest of Greek sculptors, that the golden ratio was named “phi.” The
golden proportion can be found abundantly in his work.

106
 

The Parthenon in Athens, Greece, designed by Phidas

[Link]
9/33000

[Link]

107
 

The golden rectangle can also be seen in the following artworks.

La Parade de Cirque (1887 George Seurat)

Fibonacci Garden (1995 Caryl Fallert)

In the music field, the Golden ratio is also evident.

On the piano keyboard, an octave on a keyboard

has 13 keys: 8 white keys and 5 black keys.
Additionally, the black keys are in one group of 2
and one group of 3.

In one study, researchers found out that the

musical interval considered by many to be the most
pleasing to the ear are the major sixth and minor
5 8
sixth, whose ratio of vibration reduces to and ,
3 5
respectively. That’s the golden ratio again!
Patterns that can be expressed mathematically in terms of Fibonacci relationships
have been found in Gregorian chants and works of many composers, including Bach,
Beethoven, and Bartok. ([Link]

A number of studies have tried to explain why the Fibonacci sequence and
related items are linked to so many real- life situations. It appears that the Fibonacci
numbers are part of a natural harmony that is pleasing to both the eyes and the ear.
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 

Learning check

Activity:
Bee Genealogy: In the study of Biology, one learns that a male bee has
only one parent, his mother. A female bee has both father and mother.
Complete the picture of the family tree of a male bee, where δ (Mars)
represents male and Ꝗ (Venus) represents female up to 8th generation. Do
you notice any relationship between Fibonacci numbers 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13,
21, . . . and

1. The number of ancestors in each generation?

2. The number of male ancestors in each generation?
3. The number of female ancestors in each generation?
4. Without drawing up to 21st generation, how many ancestors does a
male bee have, and how many ancestors does a male bee have, and
how many of these (ancestors) are male bees?

Learning check

Activity:

1. Let Fn be the nth term of the Fibonacci sequence, with F1 = 1, F2 = 1, F3 =

2, and so on, find:
a. F18
b. F29
c. If F22 = 17,711 and F24 = 46,368, what is F23?

2. Let’s see if the Golden Ratio is somewhere in each of us. At home, find
four persons to form a group of five. Make a table like the one below.
Write the name of each person in your group.

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 

Name B/N F/K L/H A/E X/Y

a. Measure the height (B) and the navel Height (N) of each member of
your group. Calculate the ratios B/N. Record them in your table.
b. Measure the length (F) of an index finger and the distance (K) from
the finger tip to the big knuckle of each member of your group.
Calculate the ratios F/K. Record them in your table.
c. Measure the length (L) of a leg and the distance (H) from the lip of
the to the kneecap of everyone in your group. Calculate and record
the ratios L/H.
d. Measure the length (A) of an arm and the distance (E) from the finger
tips to the elbow of everyone in your group. Calculate and record
the ratios A/E.
e. Select another pair of length (X and Y) on the body that you suspect
may be in the golden ratio. Measure the lengths and calculate the
ratios (large to small) and record them.

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 

E. Isometry

This part of the module will discuss about isometry, which is a kind of
transformation. Mathematical transformation is a process that manipulates a polygon
or other two-dimensional object on a plane or coordinate system. Formally, it is defined
as a one- to- one correspondence between points in the plane such that each point P
is associated with a unique point P’, called the image of P. Basically, it involves taking
a preimage and transforming it in some way to produce an image. A preimage or
inverse image is the two-dimensional shape before any transformation, while
the image is the figure after transformation. Each point in the preimage corresponds to
another point in the image.

There are two different categories of transformations:

1. The rigid transformation, which does not change the shape or size of the
preimage.
2. The non-rigid transformation, which will change the size but not the shape of the
preimage.

Although our lesson will cover only the rigid transformation, we shall mention a little bit
of non- rigid transformation for the sake of identification.

The following figures show the four types of transformations.

1. Translation- which involves “sliding” the object from one position to another.

The preimage is the light orange triangle. Notice

the three parallel arrows that show the direction of
“sliding” or “shifting” to get the image, which is the
dark orange triangle.

[Link]
etry/imag

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 

2. Reflection- which involves “flipping” the object over a line called the line of reflection.

The preimage is the light orange triangle.

Notice the three parallel arrows that show how the
preimage is “flipped” to create a reflection, the
image (dark orange triangle). The line of reflection
here is the orange vertical line which is equidistant
from corresponding points between the preimage
and the image.

[Link]
metry/imag

3. Rotation- which involves “turning” the object about a point called the center of
rotation.

The preimage is the light orange triangle.

Notice the arrow that shows the direction of
rotation (counterclockwise) employed in the
preimage to get the image, the dark orange
triangle. The object is rotated to a certain degree
about the center of rotation.

[Link]
etry/imag

112
 

4. Dilation- which involves a resizing of the object. It could result in an increase in size
(enlargement) or a decrease in size (reduction).

Here, the preimage (light orange triangle) is

dilated (specifically, enlarged) to create the image
(dark orange triangle).

[Link]
etry/imag 1

Among these four types of transformation, translation, reflection and rotations are
called rigid motion or isometric transformations because the image is the same size and
shape as the original object (preimage). This implies that the original object and the
image are congruent. The word isometry comes from the words “iso”, meaning “same”,
and “metry” meaning “measure” so it’s easy to remember that isometry is a kind of
transformation that preserves the size and shape of a geometric figure.

Dilation is not an isometric transformation because the size of the image is not the
same as the original object (preimage). This implies that the original object and the
image are only similar, not congruent. Similar objects have the same shape but different
size.

Properties of Isometries
1. Isometries map lines to lines, segments to segments, rays to rays, angles to angles,
and polygons to polygons.
2. Isometries preserve angle measure.
3. Isometries map triangles to congruent triangles.
4. Isometries preserve parallelism.

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 

At this point, we will discuss the three kinds of isometry and give you examples in
each.

Translation. This is a transformation that acts like a “slide” or “shift”. Here, orientation is
preserved. In a translation, points in the original figure move an identical (constant)
distance along parallel paths to the image of the figure. The arrow, called a translation
vector, shows distance and direction. The length of the translation vector from the
starting location to tip represents the distance, while the direction that the arrow is
pointing represents the direction the object is to be translated. (See sample figure
below.)

[Link]

What do we have to remember about translation?

 It is a rigid transformation of the plane that moves every point of a pre-image a
constant distance in a specified direction.
 When working in the plane this is usually represented by an arrow, the arrow
provides both distance and direction of the translation.
 When working in the coordinate plane, a translation vector (V or 𝑣⃗) is used to
describe the fixed distance and the given direction often denoted by < 𝒉, 𝒌 >.
The h-value describes the effect on the x-coordinates (right or left) and the k-
value describes the effect on the y-coordinates (up or down).
 After a translation, the pre-image and the image are identical.

What are the properties of translation?

1. Distance (lengths of segments are the same)
2. Angle measure (angles stay the same)
3. Parallelism (things that were parallel are still parallel)
4. Collinearity (points on a line, remain on the line)
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 

Coordinate plane rules for translation:

(𝒙, 𝒚) → (𝒙 ± 𝒉, 𝒚 ± 𝒌) where h and k are the horizontal and vertical shifts.

Note: If movement is to the left, then h is negative. If movement is downward, then k is

negative.

Example 1: Given the vector < −2, 9 > written in component form, convert it to
coordinate plane rule.
Solution: < −2, 9 > converted to coordinate plane rule is (𝑥 − 2, 𝑦 + 9)

Example 2: Translate the given triangle ABC three units to the right and two units down.
(Write the coordinates of the vertices of the triangle to clearly see the change in the
coordinates after translation.)

Solution: The problem tells us to slide the figure 3

units to the right and 2 units down. That means we
have 3 units horizontal translation (parallel to the x-
axis) and 2 units vertical translation (parallel to the y-
axis). In symbols, the vector is written < 3, −2 >. To
get the coordinates of the image, we can apply the
coordinate plane rules for translation:
(𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑥 ± ℎ, 𝑦 ± 𝑘)
where h and k are the horizontal and vertical shifts.
So, we have: (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑥 + 3, 𝑦 − 2). This means that
we will add 3 to the x- coordinate and subtract 2 from the y- coordinate of each point
in the preimage to get the corresponding image. But since three points can already
determine a triangle, we only need three points to get the picture of the image. And
for convenience, we will of course, pick the vertices.

𝐴(−3, 2) → (−3 + 3, 2 − 2)
→ (0,0) the image of A is (0, 0)

𝐵(−2, 4) → (−2 + 3, 4 − 2)
→ (1, 2) the image of B is (1, 2)

𝐶(−1, 1) → (−1 + 3, 1 − 2)
→ (2, −1) the image of C is (2, −1)
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We can now plot these points on the same Cartesian plane to show the new location
of the triangle after translation.

Note: The image of a point is denoted by ‘

and is read “prime”

Notice that the shape and size of the

triangle are preserved.

Example 3: Given the figure, determine the translation vector that would translate the
preimage to the image. (The direction of the arrow should tell you that the preimage is
the pink triangle and the image is the blue triangle.)

Solution: Begin by naming the coordinates of some

points on the preimage (conveniently, the vertices),
and their corresponding points on the image. The
graph below shows these points.

Through the second graph, we can

systematically write the correspondence of
points between the preimage and the
image.
𝐴(−6, 1) → 𝐴′(−2, −8)
𝐵(−2, 7) → 𝐵′(2, −2)
𝐶(3, 5) → 𝐶′(7, −4)
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Then, we go back to the coordinate plane rule(𝒙, 𝒚) → (𝒙 ± 𝒉, 𝒚 ± 𝒌)s. We want to know

what values of h and k will satisfy the translation. Basically, we want to know the values
of h and k that will satisfy the following equations:
−6 + ℎ = −2 1 + 𝑘 = −8
−2 + ℎ = 2 7 + 𝑘 = −2
3+ℎ =7 5 + 𝑘 = −4

Solving for h using any of the three equations involving h, we get ℎ = 4. And solving for
k using any of the three equations involving k, we get 𝑘 = −9. So, the translation vector
is < 4, −9 > . You can check if our answer is correct by checking if each pair/
corresponding point satisfies (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑥 + 4, 𝑦 − 9).

Checking: 𝐴(−6, 1) → 𝐴′ (−6 + 4, 1 − 9) = 𝐴′(−2, −8)

𝐵(−2, 7) → 𝐵′ (−2 + 4, 7 − 9) = 𝐵′(2, −2)
𝐶(3, 5) → 𝐶 ′ (3 + 4, 5 − 9) = 𝐶′(7, −4)

Example 4: Triangle PQR is a preimage with its vertices at 𝑃(−5, 0), 𝑄 (5, −2) and 𝑅(0, −3).
If the triangle is translated by the vector 𝑣⃗ =< −5, −6 >, what are the coordinates of the
image triangle 𝑃′𝑄′𝑅′?
Solution: A graph will definitely help you picture out the problem and the solution. But
even without it, we can solve this problem. Just remember that the vector gives us the
values of h and k in the coordinate plane rule for translation. Here, our h is equal to -5
and our k is equal to -6. Plugging these to the formula, we have:
(𝒙, 𝒚) → (𝒙 − 𝟓, 𝒚 − 𝟔)

This formula will make it possible for us to determine the image of the vertices of the
preimage triangle, even without a graph.
𝑷(−𝟓, 𝟎) → 𝑷′(−𝟓 − 𝟓, 𝟎 − 𝟔) = 𝑷′(−𝟏𝟎, −𝟔)

𝑸(𝟓, −𝟐) → 𝑸′(𝟓 − 𝟓, −𝟐 − 𝟔) = 𝑸′ (𝟎, −𝟖)

𝑹(𝟎, − 𝟑) → 𝑹′(𝟎 − 𝟓, −𝟑 − 𝟔) = 𝑹′ (−𝟓, −𝟗)

So, the coordinates of the image triangle 𝑃′𝑄′𝑅′ are (−10, −6), (0, −8) and (−5, −9). You
can check our answer by sketching the graph of the preimage and image triangles.

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Observe if the size, shape, and orientation of the preimage are preserved after
translation. (Graphing is left for you to do.)

Example 5: A translation maps point 𝐴(7, 3) to point 𝐴′(−2, 6). Determine this translation
vector.
Solution: This is a single point translation, and the coordinate plane rule still applies. In
fact this is an easier version of example 3. Here, we want to find the values of h and k
such that when you add h to 7 you get -2, and when you add k to 3 you get 6. Easily,
we can say that ℎ = −9 and 𝑘 = 3, because:
7 − 9 = −2 and 3 + 3 = 6
So, the translation vector is 𝑣⃗ =< −9, 3 >.

Note: In general, to calculate the exact horizontal shift of a translation from preimage
to image, we subtract the x- coordinate of the preimage from the x- coordinate of the
image. And to calculate the exact vertical shift of a translation from preimage to image,
we subtract the y- coordinate of the preimage from the y- coordinate of the image.

Example 6: The vector 𝑣⃗ = 〈4,1〉 describes the translation of 𝐴(−1, 𝑤) onto 𝐴’(2𝑥 + 1, 4)
and 𝐵(8𝑦 − 1, 1) onto 𝐵’(3, 3𝑧). Find the values of w, x, y, and z.

Solution: Remember that the translation vector 𝑣⃗ = 〈4,1〉 can be converted to

coordinate plane rule (𝑥 + 4, 𝑦 + 1) . To understand the problem better, let us
systematically write each pair of preimage and image along with the translation vector.
𝐴(−1, 𝑤) → 𝐴′(−1 + 4, 𝑤 + 1) = 𝐴′ (2𝑥 + 1, 4)
𝐵(8𝑦 − 1, 1) → 𝐵′(8𝑦 − 1 + 4, 1 + 1) = 𝐵′(3, 3𝑧)

So, what we actually need to do is to solve the equations that we can form from the
mappings above. And what are these equations?
Equation 1: −1 + 4 = 2𝑥 + 1 (from the x- coordinate A’)
3 = 2𝑥 + 1 (equation 1 simplified)

Equation 2: 𝑤 + 1 = 4 (from the y- coordinate A’)

Equation 3: 8𝑦 − 1 + 4 = 3 (from the x- coordinate B’)

8𝑦 = 0 (equation 3 simplified)

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Equation 4: 1 + 1 = 3𝑧 (from the y- coordinate B’)

2 = 3𝑧 (equation 4 simplified)

Now, let’s look at the boxed equations. These are simple equations and we can solve
them right away!

Solving for x: 2𝑥 + 1 = 3 Solving for w: 𝑤+1=4

2𝑥 = 2 𝑤=3
𝑥=1

Solving for y: 8𝑦 = 0 Solving for z: 3𝑧 = 2

2
𝑦=0 𝑧=
3

So, the coordinates of the points in the preimage are 𝐴(−1, 3) and 𝐵(−1, 1), and that of
the image are 𝐴′(3, 4) and 𝐵′ (3, 2). To check, let’s look at their graph.

Notice that both points of the pre-image

moved a constant distance in parallel
direction.

Rotation. A rotation is a translation that corresponds to turning or rotating a figure

through some degree 𝜃, around a fixed point 𝑂, called the center of rotation. Rays
drawn from the center of rotation to a point on the preimage and its corresponding
image form the angle of rotation. (See figure below.)

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What do we have to remember about rotation?

 Rotations do not preserve orientation unless the rotation is 360° or the figure
exhibits rotational symmetry.
 Rotations of 180° are equivalent to a reflection through the origin.
 The rotation with center O and angle with measure 𝑎, denoted 𝑅𝑂,𝑎 , maps each
point P other than O to the point P’ such that the measure of directed angle ∡𝑃𝑂𝑃′
is a, and 𝑂𝑃′ = 𝑂𝑃. Point O is mapped to itself by 𝑅𝑂,𝑎 . (See figure below.)

 If the angle of rotation is positive, the rotation is done counterclockwise, and if the
angle of rotation is negative, the rotation is done clockwise.

What are the properties of rotation?

1. Distance (lengths of segments are the same)
2. Angle measure (angles stay the same)
3. Parallelism (parallel lines remain parallel)
4. Collinearity (points on a line, remain on the line)
5. Orientation (lettering order remains the same)

Coordinate plane rules for Rotation

Center of Angle of Preimage Rotated Notation

Rotation Rotation (Point P) (Point P’) (Point P’)
(0,0) 90° (or −270°) (x, y) (-y, x) (x, y) → (-y, x)
(0,0) 180° (or −180°) (x, y) (-x, -y) (x, y) → (-x, -y)
(0,0) 270° (or −90°) (x, y) (y, -x) (x, y) → (y, -x)

Use this table of coordinate plane rules (which we shall call cheat sheet) to guide you
in answering questions like this. All you have to do is verify if the center of rotation is (0, 0),
and then look up the row that contains the angle of rotation indicated in the problem.
Here, we do not indicate whether the rotation is clockwise or counterclockwise, but a
little recall from your Trigonometry class will remind you that clockwise rotation yields to

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a negative angle, while counterclockwise rotation yields to a positive angle. Notice that
in the table, the values corresponding to 90° and −270° are the same. That is because
90° and −270° are coterminal angles (their initial and terminal sides are the same). The
last column of the table shows us the coordinate plane rules for rotation in different
angles. Our discussion is limited only to rotation through 90°, 180°, and 270°, around the
origin.

Example 1: Find an image of the point (3, 2) that has undergone a counterclockwise
rotation:
a. about the origin at 90°
b. about the origin at 180°
c. about the origin at 270°

Solution:
a. The last column for 90° shows us (𝑥, 𝑦) → (−𝑦, 𝑥) . It means that to get the
coordinates of the image of a point that has undergone this rotation, you have
to take the opposite sign of y and interchange it with x. So we will have:
(3, 2) → (−2, 3)
This means that if you rotate (3, 2) around the origin at 90°, its image will be
located at (−2, 3). Let’s take a look at its graph.

The center of rotation is (0, 0), the angle

of rotation is 90°. If you draw a line from
the preimage to the center of rotation,
and another line from the image to the
center of rotation, you will see that
these two lines will form an angle of
same amount to the given angle of
rotation (90°). Notice that the arrow of
rotation shows counterclockwise
direction because the angle of rotation
is positive.

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b. We do the same thing with the second problem, but this time we look at the last
column for the second row (180°) of the table to get the coordinate plane rule:
(𝑥, 𝑦) → (−𝑥, −𝑦). This means that we are going to take the opposite sign of both
coordinates. Applying this to the given point, we will have:
(3, 2) → (−3, −2)
This means that if you rotate (3, 2) around the origin at 180°, its image will be
located at (−3, −2). Let’s take a look at its graph.

The center of rotation is (0, 0) , the

angle of rotation is 180°. You will see
that the two lines made by connecting
the preimage and image to the center
of rotation formed an angle of same
amount to the given angle of rotation
(180°) . Notice that the arrow of
rotation shows counterclockwise
direction because the angle of
rotation is positive.

c. We do the same thing with the

third problem, but this time we look at the last column for the third row (270°) of
the table to get the coordinate plane rule: (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑦, −𝑥). This means that we
are going to take the opposite sign of x and interchange it with y. Applying this to
the given point, we will have:
(3, 2) → (2, −3)
This means that if you rotate (3, 2) around the origin at 270°, its image will be
located at (2, −3). Let’s take a look at its graph.

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The center of rotation is (0, 0), the angle of rotation

is 270°. If the angle of rotation had been −90°, you
will get the same graph, but the direction of
rotation will be different.

Example 2: Write the notation to describe the rotation for the point (5, −4). Check your
answer by plotting the preimage and image points.
a. about the origin at −90°
b. clockwise rotation about the origin at 180°
c. clockwise about the origin at 270°

Solutions: Look up the table for the coordinate plane rule for each rotation.
a. For a rotation of −90° , we look up the same row for 270° because they are
coterminal angles. The coordinate plane rule is (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑦, −𝑥). Applying this to
(5, −4) and indicating the center and angle of rotation, we have:
𝑅0,−270 (5, −4) → (−4, − 5)

b. For a clockwise rotation of 180°, that means our angle of rotation is −180°, and we
look up the same row for 180° because they are coterminal angles. The
coordinate plane rule is (𝑥, 𝑦) → (−𝑥, −𝑦). Applying this to (5, −4) and indicating
the center and angle of rotation, we have:
𝑅0,180 (5, −4) → (−5, 4)

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c. For a clockwise rotation of 270°, that means our angle of rotation is −270°, and we
look up the same row for 90° because they are coterminal angles. The coordinate
plane rule is (𝑥, 𝑦) → (−𝑦, 𝑥). Applying this to (5, −4) and indicating the center and
angle of rotation, we have:
𝑅0,−270 (5, −4) → (4, 5)

Example 3: Describe the rotation in words and in notation.

Solution: Since some coordinates of the preimage and the rotated image are given, we
can just inspect how each pair behaves. Let’s examine them one- by- one. The
statement inside the parenthesis is just a “working guess” as we examine each pair of
corresponding points.

𝐴(1, 1) → 𝐴′(−1, 1) (It seems that the sign of x was changed.)

𝐵(5, 5) → 𝐵′(−5, 5) (It could also be that the sign of y was changed
and it was interchanged with x.)
𝐶(−2, 4) → 𝐶′(−4, −2) (This one is clearer; it verifies that the sign of y was
indeed changed and it was interchanged with x.)

Our investigation leads us to conclude that the coordinate plane rule employed in this
rotation is (𝑥, 𝑦) → (−𝑦, 𝑥), which means that the figure is rotated around the center
through 90°. (See cheat sheet for verification.)

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Example 4: Write the mapping rule for the counterclockwise rotation of Image A to
Image B.

Solution: Just like in example 3, we can take a few corresponding points for investigation
on how the coordinates behave. But this time, the coordinates are not given so we still
need to name them. For convenience, let’s pick points that are located at integer
points, like A, B, C, and D (although three points are more than enough).
𝐴(−12, 4) → 𝐴′(4, 12) (It seems that the sign of x is changed and it is
interchanged with y.)
𝐵(−12, 1) → 𝐵′(1, 12) (It also seems that the sign of x is changed and it
is interchanged with y.)
𝐶(−8, 4) → 𝐶′(4, 8) (By now, we are convinced that the sign of x is
changed and it is interchanged with y.)
𝐷(−5, 1) → 𝐴′(1, 5) (This further verifies that that the sign of x is
changed and it is interchanged with y.)

Going back to the cheat sheet, the angle of rotation that gives this coordinate
plane rule (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑦, −𝑥) is 270°. So the mapping that satisfies this rotation is:
𝑅0, 270 (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑦, −𝑥)

Example 5. Write the notation that represents the clockwise rotation of the preimage A
to the rotated image J in the diagram below.

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Solution: Another way to answer the question is to take one point on the preimage and
bring it to the center of rotation. Then take one point from the image also, and bring it
to the center of rotation. Finally trace a rotation along these lines to see or measure the
angle. I believe you are already familiar on how 90°, 180°, and 270° look. (See figure
below.)

The orange broken line is the line that brings a

point on the preimage to the center of rotation.
The blue broken line is the line that brings a point
on the image to the center of rotation. The brown
arrow shows the direction and measure of the
angle of rotation. Since it forms a straight angle,
we can conclude that the rotation employed
here is 180°, and thr mapping rule notation is:
(𝑥, 𝑦) → (−𝑥, −𝑦).

Example 6: Thomas describes a rotation as point J moving from J(-2,6) to J’(6, 2). Identify
and write the notation to describe the rotation for Thomas.

Solution: The sign of x is changed and coordinates were interchanged, so in symbols, it

is (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑦, −𝑥). Since the direction of rotation is not indicated, then there are two
possible answers- it is either 270° or −90°. So, we write:
𝑅0,270 (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑦, −𝑥) or 𝑅0,−90 (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑦, −𝑥)

Reflection. A reflection is a transformation that takes a shape and flips it across a line
(called the line of reflection or axis of symmetry) to create a new shape. A line of

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reflection is the perpendicular bisector of the segment joining every point and its image.
(See figure below.)

A figure has reflection symmetry if there is a line that

can be “folded over” so that one- half of the figure
matches the other half perfectly. The “fold line” is
called the figure’s line (axis) of symmetry.

In the figure on the left, notice that when we fold the figure
along the line in the middle through B, we are actually forming
a one- to- one correspondence between the points of the
figure. For example, points A and C correspond to each other,
points D and E correspond to each other, and points along
segments 𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅ and 𝐶𝐵
̅̅̅̅ correspond. If a point lies on the axis of
symmetry then it corresponds to itself, like the point B here in the
figure.

What do we have to remember about translation?

 By examining the coordinates of the reflected image, you can determine the line
of reflection. The most common lines of reflection are the x- axis, the y- axis, the
line 𝑦 = 𝑥, and the line 𝑦 = −𝑥. Sometimes, a figure is also reflected through a point
like the origin (0, 0), in which case, there is no line of reflection; only point of
reflection.
 Reflections do not preserve orientation.

What are the properties of reflection?

1. Distance (lengths of segments are the same)
2. Angle measure (angles stay the same)
3. Parallelism (parallel lines remain parallel)
4. Collinearity (points on a line, remain on the line)
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Coordinate plane rules and notations for Reflection

Over the x- axis: 𝒓𝒙−𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 (𝒙, 𝒚) → (𝒙, −𝒚) (change the sign of y)
Over the y- axis: 𝒓𝒚−𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 (𝒙, 𝒚) → (−𝒙, 𝒚) (change the sign of x)
Over the line 𝒚 = 𝒙: 𝒓𝒚=𝒙 (𝒙, 𝒚) → (𝒚, 𝒙) (interchange x and y)
Over the line 𝒚 = −𝒙: 𝒓𝒚=−𝒙 (𝒙, 𝒚) → (−𝒚, −𝒙) (change the signs of x and y and
interchange them)
Through the origin (0, 0) 𝒓(𝟎,𝟎) (𝒙, 𝒚) → (−𝒙, −𝒚) (change the signs of x and y)

Example 1. Determine the line of reflection of the triangle below. The preimage is the
triangle with solid lines.

Solution: Write the coordinates of corresponding vertices of the preimage and image
triangle to clearly see the change in the coordinates after reflection. The statement
inside the parenthesis is just a “working guess” as we examine each pair of
corresponding points.

𝐴(2, 2) → 𝐴′(−2, 2) (It seems that the sign of x is changed.)

𝐵(4, 4) → 𝐴′(−4, 4) (It also seems that the sign of x is changed.)
𝐶(5, 1) → 𝐴′(−5, 1) (This verifies that the sign of x is changed.)

Going back to the coordinate plane rule for reflection, which we shall call cheat sheet,
the kind of reflection that changes the sign of x, (𝒙, 𝒚) → (−𝒙, 𝒚) after reflecting an image
is reflection over the y- axis. So, our answer is: The line of reflection is the y- axis.

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Example 2: Find the image of the point (3, 2) that has undergone a reflection across the
following lines:
a. the x- axis
b. the y-axis
c. the line y=x
d. the line y=-x
e. through the origin (0, 0)

Solution: We just look at our cheat sheet, if we have not memorized it yet. Apply the rules
a. 𝑟𝑥−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑥, −𝑦) so, 𝑟x−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 (3,2) → (3, −2)
b. 𝑟𝑦−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 (𝑥, 𝑦) → (−𝑥, 𝑦) so, 𝑟𝑦−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 (3,2) → (−3, 2)
c. 𝑟𝑦=𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑦, 𝑥) so, 𝑟𝑦=𝑥 (3,2) → (2, 3)
d. 𝑟𝑦=−𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦) → (−𝑦, −𝑥) so, 𝑟𝑦=−x (3,2) → (−2, −3)
e. 𝑟(0,0) (𝑥, 𝑦) → (−𝑥, −𝑦) so, 𝑟(0,0) (3,2) → (−3, −2)

Let us look at the graph of these reflections.

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The last two figures are both graphs of the point (3, 2) reflected through the origin. The
last figure shows us that reflection of figure through the origin is the same as rotation of
figure around the origin through 180°.

Example 3. Reflect Image A in the diagram below across the line 𝑦 = 𝑥.

Solution: First, we have to determine some points in the

triangle, and for convenience, we pick the vertices. Let us
label them with letters PQR and write their coordinates.

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In vertex Q, we opted to write the fraction form or

the y- coordinate because we want to get used to
using exact values instead of decimal
approximations (although 3.5 is also exact).

We, then look back on our cheat sheet and apply

the rule for reflecting figures over the line 𝑦 = 𝑥,
which is:
𝑟𝑦=𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑦, 𝑥) (interchange x and y)

So, we will have the following mappings:

𝑃(1, 2) → 𝑃′(2, 1)
7 7
𝑄 (2, ) → 𝑄′ ( , 2)
2 2
𝑅(3, 1) → 𝑅′(1, 3)

We now plot these points on the same plane. Let us not forget to show the line of
reflection.

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Example 4: Write the notation that represents the reflection of the preimage to the
image in the diagram below:
Solution: The line of reflection (red broken line) is
clearly shown to be the line 𝑦 = 𝑥. So we can
easily write the notation that represents this
reflection as:
𝑟𝑦=𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦) → (−𝑦, −𝑥)

Had there been no indicated line of symmetry,

you will need to pick some pairs of
corresponding points on the preimage and image and investigate how each pair of
coordinates behave, just like what we did in example 1.
Example 5: Alvin describes a reflection as point J moving from J(−2,6) to J′(−2,−6). Write
the notation to describe this reflection for Alvin.

Solution: The sign of y is changed, so this must be a reflection over the x- axis, and the
notation is: 𝑟𝑦=𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑥, −𝑦)

 Bonus Lesson!
Glide Reflection. This is a transformation that is a combination of a translation and a
reflection.

Definition
Suppose that A and B are different points in the
plane and that line l is parallel to directed line
segment 𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . The combination of the translation
followed by the reflection is called the glide
reflection determined by 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and glide axis 𝑙. That
is, P is first is mapped to P* by translation. Then P* is
mapped to P’ by reflection. The combination of
translation followed by reflection maps P to P’.

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Learning check

Activity:
1. Translate the triangle ABC, whose vertices are 𝐴(−3, 2), 𝐵(−2, 4), and 𝐶(−1, 1),
three units to the right and two units down. Show the graph of the preimage and
image with coordinates.

2. Rotate triangle XYZ (-2, -4), (-4, 5), (1, 3) into 90°, 180°, and 270°. Show the graph of
the preimage and image with coordinates. Indicate the angle of rotation in each
graph.

3. Reflect triangle LMN (5, 1), (2, 2), (4, 4) across x-axis, y-axis, 𝑦 = 𝑥, and 𝑦 = −𝑥.
Show the graph of the preimage and image with coordinates.

4. Graph square SQRE with the following vertices: 𝑆(1,2), 𝑄(4,1), 𝑅(5,4) and 𝐸(2,5).
Then find the image after the translation (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑥 − 2, 𝑦 + 3). Graph and label
the image.

5. Fill in the blanks with the correct coordinates if the given point will be rotated
through the indicated angle of rotation.

Starting point 90° rotation 180° rotation 270° rotation 360° rotation
1. (1, 4)
2. (4, 2)
3. (2, 0)
4. (-1, 2)
5. (-2, -3)

6. Write the rotation and its corresponding notation that represents the rotation of
the preimage to the image for each diagram below.

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 

a. b.

7. Determine the line of reflection to describe the movement of the points in each
of the reflections below.

a. S(1,5)→S′(−1,5)
b. A(3,5)→A′(−3,5)
c. W(−5,−1)→W′(5,−1)
d. C(1,2)→C′(2,1)
e. Q(2,−5)→Q′(2,5)
f. D(2,−5)→D′(5,−2)
g. F(−4,2)→F′(−4,−2)
h. G(1,3)→G′(1,−3)
i. B(−4,−2)→B′(−2,−4)
j. E(3,1)→E′(−3,1)
k. M(4,3)→M′(−3,−4)

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REFLECTION

What new ideas about mathematics did you learn in this module?
What is it about mathematics that might have changed your thoughts about
it?
What is the most useful about mathematics for humankind?

Learning check

Construct a short – response focusing on only one of the following aspects of

mathematics. (10 points)

i. Mathematics helps organize patterns and regularities in the world.

ii. Mathematics helps predict the behaviour of nature and phenomena in the
world.
iii. Mathematics helps control nature and occurrences in the world for our own
ends.

Rubrics %
Substance
(depth and validity of the 40%
content)
Relevance
30%
(connection to the topic)
Comprehensiveness
20%
(extensiveness of the content)
Clarity
10%
(organization of though)
Total 100%

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EVALUATION

Part 1. Answer the following completely and neatly in yellow paper. You may choose
to work alone or with a partner, in which case, you will submit a single output. Do not
use the back page of your paper.

27
1. Find the nth term of the sequence 6, 9, ,… (4 points)
2
(Hint: Determine first whether this is an arithmetic or geometric sequence. Remember
that the converse of common difference is common addend and the converse of
common ratio is common multiplier.)

2. Find 𝑎𝑛 in the arithmetic sequence 45, 60, 75, 90, …, (7

points)

3. Find 𝑝 so that 𝑝 + 7, 3𝑝 + 9, 𝑝 + 3, …, form an arithmetic sequence. (10

points)
(Hint: Remember that pairs of successive terms in an arithmetic sequence have a
common difference. So here you have to show that the difference between pairs of
successive terms is common or equal.)

4. Find the sum of all even numbers between 33 and 427. (8 points)
(Note: Even numbers only.)

5. The total seating capacity in an auditorium is 1,065. The first row has 21 seats and
each row has one seat more than the row in front of it. How many rows are
there in the auditorium?
(15 points)
(Hint: In case you will need the quadratic formula in your solution, here it is: 𝑥 =
−𝑏±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
2𝑎

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 

Part II. True or False.

a. The sum of any six consecutive Fibonacci numbers is always divisible by 4.

b. The sum of any 10 consecutive Fibonacci numbers is always divisible by 11.
c. The greatest common factor of any two consecutive Fibonacci numbers is 1.
d. For any four consecutive Fibonacci numbers, the difference of the squares of the
middle two numbers equals the product of the smallest and largest numbers.
e. Twice any Fibonacci number minus the next Fibonacci number equals the
second number preceding the original number.

Part III. Determine whether the sequence is a Fibonacci- type sequence (each term is
the sum of the two preceding terms). If it is, determine the next two terms of the
sequence.

1) 4, 5, 9, 18, 36, 72, …

2) 4, 5, 9, 14, 23 ,37, …
3) 1, 5, 6, 11, 17, 28, …
4) 0, 𝜋, 𝜋, 2𝜋, 3𝜋, 5𝜋, …
5) -1, 1, 0, 1, 1, 2, …
6) 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, …
7) 5, 10, 15, 25, 40, 65, …
1 1 1 3 1
8) , , , , 1 , 2, …
4 4 2, 4 4

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Part IV. Multiple Choice

1. Which of the following transformations represents an isometry?
a. c.

b. d.

2. Refer to the figure below. The rule for this transformation of ∆ 𝐴𝐵𝐶 onto ∆ 𝐴′𝐵′𝐶′ is
______________________.

a. (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑥 − 9, 𝑦 − 2)

b. (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑥 + 9, 𝑦 + 2)

c. (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑥 − 9, 𝑦 + 2)

d. (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑥 + 9, 𝑦 − 2)

3. The point 𝐴(−7, 3) is translated onto 𝐴′ by the vector 𝑢

⃗⃗ = 〈5, −4〉. The coordinates
of 𝐴′ are ______________.
a. (−2, −1) b. (−12, 7) c. (2, −7) d. (5, −4)

4. What are the coordinates of the vertices when the figure is reflected in line m?

a. 𝑊 ′ (4, −3), 𝑋 ′ (−2, −1), 𝑌 ′ (−5, −1)

b. 𝑊 ′ (4, 3), 𝑋 ′ (2, −1), 𝑌 ′ (−5, 1)

c. 𝑊 ′ (0, −3), 𝑋 ′ (−2, 1), 𝑌 ′ (−9, −1)

d. 𝑊 ′ (−3, 0), 𝑋 ′ (1, −2), 𝑌 ′ (−1, −9)

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 

5. A reflection is always ____________.

a. a rotation b. a translation c. an isometry d. reflexive

4
6. The graph of ⃡⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑀𝑁 below represents the equation 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 4. If ⃡⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑀𝑁 is reflected
3

over the x- axis, what would be the new value of y when 𝑥 = 0?

a. −3

b. −4

c. 4

d. 3

7. Refer to the figure below. The change in position from the solid figure to the
dotted/ dashed figure is best describes as _____________.

a. transmission

b. reflection

c. rotation

d. translation

8. Use the graph below to complete the sentence: “Figure 𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝐶 ′ 𝐷′ is the image
of figure 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 under a rotation __________________________________.”
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 

a. 180° about the origin

b. 90° counterclockwise about the
origin
c. 270° counterclockwise about the
origin
d. 270° clockwise about the origin
4
9. The graph of ⃡⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑀𝑁 below represents the equation 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 4. If ⃡⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑀𝑁 is rotated
3

counterclockwise 270° around the origin, what will be the new coordinates of
point N?

a. (0, 3)

b. (0, −3)

c. (3, 0)

d. (−3, 0)

10. The transformation (𝑥, 𝑦) → (−𝑥, −𝑦) is applied to the figure below. Identify the
image of the figure under this transformation.

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 

11. Which glide reflection could map triangle ABC to triangle A′B′C′?

a. translation: (x, y) → (x, y + 3)

reflection : in x = −1
b. translation: (x, y) → (x + 1, y + 3)
reflection: in x = −1
c. translation: (x, y) → (x + 3, y)
reflection: in y = −1
d. translation: (x, y) → (x + 3, y + 1)
reflection: in y = −1

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 

12. Which of the following shows the image of ∆ABC after the glide reflection
described?
TRANSLATION: (𝐱, 𝐲) → (𝐱, 𝐲 − 𝟑); REFLECTION: in 𝐱 = 𝟏

13. Which of the following shows the image of ∆ABC after the glide reflection
described?
TRANSLATION: (𝐱, 𝐲) → (𝐱 − 𝟕, 𝐲); REFLECTION: in 𝐲 = 𝟑

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14. The composition of two (or more) isometries is always ___________________.

a. an isometry b. a translation c. a rotation d. a reflection

15. Graph ∆DEF with vertices D(0,3), E(4,3), and (F(0,7). Then graph its image after
the given transformation.
ROTATE 𝟏𝟖𝟎° THEN TRANSLATE USING (𝐱, 𝐲) → (𝐱 − 𝟏, 𝐲 − 𝟏).

a. b. c. d.

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16. The hexagon shown below is equiangular. How many lines of symmetry does it
have?
a. 2 c. 3
b. 1 d. 6
17. Which of the following four letters Q, S, T, Z (if drawn as simply as possible) has at
least one line of symmetry?
a. S b. T c. Q d. Z

18. Which figure shows all lines of symmetry?

a. c.

b. d.

19. Which figure has more than one line of symmetry?

a. b. c. d.

20. If a triangle has three lines of symmetry, then it is ______________.

a. scalene b. equilateral c. a right triangle d. isosceles

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21. Which of the following is not true?

a. A regular hexagon has rotational symmetry and always has line symmetry.
b. A triangle has rotational symmetry and always has line symmetry.
c. A rectangle has rotational symmetry and always has line symmetry.
d. A parallelogram has rotational symmetry and may have line symmetry.

22. Which figure has rotational symmetry for an angle of rotation of 240°?

a. b. c. d.

23. The line shown in the figure below is the only line of symmetry for a hexagon. The
figure shows three of the hexagon’s vertices. What are the coordinates of the
other three vertices of the hexagon?

a. (7, 3), (6, −2), (0, −3)

b. (7, 3), (6, −2), (−1, −2)

c. (7, 3), (7, −1), (0, −2)

d. (3, 7), (−2, 6), (−3, 0)

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24. Points A, B, and C are three points on a convex polygon that has rotational
symmetry only for rotations of 90° or multiples of 90°. How many more vertices
does the polygon have and what are their coordinates?
a. There is one more vertex at (2, 3).

b. There are two more vertices at (2, 1) and (1, 2).

c. There are two more vertices at (2, 0) and (0, 2).

d. There is one more vertex at (2, 2).

25. During ceramics class, Susan painted plates for her mother. Which design
exhibits rotational symmetry?

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 

ANSWER KEY

Practice Test (Number Patterns)

1. 59
2. 256
3. 24
4. 8
5. 3
6. 18
7. 22
8. 161
9. 33
10. 36

Practice Tests (Logic Patterns)

1.

2.

3.

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 

4.
5. 1 11 41 63 41 11 11

Learning Check (Logical Pattern - Abstract Reasoning Problems)

1. A 19. B
2. C 20. C
3. C
4. D
5. B
6. B
7. C
8. D
9. A
10. C
11. C
12. D
13. D
14. E
15. D
16. A
17. B
18. A
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Practice Exercises
1.

2. 25
Learning Check (Seatwork – Figurative Patterns)

1. a.
b. 1 5 12 22
c. 35
2.

3 6

5 1

2 4
2
1
Practice Exercises (Arithmetic and Geometric Sequence)
1. No. The supposed 11th, 12th, 13th, …. terms does not follow the pattern (do not
equate)
2.
Squares on a side 1 2 3 4 5 6 … 𝑛
Shaded squares (SS) 1 3 5 7 9 11 … 2n-1
Unshaded squares (US) 0 1 4 9 16 25 … (n-1)2

3. 5
4. a. ∑(2𝑛 − 1) = 𝑛2
b. 182 = 324
Practice Exercises (Arithmetic and Geometric Sequence (2))
1. a. 10
b. 𝑎𝑛 = 22 − 2𝑛
2. 𝑎𝑛 = −6 + 13𝑛
3. 𝑎𝑛 = 10𝑛−1 ; 10,000, 100,000, 1,000,000
4. 𝑎𝑛 = (−2)𝑛−1 ; -32, 64, -128
5. a. 96
b. 𝑎𝑛 = 3(2)𝑛−1
6. 𝑎𝑛 = 2𝑛2 + 5𝑛 − 10
7. 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛2 + 4𝑛

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 

Learning Check (Arithmetic Sequence)

1. 𝑎𝑛 = 12 − 3𝑛
2. 𝑎𝑛 = 2𝑛2 + 5𝑛 − 10; 𝑎24 = 1262
3. 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛3 + 2𝑛2 − 3𝑛 + 4
4. 6, 14, 22, 30, 38, … , 78, … ; 𝑎1 = 6
5. d = -7; 12, 5, -2, -9, -16, …
6. 𝑎𝑛 = 7𝑛 − 16; −9, −2, 5, 12, 19, …

Learning Check (Geometric Sequence)

1 10
1. 45 ( ) = 4.608 × 10−6
5

2. r = 2; 𝑎12 = 3(2)11 = 12,288

1 2 𝑛−1
3. 𝑎𝑛 = ( ) ; 𝑎10 = 8.67 × 10−3
3 3
3
4. 𝑎1 = ; 𝑎9 = 49,152
4

5. a. 𝑎𝑛 = 284(1.04)𝑛−1
b. 𝑎5 = 284(1.04)4 = 332.24 = 332
6. a. 𝑎𝑛 = 293(1.026)𝑛−1
b. 𝑎5 = 293(1.026)4 = 324.68 = 325

Learning Check (Arithmetic and Geometric Series)

1. 𝑆45 = 2,025
2. 𝑆196 = 45,276
3. 𝑆39 = 1,989
4. 𝑆12 = 265,720
5. 𝑆10 = −16,368
6. 𝑆24 = −1836
7. 𝑆18 = 351

Learning Check (Bee Genealogy)

Yes

1. 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21
2. 1, 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8
3. 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13
4. 10,946 ancestors, 4181 male bees

Learning Check (Fibonacci Sequence)

1. F18 = 5778

2. F29 = 1,149,851

3. F24 = 28,657

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Learning Check (Fibonacci Sequence)

1. 𝐴(0,0), 𝐵(1,2), 𝐶(2, −1)

2. Rotation

a. At 900 : 𝑋(4, −2), 𝑌(−5, −4), 𝑍(−3,1)

b. At 1800 : 𝑋(2,4), 𝑌(4, −5), 𝑍(−1, −3)

c. At 2700 : 𝑋(−4,2), 𝑌(5,4), 𝑍(3, −1)

3. Reflection

a. At 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 : 𝐿(5, −1), 𝑀(2, −2), 𝑁(4, −4)

b. At 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 : 𝐿(−5,1), 𝑀(−2,2), 𝑁(−4,4)

c. At 𝑦 = 𝑥 : 𝐿(1,5), 𝑀(2,2), 𝑁(4,4)

d. At 𝑦 = −𝑥 : 𝐿(−1, −5), 𝑀(−2, −2), 𝑁(−4, −4)

4. Translated Image: 𝑆(−1,5), 𝑄(2,4), 𝑅(3,7), 𝐸(0,8)

5.

Starting point 90° rotation 180° rotation 270° rotation 360° rotation
1. (1, 4) (−4,1) (−1, −4) (4, −1) (1,4)
2. (4, 2) (−2,4) (−4, −2) (2, −4) (4,2)
3. (2, 0) (0,2) (−2,0) (0, −2) (0,2)
4. (-1, 2) (−2, −1) (1, −2) (2,1) (−1,2)
5. (-2, -3) (3, −2) (2,3) (−3,2) (−2, −3)

6. Rotation

a. At 2700: (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑦 = −𝑥)

b. At 2700: (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑦 = −𝑥)

7.
a. y – axis
b. y – axis
c. y – axis
d. y = x
e. x – axis
f. y=–x
g. x – axis
h. x – axis
i. y – axis
j. y=–x

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REFERENCES

1. Aufmann, R. [Link]. (2018). Mathematical in the Modern World Excursions. Manila,

Philippines: Rex Book Store, Inc.
2. Bluman, A. G. (2003). Elementary Statistics: A Step by Step Approach. 5th Ed.
McGraw Hill, Inc.
3. CENGAGE (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World.
4. DS Malik, MK Sen. Discrete Mathematical Structures.
5. Johnsonbaugh, R. Discrete Mathematics.
6. Guillermo, R.M. (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World. Quezon City: Nieme
Publishing House Co. Ltd.
7. Lactuan, I. R. et. al. (2018). Instructional Material in Mathematics in the Modern
World. Puerto Princesa City: Palawan State University.
8. Nocon, R. C. & E. G. Nocon (2018). Essential Mathematics for the Modern World. C
& E Publishing, Inc.
9. Nocon and Nocon (2018). Essential Mathematics for the Modern World.
10. Stewart, I. Nature’s Numbers. [Link]
11. Walpole, M. and M. (2002). Probability and Statistics for Engineers and Scientists. 7th
Ed. Prentice Hall Int’l. Inc.

148
Module 2

The Language of Mathematics

Mathematical Language
and Symbols

Mathematics in the Modern World

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 

Overview

Mathematics as a language is composed of vocabularies consisting of symbols, words,

and grammar as well as a set of rules on the proper usage of the said elements. One needs to
learn and understand the mathematical language in order to think, comprehend, and to
communicate mathematically. There are two forms that can be used in communicating
mathematically: verbal and written, each may be either formal or informal.

Several reasons for using mathematical language are:

a. Statements of mathematics are clear;

b. Statements of mathematics are completely precise;
c. Statements of mathematics are concise;
d. Statements of mathematics are free from vagueness and ambiguities of ordinary
speech.

This module covers the lessons identified as the most essential under Chapter 2:
Mathematical Language and Symbols. Here, you will learn about set operations, propositions,
logical connectives, predicate, and quantifiers. Exercises are also provided to help you practice
and master the knowledge and skills necessary for your attainment of the learning outcomes.
How much you have learned from the said lessons will be determined in the last part of this
module. Have fun learning!

Learning Outcomes

After completing the study of this module, you should be able to:
1. Illustrate the language, symbols, and conventions of mathematics through examples;
2. Explain the nature of mathematics as a language;
3. Justify that mathematics is a useful language through citing concrete examples of its
applications;
4. Perform the operations on sets using proper notation;
5. Draw and interpret Venn diagrams of set operations, and use Venn diagrams to solve
problems on sets;
6. Determine the truth values of propositions in any context; and
7. Construct tables to determine the truth values of propositions;

Initial Activity (Accessing Prior Knowledge)

Answer the following questions:

 What is a language?
 What are the components of a language?
 Why do you think mathematics is considered a language?

Language is “a systematic means of communicating by using sounds or conventional

symbols” (Chen,2010). It is the code humans use as a form of expressing themselves and

150
 

communicating with others. It is a system of words used in a particular discipline and is

composed of the following components:
 a vocabulary of symbols or words;
 a grammar consisting of rules on the use of these symbols;
 a community of people who use and understand these symbols; and
 a range of meaning that can be communicated with these symbols.

Since all of the components mentioned above are found in mathematics, we can therefore
say that mathematics qualifies as a language. In fact, mathematics as a language, is universal.
It is the only one shared by all human being regardless of culture, religion, or gender. Like any
language, mathematics has nouns (such as the name of the number 12), pronouns (such as the
variables x or y), verbs (such as “equals”), and sentences (such as 3x + 7 = 24). Mathematics
has its own vocabulary, grammar, rule, syntax, synonyms, negations, sentence structure,
paragraph structure, conventions, and abbreviations. It is designed in such a way that one can
write about numbers, sets, functions, and others, as well as the processes undergone by these
elements (like adding, multiplying, grouping, evaluating, etc). And like any language,
mathematics has its own symbols. There are ten digits (0, 1, 2, …, 9), symbols for operations
(+, −, ×,÷), symbols that represent values (x, y, z, etc.), and many other special symbols (=, <
, ≤, π, etc.).

A. Set Operations

Set theory is about identifying relationships between things that are grouped together for
some reason. The word set was first formally used in 1879 by Georg Cantor, a German
mathematician, to refer to a well-defined collection of objects. Each object in a set is called an
element or a member of the set. For instance, if C is the set of all regions in the Philippines,
then Region IV B MIMAROPA is an element of C. The symbol ∈ is used to denote that an object
is an element of a set, and the symbol ∉ is used to denote that an object is not an element of a
set.

Example 1: Let S = {a, b, c}. It follows that:

c ∈ {a, b, c} c∈S f ∉ { a, b, c} f∉S

Example 2: Let B be the set of first 10 positive odd integers. Then

B = {1,3,5,7,9,11,13,15,17,19}
So we can say that 9 ∈ B and 2 ∉ B.

Sets often have relationships with other sets. For example, it could be that you are a
member of both the set of college students and the set of students taking college math course.
Or you could be in the set of freshmen or in the set of sophomores, but not in both. You might
be in the set of students living off campus and the set of students who walk to class. Or maybe
you’re in the set of students who eat lunch in the canteen and the set of students who think that
egg sandwiches are too bland, but not in the set of people who put ketchup in their food. In such
cases, a system for displaying and organizing all of these complicated connections between sets
will come in handy through studying set theory.

Below are the operations involving sets.

1. Union of Sets
If A and B are any two sets, the union of A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set
containing of all the elements that are found in A or in B or in both A and B. In symbols,
A ∪ B = {x ǀ x ∈ A or x ∈ B }.
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 

Note: The notation {x ǀ x ∈ A or x ∈ B } reads: " the set of all x such that x is in A or x is in B”.

Example 3 :
a. Let A = {1, 2, 4} and B = {3, 4, 5, 6}
Then, A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
b. Let D = {German Shepherd, Labrador} and E = {Bulldog, Rottweiler}
Then, D ∪ E = {German Shepherd, Labrador, Bulldog, Rottweiler}

Note: Elements common to both sets are listed only once in the union.

The inclusive “or” in the definition means that if x ∈ A ∪ B, then at least one of these
conditions must be true: x can be found in A; or x can be found in B; or x can be found in A and
in B.

The figures below illustrate the union of two sets.

A B A B

Fig 1a. A and B are overlapping Fig 1b. A and B are disjoint sets.
or joint sets. (Some A are B) (No A are B.)

A B
B A

Fig 1c. B is contained in A. (All B Fig 1d. A is contained in B. (All A

are A.) are B.)

The illustrations above are called Venn diagrams, named after the English logician John
Venn who first devised it, representing the universal set as a rectangle and all of its subsets as
circles (or oblongs) within the rectangle. A Venn diagram is a pictorial representation for sets
and their fundamental operations. The shaded portion of each diagram here represents the
union of sets.

For a better understanding of the figures above, we introduce some important terms and
symbols in set theory.

Definition 1. Let A and B be sets. Then A is said to be a subset of B, written A ⊆ B, if

every element of A is an element of B. If A is not a subset of B, then we write A ⊈ B.

Example 4: Let A = {0,2,4,6,8}, B = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}, and C = {1,2,3,4,5}. Then we say

that:
A ⊆ B; A⊈C

Example 5: {1, 2, 3, 4} ⊆ {1, 2, 3, 4}

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Notes:
 For every set A, we have A ⊆ A. (Every set is a subset of itself.)
 For A to not to be a subset of B, there must be at least one member of A that is not in B.

Definition 2: Let A and B be sets. Then A is a proper subset of B, written A ⊂ B, if

A is a subset of B and there exists at least one element in B that is not in A.

Example 6: Let A = {a, b} and B = {a, b, c}. Because every element of A is an element of B, we
have A ⊆ B. Now c ∈ B and c ∉ A. Therefore there exists an element in B that is not in A. It now
follows that A is a proper subset of B. That is, A ⊂ B, or in simple terms, A is fully contained in B.

Other examples:
In Figures 1a and 1b, we can say that 𝐴 ⊈ B, but in Figures 1c and 1d, we can say
that B ⊆ A and A ⊆ B, respectively. In fact, we can more appropriately say that B ⊂ A, and
A ⊂ B, respectively.
In example 4, we can say that A ⊂ B.
The set of all men is a proper subset of the set of all people.
{1, 3} ⊂ {1, 2, 3, 4}
The set of all even integers is a proper subset of the set of all integers.

As a side trip to the set of complex numbers, in connection with subsets and proper subsets, we
present the diagram of the subsets of Complex Numbers.

Figure 2 The Subset of Complex Numbers

The symbols that are conventionally used to denote these various sets of numbers are the
following:
ℕ The set of all natural numbers (i.e., all positive integers)
ℤ The set of all integers
ℤ∗ The set of all nonzero integers
𝔼 The set of all even numbers
ℚ The set of all rational numbers
∗
ℚ The set of all nonzero rational numbers
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ℚ+ The set of all positive rational numbers

ℝ The set of all real numbers
ℝ∗ The set of all nonzero real numbers
ℝ+ The set of all positive real numbers
ℂ The set of all complex numbers
ℂ∗ The set of all nonzero complex numbers

From the concept of proper subsets that we learned earlier, and using the diagram of the subset
of the complex numbers, we can verify that: ℕ⊂ℤ⊂ℚ⊂ℝ⊂ℂ

Other useful terms:

 Joint sets- are sets that have common elements
 Disjoint sets- are sets that do not have common elements
 Equal sets- sets that contain exactly the same elements
 Equivalent sets- sets that have the same number of elements

Try this!

Three experimental medications are being evaluated for safety. Each has a list
of side effects that has been reported by at least 1% of the people trying the
medication. This is a blind trial, so the medications are simply labeled A, B, and C.
The side effects for each are listed below.

A = {nausea, night sweats, nervousness, dry mouth, swollen feet}

B = {weight gain, nausea, nervousness, blurry vision, fever, trouble sleeping}
C = {dry mouth, nausea, blurry vision, fever, weight loss, eczema}

Find each of the following sets.

1. A ∪ B
2. A ∪ C
3. A ∪ B ∪ C

Solution: Remember that to get the union of sets, we just collect altogether the elements of all sets
involved, but we list common elements just once, and never forget the braces
to indicate that the list is a set.

1. A ∪ B= { nausea, night sweats, nervousness, dry mouth, swollen feet, weight gain, blurry
vision, fever, trouble sleeping}

2. A ∪ C= {nausea, night sweats, nervousness, dry mouth, swollen feet, blurry vision, fever,
weight loss, eczema}

3. A ∪ B ∪ C= { nausea, night sweats, nervousness, dry mouth, swollen feet, weight gain, blurry
vision, fever, trouble sleeping, weight loss, eczema }

2. Intersection of Sets
The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted by A ∩ B, is the set of all elements
common to both A and B. In symbols,
A ∩ B = {x ǀ x ∈ A and x ∈ B }.

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Example 7:
a. Let A = {1, 2, 4} and B = {3, 4, 5, 6}
Then, A ∩ B = {4}
b. Let D = {German Shepherd, Labrador} and E = {Bulldog, Rottweiler}
Then, D ∩ E = { }

The following figures illustrate the intersection of two sets.

A B

Figure 3a. A and B are Figure 3b. A and B are disjoint

overlapping sets. (Some A are B.) sets. (No A are B.)

A B
B A

Figure 3c. B is contained in A. (All Figure 3d. A is contained in B. All

B are A.) B are A.)

Notice that there is no shaded portion in Figure 3b, because A and B are disjoint sets.

Definition 3: Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint if A ∩ B = ∅.

(The symbol ∅ is called the null or empty set, which is a set that does not have any
element at all.)

Example 8: Let = {a, b, c, d, e} ; Y = {c, d, e, f, g, h}; and Z = {h, p, q, r}.

Then X ∩ Y = {c, d, e}
and X ∩ Z = ∅

Note: You can also represent an empty set by empty braces. So X ∩ Z = ∅ can be written as X ∩
Z = { }.

Example 9: If W = { 1, 2, 3 }and S = { a, b, c } then W ∩ S = ∅ or W ∩ S = { }.

Note: Do not use the symbols ∅ and { } together like this {∅} if you want to represent an empty
set because that would no longer be an empty set. This notation means that the set contains the
element ∅, which makes it “not empty”.

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Try this!

Three experimental medications are being evaluated for safety. Each has a list
of side effects that has been reported by at least 1% of the people trying the
medication. This is a blind trial, so the medications are simply labeled A, B, and C.
The side effects for each are listed below.

A = {nausea, night sweats, nervousness, dry mouth, swollen feet}

B = {weight gain, nausea, nervousness, blurry vision, fever, trouble sleeping}
C = {dry mouth, nausea, blurry vision, fever, weight loss, eczema}

Find: 1. A ∩ B
2. B ∩ C
3. A ∩ B ∩ C

Solution: Remember that in taking the intersection of two sets, we are going to collect only the
elements that are common in both or all the sets involved.
1. A ∩ B = { nausea, nervousness}
2. B ∩ C = {nausea, blurry vision, fever}
3. A ∩ B ∩ C = {nausea}

3. Set Complement (or Absolute Complement)

The complement of a set is the set whose elements are found in the universal set but
are not found in the given set. The universal set (U) is the set which contains the elements
of all sets being considered. If A is the given set, then its complement A’ would have elements
in U that are not in A. In symbols,
A’ = {x ǀ x ∈ U and x ∉ A } or A’ = {x ǀ x ∈ (U - A)}.

A’ is represented by the shaded region in the figure below.

UU
A A’

Example 10:
a. Let U = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} and A = {1, 3, 5, 7}
A’ = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8}

b. Let U = {PSU college students} and A = {PSU engineering students}

A’ = {PSU college students who are not taking up engineering}

c. Let U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h} and A = {a, c, g, h}. Then A’ = {b, d, e, f}.

d. Let U = { x | x is a letter in the alphabet } and A = { x |x is a consonant }, then

A’ = { x | x is not a consonant } or
A’ = { x | x is a vowel }

d. Let U=ℤ. then 𝔼′ = the set of odd integers

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Note: The set of vowel letters and consonant letters of the alphabet are complementary sets.
Same thing with the set of even and odd integers. Complementary sets are two sets whose
union makes the Universal set.

Try this!

Three experimental medications are being evaluated for safety. Each has a list
of side effects that has been reported by at least 1% of the people trying the
medication. This is a blind trial, so the medications are simply labeled A, B, and C.
The side effects for each are listed below.
A = {nausea, night sweats, nervousness, dry mouth, swollen feet}
B = {weight gain, nausea, nervousness, blurry vision, fever, trouble sleeping}
C = {dry mouth, nausea, blurry vision, fever, weight loss, eczema}

The universal set below is the set of all side effects reported by ANY user.
U = {nausea, night sweats, nervousness, dry mouth, swollen feet, weight gain,
blurry vision, fever, trouble sleeping, weight loss, eczema, motor mouth,
darting eyes, uncontrollable falling down}

Use this to find the following sets.

1. A’ ∩ C’ 2. (A ∩ B)’ ∩ C 3. B’ ∪ (A ∩ C’)

Solutions: Remember that to take the absolute complement of a set, we collect all elements of
the universal set that are not in the given set. In expressions containing ∪, ∩, ′, and grouping
symbols, we first evaluate those inside the grouping symbols. If there is more than one pair of
grouping symbols, we start from the innermost. Then we evaluate ′. In the absence of grouping
symbols, union (∪) and intersection (∩) usually have the same level of precedence.

1. A’ ∩ C’ = { weight gain, blurry vision, fever, trouble sleeping, weight loss, eczema, motor
mouth, darting eyes, uncontrollable falling down} ∩ {night sweats, nervousness, swollen
feet, weight gain, trouble sleeping, motor mouth, darting eyes, uncontrollable falling down}
= {weight gain, trouble sleeping, motor mouth, darting eyes, uncontrollable falling
down}

Note: The first step of the solution shows the complement of A and C. The second step shows
the intersection (∩) of the two complements.

2. (A ∩ B)’ ∩ C = {nausea, nervousness}’ ∩ {dry mouth, nausea, blurry vision, fever, weight
loss, eczema}
= {night sweats, dry mouth, swollen feet, weight gain, blurry vision, fever,
trouble sleeping, weight loss, eczema, motor mouth, darting eyes,
uncontrollable falling down} ∩ {dry mouth, nausea, blurry vision, fever,
weight loss, eczema}
= {dry mouth, blurry vision, fever, weight loss, eczema}

Note: Step 1 shows the intersection of A and B, as well as the elements of set C.
Step 2 shows the complement of the intersection of A and B, and we just copied set C.
Step 3 finally shows the intersection of the sets found in step 2.
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3. B’ ∪ (A ∩ C’)= {night sweats, dry mouth, swollen feet, weight loss, eczema, motor mouth,
darting eyes, uncontrollable falling down} ∪ ({nausea, night sweats, nervousness, dry
mouth, swollen feet} ∩ {night sweats, nervousness, swollen feet, weight gain, trouble
sleeping, motor mouth, darting eyes, uncontrollable falling down})
= {night sweats, dry mouth, swollen feet, weight loss, eczema, motor mouth,
darting eyes, uncontrollable falling down} ∪ {night sweats, nervousness, swollen feet}
= {night sweats, dry mouth, swollen feet, weight loss, eczema, motor mouth,
darting eyes, uncontrollable falling down, nervousness}

Note: Step 1: Take B’, copy A and take C’. Remember to enclose A and C’ in one group to avoid
error.
Step 2: Copy B’ and take the intersection of A and C’.
Step 3: Finally take the union of the sets found in step 2.

4. Set Difference (or Relative Complement)

The difference of set A from set B, denoted by B – A, is the set of all elements of set
B that are not in set A. The difference of set B from set A, denoted by A – B, is the set of all
elements of set A that are not in set B. Some books use the symbol A\B to represent the
relative complement of A with respect to B.
The illustrations below show set difference.

B-A A-B

Example 11:
Let A = {1, 2, 4} and B = {3, 4, 5, 6}, then
B – A = {3, 5, 6} and A – B = {1, 2}

Try this!

Three experimental medications are being evaluated for safety. Each has a list
of side effects that has been reported by at least 1% of the people trying the
medication. This is a blind trial, so the medications are simply labeled A, B, and C.
The side effects for each are listed below.
A = {nausea, night sweats, nervousness, dry mouth, swollen feet}
B = {weight gain, nausea, nervousness, blurry vision, fever, trouble sleeping}
C = {dry mouth, nausea, blurry vision, fever, weight loss, eczema}

Find: 1. A – B
2. B – C
3. (A – B) – C

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Solution: Remember that subtraction is not commutative, so we have to be careful with taking
A- B and B- A.
1. A- B= {night sweats, dry mouth, swollen feet}
2. B- A= {weight gain, blurry vision, fever, trouble sleeping}
3. (A- B)- C= {night sweats, dry mouth, swollen feet}- {dry mouth, nausea, blurry vision,
fever, weight loss, eczema}
={ night sweats, swollen feet }

Definition 4: Let S be a finite set with n distinct elements, where n ≥ 0. Then we

write n(S) = n and say that the cardinality of S is n. The cardinality or cardinal
number of a set is the number of elements in the set.

Example 12: Let A = {a, b, c, d, e} . Then n(A) = 5

Example 13: What is the cardinal number of the set of all positive integers, ℤ+ ?
Answer: n(ℤ+ ) = ∞

Application Problem: A PE instructor at Palawan State University conducted a survey to

determine the favorite sports of 84 students in her 2 freshmen classes. The individual
interviews showed the following: 44 liked basketball, 30 liked volleyball, 27 liked football,
15 liked both basketball and volleyball, 9 liked both volleyball and football, 10 liked both
football and basketball, 5 liked all three sports. How many of the students did not like any
of the three sports? How many of the students liked basketball only? How many of the
students liked football but not volleyball?

Solution:
This kind of problem is best approached by drawing a Venn diagram. The first thing to
consider is the number of sets involved and which of these sets are joint and which are
disjoint. Then values that fall within each region are found by working on the problem/
information backwards. Let us list down the things that we know about the problem.

 There were 84 freshmen students interviewed. (Universal set)

 Forty- four (44) students liked basketball. (Set B)
 Thirty (30) students liked volleyball. (Set V)
 Twenty- seven (27) liked football. (Set F)
 Fifteen (15) liked both basketball and volleyball. (B ∩ V)
 Nine (9) liked both volleyball and football. (V ∩ F)
 Ten (10) liked both football and basketball. (F ∩ B)
 Five (5) liked all three sports. (B ∩ V ∩ F)

Based on these information, we know that there are three sets involved and they are all
joint sets, so our Venn diagram will contain three overlapping circles. Some of you might
be wondering why it seems that the total number of data is more than the cardinality of
the universal set, which is 84. That is because you have double- counted some elements
in the intersections. So, it is important that we work backwards in solving this problem.

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This is the Venn diagram for the problem. To know how the numbers were derived,
and how double counting was avoided, let us list down the cardinality of the sets,
beginning from the intersection of all three sets, (B ∩ V ∩ F).

 n (B ∩ V ∩ F) = 5 (because 5 students liked all three sports)

 n (F ∩ B) = 10- 5=5 (because 5 students have already been counted in B ∩ V ∩ F)
 n (V ∩ F) = 9- 5= 4 (because 5 students have already been counted in B ∩ V ∩ F)
 n (B ∩ V) = 15- 5= 10 (because 5 students have already been counted in B ∩ V ∩ F)
 n (F) = 27- 5-5- 4 = 13 (because 5 students have already been counted in B ∩ V ∩ F,
5 in F ∩ B, and 4 in V ∩ F)
 n (V) = 30- 5- 10- 4= 11 (because 5 students have already been counted in B ∩ V ∩ F,
10 in B ∩ V, and 4 in V ∩ F)
 n (B) = 44- 5-10-5= 24 (because 5 students have already been counted in B ∩ V ∩ F,
10 in B ∩ V, and 5 in F ∩ B)

If we add these values, we will get 72, which is not equal to the cardinality of the Universal
set. This means that there were students in the interview who answered that neither of
the three sports (basketball, volleyball, football) is their favorite. We put these students,
84- 72= 12, outside the circles but still inside the rectangle.

Now that we have the Venn diagram, all we have to do is locate which region is covered
by each of the operations in the problem. It is important that we know how to translate the
values that we see in the diagram into words. It is equally important that we know how to
translate verbal expressions into symbols. For instance, the questions in this problem can
be translated as:

How many of the students did not like any of the three sports? n(B ∪ F ∪ V)’
How many of the students liked basketball only? n(B – (F ∪ V))’
How many of the students liked football but not volleyball? n(F – V)

By translating the sentences into symbols, it made us easier to find the answer by
referring to the Venn diagram. Study the diagram and verify that:

1. n(B ∪ F ∪ V)’ = 12. That is, 12 of the students did not like any of the three sports.
2. n(B – (F ∪ V)) = 24. That is, 24 of students liked basketball only.
3. n(F – V) = 18. That is, 18 students liked football but not volleyball.
There is another set operation considered in this section. Forming this new set involves
a much different process than forming the union, intersection, or complement of sets.

Given elements a and b, the symbol (a, b) denotes the ordered pair consisting of a and b
together with the specification that a is the first element of the pair and b is the second element.
Given sets A and B, the Cartesian product of A and B, denoted A x B and read “A cross
B”, is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b), where a is in A and b is in B. Symbolically:

A x B = {(a, b)|a ∈ A and b ∈ B}.

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Example 14: Let X = {1,2}, Y = {3,4}.

Then X × Y = {(1,3), (1,4), (2,3), (2,4)} and Y × X = {(3,1), (3,2), (4,1), (4,2)}

Example 15. Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {u, v}.

a. Find A x B.
A x B = {(1, u), (2, u), (3, u), (1, v), (2, v), (3, v)}

b. Find B x A.
B x A = {(u, 1), (u, 2), (u, 3), (v, 1), (v, 2), (v, 3)}

c. Find B x B.
B x B = {(u, u), (u, v), (v, u), (v, v)}

e. How many elements are in A x B, B x A, and B x B?

A x B has six elements. Note that this is the number of elements in A times the number
of elements in B. B x A has six elements, the number of elements in B times the
number of elements in A. B x B has four elements in B times the number of elements
in B.

Note: If A ≠ B, then A × B ≠ B × A. Also, n(A × B) = n(A) ∙ n(B).

Bonus Concept: Let U = the set of real numbers. The coordinates axes are formed by two
intersecting perpendicular lines in order to graph U x U.

Try this!

Let Y = {a, b, c} and Z = {1, 2}.

1. Find Y x Z.
2. Find Z x Y.
3. Y x Y.
4. How many elements are Y x Z, Z x Y, and Y x Y?

Solutions: Remember that in cross- product, the order of elements is important: the first
coordinate must come from the first set, and the second coordinate must come from the second
set

1. Y x Z= {(a, 1), (a, 2), (b, 1), (b, 2), (c, 1), (c, 2)}
2. Z x Y= {(1, a), (1, b), (1, c), (2, a), (2, b), (2, c)}
3. Y x Y= {(a, a), (a, b), (a, c), (b, a), (b, b), (b, c), (c, a), (c, b), (c, c)}
4. Y x Z has 3 x 2= 6 elements;
Z x Y has 2 x 3= 6 elements; and
Y x Y has 3 x 3= 9 elements.

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Learning check

Activity # 1

A. Given: U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}

A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
B = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
C = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
D = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
Find the following:
1. A ∪ B
2. A’∩ B
3. (B’∪ C) ∪ D
4. D – C’
5. (A ∪ D’)’

B. Workers are grouped into various categories. Set E is the set of workers under
20 years old, Set F is the set of foreign workers, and Set M is the set of male
workers. Describe the following sets in words:

a. E ‘ b. F ∩ M c. E ∪ M d. E ∩ F ∪ M

C. Solve the following problems using formulas and a Venn diagram.

1. A survey of 100 college students revealed the following information about
their enrolment in Mathematics, Political Science, and Sociology courses.
Twenty-six take Mathematics; 65 take Political Science; 65 take Sociology;
14 take Mathematics and Political Science; 13 take Mathematics and
Sociology; 40 take Political Science and Sociology; 8 take Mathematics,
Political Science and Sociology.
a. How many students take Mathematics as their only course?
b. How many students did not take any of the three courses?
c. How many students were taking Mathematics and Sociology, but not
Political Science?
d. How many students did not take either Mathematics or Political
Science?
2. After a genetic experiment, the number of pea plants having certain
characteristics was tallied, with the results as follows: 22 were tall; 25 had
green peas; 39 had smooth peas; 9 were tall and had green peas; 17 were
tall and had smooth peas; 20 had green peas and smooth peas; 6 had all
three characteristics; and 4 had none of the characteristics mentioned.
a. Find the total number of plants counted.
b. How many plants were tall and had peas that were neither smooth nor
green?
c. How many plants were not tall but had peas that were smooth and
green?
D. Let S = {2, 4, 6} and T = {1, 3, 5}. Use the roster notation to write each of the
following sets, and indicate the number of elements that are in each set:
a. S x T b. T x S c. S x S d. T x T

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B. Propositions

A proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true or false but not

both. As a declarative sentence, it expresses a complete thought with a definite
meaning. A proposition’s truth value is denoted by T or 1 if it is true, and F or 0 if it is false. Some
books use the term “statement” to equally mean proposition.

Propositions are the basic building blocks of any theory of logic. Here are some
examples of propositions.

Example 1:
1. The main campus of Palawan State University is in Puerto Princesa City.
2. Quezon City is the capital of the Philippines.
3. Benguet is a part of the Cordillera Administrative Region.
4. 1 + 1 = 2.
5. 2 + 2 = 3.

Example 2: Below is some more sample propositions and their corresponding truth values.
p: 4 is an integer. True
q: √5 is a rational number. False
r: Tubattaha Reef is located in Cagayancillo, Palawan. True
s: 5 is less than 3. False
t: 7 is an even integer. False

Note: The small letters p, q, r, s, and t are used to name the propositions. They do not have
any significance other than labeling. Just like in example 1, we can write a proposition even
without labels.

Example 3: Take a look at this case:

Every even integer greater than 4 is a sum of two odd primes. (Goldbach’s conjecture)

So far, no one has been able to prove that the Goldbach’s conjecture is true. At the
same time, no one has proved that it is false. Nevertheless, it is a proposition because it is
either true or false, but not both.

Example 4. Below are sample sentences which are not propositions. The sentences are not
declarative, and it is meaningless to determine their truth values.
Will you go?
Have a nice day!
Be quiet.

Try this!

Which of the following are propositions? Give the truth value of the
propositions, otherwise, write “not a proposition”.
1. Check your solution.
2. A square is quadrilateral.
3. August is the 9th month of the year.
4. Have a nice day!
5. 5x + 1 = 2.

Answers:
1. Not a proposition
2. Proposition- True
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3. Proposition- False
4. Not a proposition
5. Not a proposition (We would need a value for x to decide whether this is true
or false. A separate lesson for expressions like this will be discussed later in
the chapter.)

A simple proposition conveys a single idea (like the examples above) while a
compound proposition conveys more than one idea. Compound propositions are formed from
existing propositions using logical operators or connectives. A logical connective is a word or
symbol that joins two sentences or propositions to produce a new one.

Examples of compound propositions:

s: I am old and still strong.
t: Either you are sick or will come to the party tonight.
n: If you study hard then you will pass the course.
P: Unicorns are not real.

The table below shows the different logical connectives and the corresponding key
words and symbol used.

Connective (Key
Type Symbol
Word)
Negation Not ~
Conjunction And ∧
Disjunction or ∨
Implication or
If…then… →
Conditional
Biconditional …if and only if… ↔

Among these, the negation (~) is the only one that is a unary operation because it involves
only one operand. The rest are binary operations.

Learning check

Activity # 2

Identify the propositions among the given statements. Write P if the statement is a
proposition, and Not P if not. Give the truth value of the propositions, otherwise, write
“not a proposition”.

1. How far is Unitop from NCCC? 6. There are 31 days in December.

2. There is life on Mars. 7. How are you feeling?
3. 𝑥 − 2 = 2𝑥, when 𝑥 = −2. 8. Don’t speak when your mouth is full.
4. You made it! 9. Mixing blue and yellow produces red.
5. Iran is a country in the Middle East. 10. 2x + 1 = 5.

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C. The Negation

When an original idea is denied, the resulting proposition is called its negation.
We use the symbol “~” or “¬” to mean “not”.

Example 5: Consider the proposition:

f: 3 is a prime number True
Its negation is ~f, and is written as:
~f: 3 is not a prime number False
~f: It is false that 3 is a prime number.

Statement ~f is obtained by negating proposition f, and the truth values of f and ~f are opposite.

Note that negations, like ~f, do not consist two propositions. Nonetheless, they are
considered here as compound proposition. The negation is called a unary operation.

Following is the truth value table for negation:

p ̴p

T F

F T

Note: The truth table of a proposition P made up of the individual propositions p1, …, pn lists all
possible combinations of truth values for p1, …, pn , T denoting true and F denoting false, and
for each of such combination lists the truth value of P.

Example 6: Consider the following statements/ propositions:

Let p: 2 is positive. True
Then ~p: It is not the case that 2 is positive. False
It is false that 2 is positive.
2 is not positive.

Example 7. Let p: 5 is even. False

5 is odd.
Then ~p: It is not the case that 5 is even. True
(or simply ~p: 5 is not even.)
~p: 5 is odd. (another way of writing the negation of p.)
5 is not even.
It is false that 5 is even.

Example 8: Let s: You failed the subject.

Then ~s: You passed the subject.
You didn’t failed the subject.

Note: Not all negations imply a negative idea.

Try this!

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Write the negation of each of the following propositions.

a. Unicorns are real. Unicorns are not real.

b. 7 + 21 > 35 7 + 21 ≤ 35
c. I look good today. I do not look good today.

Learning check

Activity # 3

Determine whether each sentence below is a proposition. If the sentence is a

proposition, write its negation. Otherwise, write “not a proposition”.

1. 2 + 5 = 19
2. Waiter, will you serve the nuts- I mean, would you serve the guests the nuts?
3. Peel me a mango.
4. Sarah and Matteo make a good couple.
5. This sentence makes sense.

D. The Conjunction

Definition: If two propositions are joined together by the connective and, the resulting
compound proposition is called a conjunction. The propositions composing conjunction
are called conjuncts.

The symbol used to mean “and” is Λ.

Note: Variables are used to represent or label propositions for easier symbolism. The
most common variables used are p, q, and r.

The truth value of the conjunction of two propositions, say p and q, is defined in the table
below:
p q pΛq
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Based on the table, we remember that a conjunction is true only when both of its conjuncts
are true. Otherwise, the conjunction is false.

Following is a list of words that mean the same as “and” in the study of propositions:

but however whereas furthermore

still while nevertheless although
yet despite moreover

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Try this!

I. Consider the following propositions:

a: Prices are high.
b: Salaries are low.
c: Expenditure level is high.

Write the following conjunctions in symbolic form, then determine their truth value
assuming that a, b, and c, are true, false, and true, respectively

1. Prices are high; still, salaries are low.

2. The expenditure level is high despite salaries being low.
3. Prices are high,moreover, the expenditure level is quite high.

Solutions: After writing the conjunctions in symbols, remember the truth value of each conjunct
and go back to the truth value table to determine the truth value of the conjunction.

1. a ∧ b False
(The truth value table says that if at least one conjunct is false, then the conjunction is
false. See second row.)

2. c ∧ b False
(The truth value table says that if at least one conjunct is false, then the conjunction is
false. See third row.)

3. a ∧ c True
(The truth table says that if both conjuncts are true, then the conjunction is true.)

II. Write the truth table for the proposition (p ∧ q) ∧∼ p.

Solution:
Since there are two operands (p and q), there will be 22 = 4 rows in the truth table. If there
were three operands (say p, q, and r), the number of rows in the truth table will be 23 = 8. In
general, the number of rows of a proposition’s truth table is given by 2𝑛 , where n is the number
of operands or simple propositions involved.

P Q p∧q ∼p (p ∧ q) ∧∼ p

T T T F F

T F F F F

F T F T F

F F F T F
Read here to fully understand how the truth table for the compound proposition (p ∧ q) ∧∼ p is
constructed.

 The entries in the columns of p and q were derived using the tree diagram below:

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Had there been three simple propositions involved, the tree diagram will look like this:

 The entries in the p ∧ q column were derived using the truth table for conjunctions.
 The entries in the ~p column were derived by taking the opposite truth value of the entries
in each row of p.
 The entries in the (p ∧ q) ∧ ~p column were derived by applying the truth table for
conjunctions for the entries in the column of p ∧ q and the column of ~p. So here, we treat
(p ∧ q) as a simple proposition, hence the parentheses.
Note: The truth table derived for the problem above resulted to an entry of “all F” in the last
column. This happens when the proposition is a fallacy. On the other hand, if the last column
led to “all T” entries, then the proposition is a tautology. Moreover, if the last column led to a
combination of T and F, then the proposition is a contingency.

Learning check

Activity # 3

Determine the truth values of the following statements. Write True or False.

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(Hint: You have to know for yourself first the truth value of each conjunct.)

1. Red is a primary color, while orange is a secondary color.

2. 3 and 7 are even, and circles have 4 vertices.
3. (√30 > 5) ∧ (√30 < 7).
4. Blackpink is a South Korean girl group, but Lalisa Manoban is a Thai.
5. Squares have four equal sides and four right angles.
6. 2 is an even and a composite number.
7. 5 is a rational and a prime number.
8. Negative numbers are integers, and squares are rectangles.
9. (−3 > −2) ∧ (√3 > 2).
10. There are five vowels and twenty-one consonants in the English Alphabet.

E. The Disjunction

Definition: A disjunction is a compound proposition consisting of two propositions,

say, p and q, that are connected by “or”. Propositions “p” and “q” are called disjuncts.

We use the symbol “v” to stand for “or “, hence the disjunction just defined is written as
“p v q “.

The truth value of the disjunction of two propositions p and q is defined in the table below:

p Q p∨q

T T T

T F T

F T T

F F F

The table indicates that a disjunction is true when at least one of the disjuncts is true and
becomes false when both disjuncts are false.

Below is a list of words that express disjunction besides “or”:

else
either … or
unless

Try this!

I. Consider the following propositions:

m: You are good in Mathematics.

n: You are good in English.
o: You like poetry.

Suppose m is true, n is false, and o is true, determine the truth value of each
of the following disjunctions.

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1. You are good in Math or you like poetry. (m v o)

2. Either you are good in Math or in English. (m v n)

Solutions:

1. True
(The table indicates that a disjunction is true when at least one of the disjuncts is true.)

2. True (The table indicates that a disjunction is true when at least one of the disjuncts
is true.)

II. Formulate the symbolic expression p ∨∼ q in words using

p: Lee takes Information Technology.
q: Lee takes mathematics.

Answer: Either Lee takes Information Technology or he does not take mathematics.

III. Given that proposition p is false, proposition q is true, and proposition r is false,
determine whether the compound proposition ∼ p ∨ ∼ (q ∧ r) is true or false. (Note: This does
not require a truth table.)

Solution: We will replace each proposition by their corresponding truth values and slowly work
on performing each operation.
∼ p ∨ ∼ (q ∧ r) given
T ∨ ∼ (F) p is false means that ∼ p is true; the conjuction of true (q) and
false (r) is false
T∨ T the negation of F is T
T disjunction is true is there is at least one true proposition

Therefore, the truth value of the compound proposition ∼ p ∨ ∼ (q ∧ r) is true.

Note: Some books call compound propositions like this a “statement formula”.

Learning check

Activity # 4

Determine the truth values of the following statements. Write True or False.
(Hint: You have to know for yourself first the truth value of each disjunct.)

1. 12 is a prime number or 15 is a prime number.

2. 6 is a multiple of either 2 or 3.
3. (√30 > 5) ∨ (√30 < 7).
4. UP Diliman is in Pasay City or De La Salle University is in Quezon City.
5. It is not true that 1 + 1 = 3 or 2 + 1 = 3.
6. Sugar is sweet or the sun is hot.
3
7. is an integer or a counting number.
4
8. Amphibians live either in water or on land.
9. 3 divides 9 or 15.
10. Counting numbers can be prime or even.

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F. The Conditional

Definition: If two propositions are connected by the pair “if … then” the resulting
proposition is called an implication or conditional proposition. The statement following
the word “if” and before “then” is called the antecedent or hypothesis while the statement
after the word “then” is called the consequent or conclusion.

The symbol used to denote the connective “if … then” is →. Thus, if p is the antecedent
and q the conclusion of an implication, the proposition is written as “p → q” and is read, “if p,
then q “ or “p implies q”

Following is a list of other expressions that have the same meaning as “if p, then q”:

q if p
q provided p
q given p
q in case p
p only if q
p only when q
p implies q
p is sufficient for q
q whenever p
when p, q
a necessary condition for p is q
a sufficient condition for q is p

Note: Unlike in conjunction and disjunction, where the order of the conjuncts or disjuncts does
not affect the truth value of the compound proposition, here in conditional proposition, order
matters. It is important that we know which phrase is the antecedent and which phrase is the
consequent because it will affect the truth value of the conditional proposition. It is easiest to
determine the antecedent and the consequent when the conditional proposition is expressed in
standard form “If p, then q”.

At this point, let us try to translate some conditional propositions into their equivalent “if p, then
q” format. Then let’s identify which phrase is the antecedent p and which is the consequent q.
Use the list given above and the tips given below to understand how this works.

Tips:
 The hypothesis is the clause following the word if.
 The “if p then q” formulation emphasizes the hypothesis, whereas the “p only if q”
formulation emphasizes the conclusion; the difference is only stylistic.
 “When” means the same as “if”.
 A necessary condition is just that: a condition that is necessary for a particular outcome
to be achieved. The conclusion expresses a necessary condition.
 A sufficient condition is a condition that suffices to guarantee a particular outcome. The
hypothesis expresses a sufficient condition.
 Given the conditional “p → q” proposition p is referred to as a sufficient condition for q
while q is a necessary condition for p.

Example 9:

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a. If I get a bonus, then I will buy a car.

Answer: Since the statement is already in the standard form, we just identify p and q.
p: I get a bonus.
q: I will buy a car.
I will buy a car, if I get a bonus. (q if p)

q if p

b. Mary will be a good student if she studies hard. (q if p)

q provided p
c. Mary will be a good student provided that if she studies hard.
Answer: If Mary studies hard, then she will be a good student.(If…..then)
p: Mary studies hard.
q: Mary will be a good student.

p only if q

d. John takes calculus only if he has a sophomore, junior, or senior standing.

Answer: If John takes calculus, then he has sophomore, junior, or senior standing.
p. John takes calculus.
q: John has sophomore, junior, or senior standing.
When p, q

e. When you sing, my ears hurt.

Answer: If you sing, then my ears hurt.
p: You sing.
q: My ears hurt.

a necessary condition for p is q

f. A necessary condition for PSU Bearcats to win the baseball in STRASUC Meet is that
they sign a right- handed relief pitcher.
Answer: If the PSU Bearcats win the baseball in STRASUC Meet, then they signed a right-
handed relief pitcher.
p: The PSU Bearcats win the baseball in STRASUC Meet.
q: The PSU Bearcats signed a right- handed relief pitcher.

a sufficient condition for q is p

g. A sufficient condition for Maria to visit France is that she goes to the Eiffel Tower.
Answer: If Maria goes to the Eiffel Tower, then she visits France.
p:Maria goes to the Eiffel Tower.
q:Maria visits France.

Caution: A common mistake of students in activities like this is including the words “if” and “then”,
or other compounding words in writing the component simple propositions. For instance, in
Example 5a, some students would write: p: If I get a bonus, and q: Then I will buy a car. In
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Example 5f., some students would write: p: A sufficient condition for Maria to visit France, and
q: She goes to the Eiffel Tower. These are incorrect. Observe how compounding words are
dropped in writing the component simple propositions in our answers. Also, do not forget to
“listen” to your proposition if it sounds right, or if it is grammatically correct.

Example 10: Write the following conditionals in symbolic form.

a. If two numbers are even, then their product is even.

b. x + 1 is odd provided x is even.
c. Two nonzero numbers are equal only if their reciprocals are equal.
d. Joey will pass the discrete mathematics exam if he studies hard.

Solutions:
a. Let m: Two numbers are even.
n: The product of two numbers are even.

Then, conditional (a) is written as m → n

b. Suppose t: x + 1 is odd
s: x is even

Hence, conditional (b) is written s → t.

c. Let p: Two nonzero numbers are equal.

q: The reciprocals of two numbers are equal.

Thus, conditional (c) can be written as p → q

d. Suppose u: Joey will pass the discrete mathematics exam.

v: Joey studies hard.

Then, conditional number (d) is written: v → u

Following is the truth value table for implication:

p q p→q

T T T

T F F

F T T

F F T

Note: The table tells us that an implication is false only when the antecedent is true and the
consequent false. Otherwise, the implication is always true. A conditional proposition that is
true because the hypothesis is false is said to be true by default or vacuously true.

Try this!

I. Suppose propositions m, n, and s are assigned the truth values F, T, and F,

respectively. Determine the truth values of the following conditionals.
1. m → n
2. n → s
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3. s → m

Solutions:

1. Since the antecedent m is false, it follows that regardless of the truth value of the
consequent n, the conditional proposition m → n is true. In fact, it is true by default.

2. The antecedent n is true, while the consequent s is false. So the conditional

proposition n → s is false.

3. Since the antecedent s is false, it follows that regardless of the truth value of the
consequent m, the conditional proposition s → m is true. In fact, it is true by default.

II. Assuming that p and r are false and that q and s are true, find the truth value of the
statement formula: (p → q) ∧ (q → r)

Solution: We will replace each proposition by their corresponding truth values and slowly work
on performing each operation.
(p → q) ∧ (q → r) given
(F→T) ∧ (T→F) replace each proposition by corresponding truth value
(T) ∧ (F) apply the rules in the truth table for implication
F apply the rule in the truth table for conjunction

Therefore, the truth value of the statement formula (p → q) ∧ (q → r) is false.

III. Formulate the symbolic expression ~p → (q ∨ r) in words using

p: Today is Monday.
q: It is raining.
r: It is hot.

Answer: If today is not Monday, then it is raining unless it is hot.

(Answers may vary but the logical connectives must have the same meaning.)

Converse, Inverse, and Contrapositive

Definition: Let p and q be propositions.

i. The proposition q → p is called the converse of the implication p → q.
ii. The proposition ~p → ~q is called the inverse of the implication of p → q.
iii. The statement ~q → ~p is called the contrapositive of the implication p → q.

Example 11: Let p: Today is Sunday.

q: I will go for a walk.

p → q: If today is Sunday then I will go for a walk.

Converse: q → p: If I will go for a walk then today is Sunday.

Inverse: ~p → ~q: If today is not Sunday then I will not go for a walk.
Contrapositive: ~q → ~p: If I will not go for a walk then today is not Sunday.

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Learning check

Activity # 5

1. Suppose a conditional proposition is true and its antecedent also true, what is
the truth value of its consequent?

2. If an implication is true and its consequent is false, what is the truth value of
its antecedent?

3. Let the propositions r and s be true and false, respectively.

r: Prices are high
s: Wages are high
Determine the truth value of the following conditionals.
a. Prices are high in case wages are high.
b. Prices are high only if wages are high.
c. Wages are high; hence inflation rate is high.

4. Write the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of the following conditional

propositions. (Hint: If applicable, write each conditional proposition in standard form
first.)
a. Rose may graduate if she has 120 hours of OJT credits.
b. A necessary condition for Bill to buy a computer is that he obtains P20,000.
c. A sufficient condition for Katrina to take the algorithms course is that she
passes discrete mathematics.
d. The program is readable only if it is well- structured.

G. The Biconditional

Definition: When two propositions, say p and q, are connected by the phrase “if and
only if”, the resulting compound proposition is called a biconditional or double
implication. The symbol used for “if and only if” is “↔”, hence, the biconditional “p if and
only if q” is written as “p ↔ q”. This compound proposition is the compact way of writing
“(p → q) and (q → p)”.

Sometimes a biconditional is read as “p is a necessary and sufficient condition for q” or

“q is a necessary and sufficient condition for p”.

Other words that could replace “if and only if” are:

when and only when

just in case
granted that and only granted that

UP Diliman is in Quezon City if and only if 2 + 2 = 4.

Truth value table for biconditional:

P q p↔q

T T T
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T F F

F T F

F F T

Note: Observe from the table that a biconditional is true provided the proposition written
on both sides of the symbol ↔ are both true or both false.

Bonus knowledge: It is traditional in mathematical definitions to use “if” to mean “if and only if”.

Example 12: If two sets A and B are disjoint sets then A ∩ B = ∅.

This definition of disjoint sets means that if A and B are disjoint sets then A ∩ B = ∅ and also if
A ∩ B = ∅ then A and B are disjoint sets.

Try this!

I. Write in symbols the biconditional “6x = 2 if and only if x = 1/3”, then determine
its truth value assuming that the proposition “6x = 2” is true while “x = 1/3” is false.

Solution: Let p: 6x = 2
q: x = 1/3
Then the biconditional in symbols is: p ↔ q. And since p and q have different truth values,
the biconditional proposition is false.

II. Construct a truth value table for the statement below:

(p → q) ↔ ( ̴ q → ̴ p )

Solution: Since the statement formula is composed of two operands p and q, the truth table will
have 4 rows.

(p → q) ↔ ( ̴ q → ̴ p )

p q p→q ̴q ̴p ̴q→ ̴p (p → q) ↔ ( ̴ q → ̴ p )

T T T F F T T
T F F T F F T
F T T F T T T
F F T T T T T

 The entries in the columns of p, q, p → q, ̴ q, and ̴ p are easily derived using our previous
knowledge of tree diagram, rules of implication, and rules of negation.
 The entries on the ̴ q → ̴ p column are derived by applying the rules for implication, but
this time, the antecedent is ̴ q while the consequent is ̴p.
 The entries on the last column (p → q) ↔ ( ̴ q → ̴ p) are derived by applying the rules
for biconditional where the component propositions are (p → q) and ( ̴ q → ̴ p). That is,
we take (p → q) and ( ̴ q → ̴ p) as two separate simple propositions.
 The last column resulted to “all T” entries so the statement formula (p → q) ↔ ( ̴ q → ̴ p)
is a tautology.

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Learning check

Activity # 6

1. Suppose the biconditional p ↔ q is given a true value and proposition p is

known to be false. What is the truth value of q?
2. Suppose the biconditional m ↔ n is assumed to be false while proposition n is
given a true value. What is the truth value of m?

H. Predicate Logic

The logic that we discussed previously is categorized as the statement or

propositional logic. We were interested only in the truth or falsity of the statement. The
structure of the statement was not taken into account. But there are many justified arguments
whose validity cannot be tested within the framework of propositional logic. For example,
consider the following statements:

p: 2 is an even integer
q: 5 is an even integer
r: 0 is an even integer

Observe that the three statements have similar patterns. In English usage, the pattern is
noun-verb-adjective. Note that the verb and adjective in all statements are the same. The part
which changes is the noun. In mathematics, that component of a statement which changes is
called a variable and we use small letters, like x, to represent such a component. Thus, we
obtain:

s: x is an even integer.

A statement involving a variable, like s, is called a predicate.

Note: The truth value of a predicate cannot be evaluated unless the variable, x in the
above example, assumes a particular value. Thus, a predicate is not a proposition. But when x
is replaced by a number, say 2, or 6, or 0, we obtain a proposition like the statements p and q
and r above since we can already determine the truth value of each. In particular, p and r are
true propositions, while q is a false proposition. The definition below formalizes this note.

Definition:
Let x be a variable and D be a set; P(x) is a sentence. Then P(x) is called a
predicate or propositional function with respect to the set D if for each value of x in D,
P(x) is a proposition; that is, P(x) is true or false. Moreover, D is called the domain of
discourse and x is called a free variable.

* The domain of discourse specifies the allowable values for x.

** A propositional function P, by itself, is neither true nor false. However, for each x in the domain of
discourse, P(x) is a proposition and is, therefore, either true or false.

Example 1: Here are some predicates in math:

1. Algebra:
Let D be the set of real numbers.
x2 + 1 = 5

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x+2>0
x x-1
+ =4
2 3

2. Trigonometry:
Let D be the set of angles in quadrant I.
Sin x = ½
Sin2 x – Sin x = 0
2 Cos x = 1

Example 2: Let P(n) denote the sentence “𝑛2 + 2𝑛 is an odd integer”, where the domain of
discourse is the set of positive integers, ℤ+ . Find the truth value of each of the following:
a. P(1)
b. P(3)
c. P(5)
d. P(2)
e. P(4)
f. P(6)

Solutions: We just replace x in the predicate by each indicated value taken from the domain.
a. P(1): 12 + 2(1) = 3, which is an odd integer. So, P(1) is true.
b. P(3): 32 + 2(3) = 15, which is an odd integer. So, P(3) is true.
c. P(5): 52 + 2(5) = 35, which is an odd integer. So, P(5) is true.
d. P(2): 22 + 2(2) = 8, which is an even integer. So, P(2) is false.
e. P(4): 42 + 2(4) = 24, which is an even integer. So, P(4) is false.
f. P(6): 62 + 2(6) = 48, which is an even integer. So, P(6) is false.

We can also have predicates involving two or more variables

Example 3: Let P(x, y) denote the sentence “x equals y+1”, and let the domain be the set of
integers, ℤ. Find the truth value of each of the following.
a. P(2, 1)
b. P(5, 4)
c. P(6, 4)

Solutions: We just replace x and y accordingly in the predicate by each indicated pair of values
taken from the domain. In symbols, our predicate is 𝑥 = 𝑦 + 1, so we have:
a. P(2, 1): 2 = 1 + 1
2=2 So, P(2, 1) is true.

b. P(5, 4): 5=4+1

5=5 So, P(5, 4) is true.

c. P(6, 4): 6=4+1

6≠5 So, P(6, 4) is false.

Try this!

Let P(x) denote the statement “x ≥ 10” and D be the set of integers. What are
the truth values of the following?

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1. P(9)
2. P(12)
3. P(-10)
4. P(10)
5. P(0)

Solutions: We just replace x in the predicate by each indicated value taken from the
domain.
1. 9 ≥ 10 makes a false proposition
2. 12 ≥ 10 makes a true proposition
3. -10 ≥ 10 makes a false proposition
4. 10 ≥ 10 makes a true proposition
5. 0 ≥ 10 makes a false proposition

Learning check

Activity # 8

1. Let Q(x) denote the statement “x is an integer”. What are the truth values of
the following?

a. Q(-1)
b. Q(0)
8
c. Q( )
2
d. Q(√-4)
e. Q(√4)

2. Let P(x, y) denote the statement “xy ≤ 15.” Determine the truth values of the
following:

a. P(5, 3)
b. P(-3, 5)
c. P(-3, -5)
d. P(-3, -6)
e. P(2, 7)

3. Let P(n): n2 + 1 = 5, and D: {-2, 0, 2}. Determine the truth value of P(n) for each
value in the domain.

I. Quantifiers

In addition to predicates, we deal with another term- quantifiers. There are two types
of quantifiers, universal and existential. As we have learned earlier, a predicate P(x) is not a
proposition until x is substituted by a value in the domain of discourse. But in this in this part of
the module, we shall learn that although P(x) is not a proposition, it can be turned into a
proposition through a process called quantification.

Consider the following statements:

1. Every man is a liar.
2. There exists a real gentleman.

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These statements are called quantified statements. The words “every” and “some” are called
quantifiers. Moreover, “every” is a universal quantifier and “some” is an existential quantifier.

Definition: Let P be a propositional function with domain of discourse D. The statement

for every x, P(x) is said to be a universally quantified
statement.
The symbol for a universal quantifier is ∀.

Thus the statement for every x, P(x) may be written ∀x P(x).

Note:
1. Other universal quantifiers are “all”, “any”, “everything”, “nothing”.
2. The statement ∀x P(x) is true if P(x) is true for every x in D.
The statement ∀x P(x) is false if P(x) is false for at least one x in D.
A value x in the domain of discourse that makes P(x) false is called a counterexample to
the statement ∀x P(x).

Example 4:
1. Let P(x): x 2 ≥ x and let D: the set of integers.
What is the truth value of ∀x: P(x)?

The universally quantified proposition ∀x: P(x) means that “For all integers x, x 2 ≥ x.”

Solution: To determine the truth value of this proposition, try to answer this question: “Is it true
that the square of an integer is always greater than or equal to itself?” If the answer is yes, then
the truth value of the proposition is true. But if you can think of at least one value of x that will
make the proposition false, then the universally quantified proposition is false.
Some of you might be thinking of substituting a few values to the predicate. That’s a good start
in finding a counterexample to prove the falsity of this quantified statement. But doing the same
thing to prove that this quantified statement is true is useless, actually impossible. Because you
will need to substitute ALL values in the domain and get ALL TRUE truth values before you can
say that this quantified statement is indeed true. So we advise students to practice logical
thinking and reasoning in answering questions like this. For instance, here, since the domain is
the set of integers, we know that the square of a positive integer is always greater than the
integer, itself. So, the quantified proposition is true for positive integers. What about with negative
integers? Well, we know that when you square a negative number, you get a positive number.
So the square of a negative integer is also always greater than the negative integer, itself. And
what about zero? Here comes the part of the symbol “or equal to” in ≥. So, with this, we can say
that this quantified proposition “For all integers x, x 2 ≥ x” is true. (Remember, we had to justify
its truth to ALL values in the domain!)

Example 5: Let P(x): x ≥ 3 and let D: the set of real numbers.

What is the truth value of ∀x: P(x)?

The universally quantified proposition ∀x: P(x) means that “For all real numbers x, x ≥ 3.”

Solution: To determine the truth value of this proposition, try to answer this question: “Is it true
that a real number is always greater than or equal to 3?” If you can think of at least one value
of x (in this case a real number) that will make the proposition false, then the universally

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quantified proposition is false. We call such value a counterexample. This problem is relatively
easy because we can think of a lot of counterexamples. There are many real numbers that are
not greater than or equal to 3. But one counterexample is enough to justify the falsity of this
quantified statement. We can have counterexample: 𝑥 = 0. Zero (0) is a real number and it is
not greater than or equal to three, so the quantified statement “For all real numbers x, x ≥ 3” is
false.

Note: It is easier to prove the falsity of a universally quantified proposition than its truth, because
you would only need one counterexample.

Definition: Let P be a propositional function with domain of discourse D. The statement

there exists x, P(x) is said to be an existentially quantified
statement.
The symbol for an existential quantifier is ∃.

Thus the statement there exists x, P(x) may be written ∃x P(x).

Note:
1. Other existential quantifiers are “some”, “there is”.
2. The statement ∃x P(x) is true if P(x) is true for at least one x in D.
The statement ∃x P(x) is false if P(x) is false for every x in D.

Example 6:
1. Let P(x): x 2 ≤ x and let D: the set of all real numbers.
What is the truth value of ∃x: P(x)?

The existentially quantified proposition ∃x: P(x) means that “For some real numbers x,
x 2 ≤ x.”

Solution: To determine the truth value of this proposition, try to answer this question: “Is it true
that there is at least one real number whose square is greater than or equal to itself?” If the
answer is yes, then the truth value of the proposition is true. But if you cannot think of at least
one value of x that will make the proposition true, then this existentially quantified proposition is
false.
Here, our domain is the set of real numbers, not just the set of integers. If it were just the
set of integers, we can take from our example 4 that this proposition is false. (Can you tell why?).
1
However, here, we can substitute fractions so by just trying out, say 𝑥 = , we will have:
2
1 2 1
( ) ≤
2 2
1 1
≤ (true)
4 2

With this, we say that the existentially quantified statement “For some real numbers x,
2
x ≤ x” is true.

Note: It is easier to show that an existentially quantified proposition is true, rather than false,
because you would only need one example that shows it is true.

Example 7: Let P(x): x 2 < x and let D: the set of all integers.
What is the truth value of ∃x: P(x)?
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The existentially quantified proposition ∃x: P(x) means that “For some integers x, x 2 < x.”

Solution: To determine the truth value of this proposition, try to answer this question: “Is it true
that there is at least one integer whose square is less than itself?” If the answer is yes, then the
truth value of the proposition is true. But if you cannot think of at least one value of x that will
make the proposition true, then the existentially quantified proposition is false.
From example 4, we learned that in fact, the square of all integers are always greater
than or equal to the integer, itself. It means that the square of any integer will NEVER be less
than the integer itself. So this existentially quantified proposition “For some integers x, x 2 < x”
is false.

 Things to Remember!
1. To prove that the universally quantified statement ∀x P(x) is true, show that for every x in
the domain of discourse, the proposition P(x) is true. Showing that P(x) is true for only a
particular value of x does not prove that ∀x P(x) is true.
2. To prove that the existentially quantified statement ∃x P(x) is true, find one value of x in
the domain of discourse for which the proposition P(x) is true. One value suffices (is
enough).
3. To prove that the universally quantified statement ∀x P(x) is false, find one value of x (a
counterexample) in the domain of discourse for which the proposition P(x) is false. One
counterexample is enough.
4. To prove that the existentially quantified statement ∃x P(x) is false, show that for every x
in the domain of discourse, the proposition P(x) is false. Showing that P(x) is false for
only a particular value of x does not prove that ∃x P(x) is false.

This time, let us try to translate quantified statements to [Link] the following
statements:

1. All numbers are integers.

2. Some numbers are integers.

The word “all” in (1) can be symbolized by “Ɐ” and if the noun “numbers” is replaced by
variable s, we can rewrite (1) as

Ɐx : x is an integer (2)

Remember that the phrase “x is an integer” is the predicate and if this predicate is
symbolized as I(x), then (2) becomes

Ɐx : I(x) (3)

The symbols in last line is read as “For all x, x is an integer” and this is still synonymous
to statement (1).

For the 2nd statement the word “some” can be represented by the symbol “ⱻ”. Following
the pattern in statement (1), statement (2) can finally be written as,

ⱻx : I(x) (4)

This is read as “For some x, x is an integer.”

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Try this!

1. Evaluate the truth value of each quantified proposition, assuming the set {0, 2, - 2} as the
domain.

a. Ɐx : x(x2 – 4) = 0
b. ⱻx : x + 1 > 0
c. ⱻx : x(x2 – 4) = 0

Solutions: Since the domain is composed by only three elements, it is still tolerable to
plug in each of these values, if necessary, to the quantified propositions and decide its truth
value.

a. P(0): 0(02 – 4) = 0 true

P(2): 2(2 – 4) = 0
2
true
P(-2): -2[(-2)2 – 4] = 0 true
Since all values in the domain yielded a true truth value, we can say that this universally
quantified proposition is true.

b. P(0): 0 + 1 > 0 true

Since this is an existential quantifier, just one proof of truth of the statement is enough
to say that this existentially quantified proposition is true.

c. P(0): 0(02 – 4) = 0 true

Since this is an existential quantifier, just one proof of truth of the statement is enough
to say that this existentially quantified proposition is true.

2. Let P(n) be the propositional function “n divides 77”. Write each proposition below in
words and tell whether it is true or false. The domain of discourse is ℤ+ .
a. P(11)
b. ∀n P(n)
c. ∃n P(n)

Solutions:
a. We replace n by 11 and write:
“11 divide 77” , which is a true statement.

b. This is a universally quantified proposition.

“For all positive integers n, n divides 77” or simpy, “All positive integers divide 77”.

Counterexample: 8 (this may vary), since 8 is a positive integer which does not
divide [Link] the universally quantified proposition “All positive integers divide 77” is false.

c. This is an existentially quantified proposition.

“For some positive integers n, there exists n that divides 77” or simpy, “There exists
at least one positive integer that divides 77”.

Proof: 11 (this may vary), since 11 is a positive integer which divides 77. So the
existentially quantified proposition “There exists at least one positive integer that divides 77” is
true.

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Learning check

Activity # 9
1. Translate the following in symbolic form and state their domain.
a. All fishes are swimmers.
b. There are fruits that are sweet.
c. Every number is a real number.
d. Any mammal is not two-legged.

2. Evaluate the truth value of the following propositions, using the set {1, 3, 5, 7}
as the domain.
a. Ɐx : x2 is odd
b. ⱻx : (x + 1)2 > x2 + 1
c. ⱻx : 2(x – 1) is even
2x+1
d. Ɐx : belongs to the domain
3

EVALUATION

Let us now determine how much you understand from this module!

1. Let the universal set U = {x ǀ x ∈ natural numbers, 0 ≤ x ≤ 9}, A = {2, 4, 7, 9}, B = {1, 3, 5, 7,
9}, C = {2, 3, 4, 5}, D = {1, 6, 7}. Find the ff:
a. A’ ∪ C
b. (B ∩ C’) ∪ A
c. (U ∩ B’)’
d. A ∩ C ∩ D’
2. Among 500 graduating students, 210 of them smoke, 258 drink alcoholic beverages, 216 eat
between meals, 122 smoke and drink alcoholic beverages, 83 eat between meals and drink
alcoholic beverages, 97 smoke and eat between meals, and 52 engage in these bad health
practices. How many
a. smoke but do not drink alcoholic beverages?
b. eat between meals and drink alcoholic beverages but do not smoke?
c. neither smoke nor eats between meals?

3. Let A = {w, x, y, z} and B = {a, b}. Use the roster notation to write each of the following sets,
and indicate the number of elements that are in each set:
a. A x B
b. B x A
c. A x A
d. B x B

4. In a Music club with 15 members, 7 people played piano, 6 people played guitar, and 4 people
did not play either of these instruments.
a. How many people played both piano and guitar?
b. How many people played piano only?
c. How many people played guitar only?
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d. How many people did play piano or guitar?

5. Write each symbolic statement as an English sentence. Use p, q, r, s, and t as defined below.
p: Taylor Swift is a singer.
q: Taylor Swift is not a songwriter.
r: Taylor Swift is an actress.
s: Taylor Swift plays the piano.
t: Taylor Swift does not play the guitar.
a. (p ∨ r) ∧ q
b. p → (q ∧ ̴ r)
c. t ↔ ( ̴ r ∧ ̴ p)

6. Write the following compound statements in symbolic form.

a. Today is Friday, still it is raining.
b. It is not raining, yet I am going to a movie.
c. I am going to the basketball game or I am going to a movie.
d. If it is raining, then I am going to the basketball game.

I. Fill in the blanks with appropriate word, phrase, or symbol(s).

1. A sentence that can be judged either true or false is called __________.
2. A statement that conveys only one idea is called ________.
3. A statement that consists of two or more simple statements is called a __________.
4. Words such as all, none (or no) and some are examples of ____________.
5. The negation is symbolized by ~ and is read as __________.
6. The conjunction is symbolized by ∧ and is read as __________.
7. the disjunction is symbolized by ∨ and is read as _________.
8. The conditional is symbolized by → and is read as _________.
9. The biconditional is symbolized by ↔ and is read as ________.
10. In logic, words such as and, or, and if…then… are called ___________.
II. Write the negation of each statement.
1. Some telephones can take photographs.
______________________________________
2. All houses have two stories.
______________________________________
3. Some cars are hybrids.
______________________________________
4. All golf courses are green.
______________________________________
5. Some drivers are not safe.
______________________________________

III. Indicate whether the statement is a simple or a compound statement. If it is a compound

statement, indicate whether it is negation, conjunction, disjunction, conditional, or biconditional
by using both the word and its appropriate symbol.

Examples: John likes scuba diving. (simple statement)

Greg will go to the circus or to the zoo. (compound, disjunction, ∨)

1. If you have cold, then you should eat some chicken soup.
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 

2. Time will go backwards if and only if you travel faster than the speed of light.
3. Louis Armstrong did not play the drums.
4. Bobby joined the Army, and he got married.
5. It is false that Mr. Cruz is a high school teacher and a grade school teacher.
6. The typhoon did million worth of damage to the province.
7. A judge announces to a convicted offender, “I hereby sentence you to five months of
community services or a fine of Php10,000”.

ANSWER KEY

A. Set Operations

Try this!
1. A ∪ B = {nausea, night sweats, nervousness, dry mouth, swollen feet, weight gain, blurry
vision, fever, trouble sleeping}
2. A ∪ C = {nausea, night sweats, nervousness, dry mouth, swollen feet, blurry vision,
weight loss, eczema}
3. A ∪ B ∪ C = {nausea, night sweats, nervousness, dry mouth, swollen feet, weight gain,
blurry vision, fever, trouble sleeping, weight loss, eczema}

Try this!
1. A ∩ B = {nausea, nervousness}
2. B ∩ C = {nausea, blurry vision}
3. A ∩ B ∩ C = {nausea}

Try this!
1. A’ ∩ C’ = {weight gain, trouble sleeping, motor mouth, darting eyes, uncontrollable falling
down}
2. (A ∩ B)’ ∩ C = {dry mouth, blurry vision, fever, weight loss, eczema}

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 

3. B’ ∪ (A ∩ C’) = {night sweats, dry mouth, swollen feet, weight loss, eczema, motor mouth,
darting eyes, uncontrollable falling down, nervousness}

Try this!
1. A – B = {night sweats, dry mouth, swollen feet}
2. B – C = {weight gain, nervousness, fever, trouble sleeping}
3. (A – B) – C = {night sweats, swollen feet}

Try this!
1. Y x Z = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (b, 1), (b, 2), (c, 1), (c, 2)}
2. Z x Y = {(1, a), (1, b), (1, c), (2, a), (2, b), (2, c)}
3. Y x Y = {(a, a), (a, b), (a, c), (b, a), (b, b), (b, c), (c, a), (c, b), (c, c)}
4. Y x Z has 6 elements, Z x Y has 6 elements, and Y x Y has 9 elements.

B. Propositions

Try this!
1. not a proposition
2. proposition, true
3. proposition, false
4. not a proposition
5. not a proposition

C. The Conjunction

Try this!
1. a ∧ b, false
2. c ∧ b, false
3. a ∧ c, true

D. The Disjunction

Try this!
1. true
2. true

E. The Conditional

Try this!
1. true
2. true

F. The Biconditional

Try this!
Let p: 6x = 2 and q: x = 1/3.
p ↔ q is false.

G. The Negation

p q ̴p ̴q p→q ̴q→̴p (p → q) ↔ ( ̴ q → ̴ p)
T T F F T T T
T F F T F F T
F T T F T T T
F F T T T T T

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 

H. Predicate Logic

Try this!
1. false
2. true
3. false
4. true
5. false

I. Quantifiers

Try this!
1. true
2. true
3. true

REFERENCES

1. Aufmann, R. [Link]. (2018). Mathematical in the Modern World Excursions. Manila,

Philippines: Rex Book Store, Inc.
2. Bluman, A. G. (2003). Elementary Statistics: A Step by Step Approach. 5th Ed. McGraw
Hill, Inc.
3. CENGAGE (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World.
4. DS Malik, MK Sen. Discrete Mathematical Structures.
5. Johnsonbaugh, R. Discrete Mathematics.
6. Guillermo, R.M. (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World. Quezon City: Nieme Publishing
House Co. Ltd.
7. Lactuan, I. R. et. al. (2018). Instructional Material in Mathematics in the Modern World.
Puerto Princesa City: Palawan State University.
8. Nocon, R. C. & E. G. Nocon (2018). Essential Mathematics for the Modern World. C & E
Publishing, Inc.
9. Nocon and Nocon (2018). Essential Mathematics for the Modern World.
10. Stewart, I. Nature’s Numbers. [Link]
11. Walpole, M. and M. (2002). Probability and Statistics for Engineers and Scientists. 7th Ed.
Prentice Hall Int’l. Inc.

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Module 3

Mathematics as a Tool

Data Management

Mathematics in the Modern World

189
 

Overview

Hello students! How are you keeping up with our modular classes? I hope that you
are all doing fine. If not, please feel free to ask for our help  In this module, we are
going to review some concepts that you have learned from the Statistics courses you
took in your basic education. Specifically, this will cover the following topics: Descriptive
Statistics, Inferential Statistics and Planning or Conducting an Experiment or Study. We
will briefly discuss the measures of central tendency, measures of variation, normal
distributions, and linear regression and correlation.

This module is designed for you to finish in three weeks. Time management and self-
motivation is the key to accomplishing all designated tasks/activities of this module, to
achieve every objectives and outcomes of this course.

I hope you will be able to appreciate the importance of managing data as it is relevant
to the pandemic that we are struggling with right now. It can help us fight through this
battle and all other disasters which could strike us in the future. Stay safe everyone!

Learning Outcomes

After completing the study of this module, you should be able to:

Use variety and appropriate statistical tools to process and manage numerical
data

Apply the methods of linear regression and correlation to predict the value of a
variable given certain conditions

Make use of statistical data in drawing important decisions

Initial Activity (Accessing Prior Knowledge)

I want you to access the DOH COVID-19 Tracker through the link
[Link]/covid19tracker and browse the webpage. If you can’t
access this page, refer to a screenshot below of a portion the webpage.
Of all the data being shown in this platform, can you identify which data
show average values? Can you interpret these? Do the graphs make sense to you? Do
they display a trend which could help us predict the behavior of the data in the next 7-
14 days or more?

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Review of Descriptive Statistics

Data management is an administrative process that includes acquiring,

validating, storing, protecting, and processing required data to ensure the accessibility,
reliability, and timeliness of the data for its users. Data are individual pieces of factual
information recorded and used for the purpose of analysis. It is the raw information from
which statistics are created. Statistics are the results of data analysis - its interpretation
and presentation. Statistics has two branches. The one that involves collection,
organization, summarization and presentation is called descriptive statistics. The branch
of statistics which involves interpretation and drawing conclusions is called inferential
statistics.

Typically, there are two general types of statistic that are used to describe data:
measures of central tendency and measures of variance. A measure of central
tendency, which is sometimes referred to as “averages”, describes a set of data by
identifying its central position. It provide us the value that is typical or representative of
the whole data set. In this module, will consider three types of averages: mean, median
and mode. In the first section of discussion, we will take a look at these measures
specifically on how to calculate them.

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Mean
The mean, also called the arithmetic mean, is the most Did you know?
frequently used measure of central tendency. It is obtained by
getting the sum of all values and divide it by the number of Seaweed can grow up to 12
values in the data set. So if we have 𝑛 values in the data set inches per day averagely.
and they have values 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , … , 𝑥𝑛 , the mean usually
An average person eats almost
denoted by 𝑥̅ (read as x bar) is: 1500 pounds of food a year.

𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛 ∑ 𝑥 The human eye blinks an

𝑥̅ = = average of 4,200,000 times a
𝑛 𝑛
year.
∑𝑥 The summation notation “Σ”
𝑥̅ = denotes the sum of all The most children born to one
𝑛
values in a given data set. woman is 69, she was a
peasant who lived a 40 year
life, in which she had 16 twins,
x is the variable usually used to represent the individual data values 7 triplets, and 4 quadruplets.

n represents the number of values in a sample

*Source: [Link]

To be precise, 𝑥̅ is known as sample mean. In some situations,

data are collected from small portions of a large group in order to represent the determined
information about the group. The whole group under consideration is called a population, while
any subset of the population is called a sample.
So if we want to compute for the value of the population mean, denoted by µ, we use the formula:
∑𝑥
𝜇=
𝑁
where N is the size of the population.

Example
1.) In a grocery store, price (₱) of bath soap products of different brands are the following:
35 46 40 31 39
Find the mean of the prices of these five brands of bath soap.

Solution
The five brands are all of the bath soap brands in the grocery store (population size N = 5). We use
μ to represent the mean.
∑ 𝑥 35 + 46 + 40 + 31 + 39
𝜇= =
𝑁 5
Thus, the mean of the prices of these five brands of bath soap is ₱38.20.

Example (cont.)

2.) The following are the ages (in years) of eight of the 67 employees of a small company:
25 32 61 42 39 48 56 29
Find the mean age of the employees.

Solution
Because the given data set only includes eight of the 67 employees of the company, it represents
the population. Hence, N = 8. The population mean is
∑𝑥 25 + 32 + 61 + 42 + 39 + 48 + 56 + 29 = 332 332
𝑥̅ = = = = 41.5 ≈ 42
𝑛 8 8
Thus, the mean age of all eight employees of this company is 42 years.

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Sometimes a data set may contain a few very small or a few very large values; such values are
called outliers or extreme values. Outliers may contain valuable information or be meaningless
aberrations caused by measurement and recording errors. A major shortcoming of the mean as
a measure of central tendency is that it is very sensitive to outliers.

Example

3.) The following are the savings (₱) of five siblings of a certain family (arranged from the
youngest to the eldest sibling):

2500 3000 2800 2900 35900

Notice that the eldest sibling’s savings (35900) is very large compared to the others. Hence,
this is an outlier. Show how this affects the value of the mean.

Solution
If we do not include the data of the eldest sibling, then the mean is
2500 + 3000 + 2800 + 2900
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = ₱2800
4
Now, if we include it to our data, then the mean is
2500 + 3000 + 2800 + 2900 + 35900
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = ₱9420
5
Thus, including the savings of the eldest sibling causes more than three times increase in the
value of the mean, which changes from ₱2800 to ₱9420.

Note: In the last example, where we included the outlier in the computation of the mean, it
seemed that the measure that we got does not provide us the value that is typical or
representative of the whole data set. The first computation seemed to be the more sensible
value. However, it is NOT acceptable to drop an observation just because it is an outlier. Outliers
can be legitimate observations and are sometimes the most interesting ones. It is important to
investigate the nature of the outlier before deciding whether or not to drop an outlier in the
analysis of data. Please check out the following link [Link]
to-drop-or-not-to-drop/ for guidelines in dealing with outliers.

Learning check

Activity 1
Compute the mean of the following set of data values
a.) Anika went to the supermarket to buy some packed potatoes, with her uncertainty of
estimating the difference between the sizes of the packed potatoes, she looks at the
price tags and finds the following prices (₱)
125 142 132.5 201.25 160 172.75
b.) Archie collects stamps and glues them to his notebook. The following shows the
tally of his monthly collection from June to November
16 25 18 30 29 23

c.) The following shows the grades of a student in Physics, Math, English, Biology,
Chemistry and Filipino, respectively.
86 89 91 93 88 90

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Median
Another important measure of central tendency is the median. The median of the set of
scores is the middle value when the scores are arranged in order of increasing (or
decreasing) magnitude. Aside from being a measure of central tendency, it is also a positional
score as it divides the data set into two equal parts: one- half of the observations above it, and
the other half below or equal to it. To find the median of a data set, we first rank the data values
(arrange them in increasing or decreasing order), then get the median in one of the following
ways.
 If the number of scores is odd, the median is the number that is exactly in the middle of
the list.
 If the number of scores is even, the median is found by computing the mean of the two
middle numbers. That is, we add the two middlemost values and divide the sum by 2.
Example
1.) The following data give the age of students in a ballet class. Find the median age.
12 15 17 11 13 16 19
Solution

First, we rank the given data in an increasing order. Since there are seven (odd) values in this
data set as it was arranged accordingly, the fourth term is the middle term. Hence,
11 12 13 15 16 17 19
Median

The median age of the students in a ballet class is 15.

2.) The following are the number of smart phone users in 10 households in a certain
barangay:
7 9 4 10 5 6 5 8 12 5

Solution

Since there are ten values in this data set as it was arranged accordingly, the fifth term and
the sixth term are the middle term:
4 5 5 5 6 7 8 9 10 12
Median
To get the median, we get the average of the two middle terms
6+7
𝑀𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = = 6.5
2
The median number of smart phone users among the 10 households in the barangay is 6.5.

Learning check

Activity 2
Compute the median of each of the following sets of data
a.) 3, 4, 7, 11, 12, 12, 15, 16
b.) -8, -5, -12, -1, 4, 7, 11
c.) 6, 4, 8.5, 9, 11, 8.25, 6.5, 8.75
d.) The following are the ages of the 5 siblings of the Reyes family. Find the age of the
middle child.
25 21 23 18 27
e.) In a supermarket, the following table shows the number of tissue roll of different
brands sold in a certain week (Brand 1 to Brand 8, respectively)
194
25 12 5 17 20 13 9 21
 

Mode
Another measure of central tendency is the mode, which is the value that occurs most
frequently in a data set. There is no formula in finding the mode of an ungrouped data, it is just
found by inspection. When two scores occur with the same greatest frequency, each one is a
mode and the data set is bimodal. When more than two scores occur with the same greatest
frequency, each is a mode and the data set is said to be multimodal. It is also possible that a
data set has no mode; that is when no score is repeated more than the others. In this case, we
stipulate that there is no mode.

Example
1.) The following gives the general weighted average of the top 10 students with the highest
grades in a certain class.
95 93.5 91 89 92 94 91 93 90 91.5
Solve for the mode.

Solution
In this data set, all values appeared only once except for 91 which appeared twice. Because
91 has the highest frequency, hence
𝑴𝒐𝒅𝒆 = 91

2.) The following are the number of ball pens that each of the eight students owned in a
certain group of friends: 1 3 2 0 2 1 3 5
Solve for the mode.

Solution
There are three data values with the highest frequency in this data set which are 1, 2, and 3.
Therefore, the data set is multimodal and the modes are:
𝑴𝒐𝒅𝒆 = 1, 2, 3

Example
3.) A statistician conducted a survey in a certain barangay to obtain the profile of households
wherein the statistician gathered information about the appliances owned by each household.
The table below shows the summary of the number of appliances of by the households
Name of Appliance No. of Households
Television 35
Refrigerator 26
Microwave oven 10
Kitchen Stove 36
Washing Machine 15
Clothing Iron 30
What is the most popular appliance owned in that barangay?

Solution
Since the kitchen stove is the appliance that has the highest frequency, then the most popular
appliance owned in that barangay is kitchen stove.

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Example
4.) The following are the number of tourist arrivals in Honda bay for a sample of 1 week, beginning
from Monday to Sunday:
87, 45, 63, 49, 75, 80, 100.
What is the busiest day of the week in Honda Bay?

Solution
Since the number of tourists is the highest on Sunday, then the busiest day of the week in Honda
Bay is on Sunday.

Example
5.) The following are the scores of 10 students in Math.
82, 78, 95, 83, 89, 75, 90, 80, 88, 92
What is the modal grade?

Solution
Since there is no grade that occurred more than the others, then this data set has no mode.

Note:
 Among the different measures of central tendency, the mode is the only one that can be
used with the data at the nominal level of measurement. The median can only be used if
the variable is at least at the ordinal level of measurement. While the median can only be
used if the variable is at least at the ordinal level of measurement. For a review of the
levels of measurement, check out this link [Link]
measurement/.
 Unfortunately, the term average is sometimes used for any measure of central tendency
and is sometimes used for the mean. Because of this ambiguity, we should not use the
term average when referring to a specific measure of central tendency. Instead we should
use the specific term, such as mean, median, or mode.

Learning check

Activity 3
Solve for the mode of each of the given data set.

a.) 13, 15, 16, 12, 11, 17, 13, 15, 10, 14
b.) 7.5, 8.5, 6.5, 3.5, 5, 5.5, 5, 9.5, 10.5
c.) -11, -4, -5, |-1|, 0, 1, 5, 4, 11
d.) The following shows the number of hops in a skipping rope that 10 students can
complete in one minute
60 35 55 78 56 55 69 48 58 57
e.) The following table shows an estimate of the number of strawberries that a farmer
was able to harvest per day in a certain week
Day No. of Strawberries Harvested
Sunday 560
Monday 980
Tuesday 760
Wednesday 670
Thursday 950
Friday 980 196

Saturday 1000
 

Mean for Grouped Data

If the data are given in the form of a frequency table, we no longer know the values of individual
observations. In such cases, we cannot obtain the sum of individual values. We find an
approximation for the sum of these values using the formulas shown below

∑ 𝑚𝑓
𝜇=
𝑛

∑ 𝑚𝑓
𝑥̅ =
𝑁

where m is the midpoint; f is the frequency of a class interval; 𝑚𝑓 is the product of the midpoint
and frequency in a class interval, and ∑ 𝑚𝑓 is the summation of the product of the midpoint and
frequency in all class intervals.

For a quick review of some important terms about a frequency distribution table, we have the
following sidetrip lesson:

The Frequency Distribution (fd). When the set of data contains a large number of elements or
observations, grouping a data set using a frequency distribution (fd) table can give us a better
picture of the behavior of the data. A frequency distribution table is an arrangement of data into
mutually exclusive classes along with the corresponding frequency falling in each class. Below
is an example of a simple frequency distribution and some terms described.

Height of Men (in Number of Men

inches) (X) (frequency)

50-54 1

55-59 2

60-64 3

65-69 49

70-74 46

75-79 1

 Class intervals are the mutually exclusive classes or categories. In our sample frequency
the class intervals are 50-54, 55-59, 60-64, 65- 69, 70-74, and 75- 79.

 The class size or class width is the distance from each lower limit to its corresponding
upper limit, and it is uniform in all classes. For example, in the interval 50- 54, the lower
limit is 50 and the upper limit is 54, and the distance between them is 5 (same with the
distance between 55 and 59, 60 and 64, and so on.)

 The midpoint of an interval is found by adding the lower limit and upper limit of the class
and dividing the sum by 2.

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Example

The table below gives the frequency distribution of the daily commuting times (in minutes)
from home to work for all 40 employees of a company.
𝑫𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒚 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒎𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝑬𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒐𝒚𝒆𝒆𝒔
1-9 4
10-18 12
19-27 9
28-36 7
37-45 5
46-54 3

Let x denote the daily commuting times (in minutes) from home to work of the 40 employees
of a company, and f denote the frequency. The values of m and mf are calculated in the table
below
𝑥 𝑓 𝑚 𝑚𝑓
1-9 4 5 20
10-18 12 14 168
19-27 9 23 207
28-36 7 32 224
37-45 5 41 205
46-54 3 50 150
N = 40 ∑ 𝒎𝒇 = 𝟗𝟕𝟒

974
𝜇= = 𝟐𝟒. 𝟑𝟓
40
Hence, the mean daily commuting times of the 40 employees of the company is 24.35
minutes.

Learning check

Activity 4

The table below shows the frequency distribution of the number of customers received in a
cafe each day during the past 24 days.
Number of Orders Number of Days
10-12 12
13-15 20
16-18 14
19-21 25
22-24 15

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Median of Grouped Data

To compute for the median of a grouped set of data, the median class shall be identified by locating the
𝑛
𝑡ℎ (or half of the) data at the >cf column. Then, we will use the formula below:
2
𝑛
− 𝑐𝑓𝐵
𝑀𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 𝐿 + 2 ×𝑤
𝑓𝑚
where L is the lower class boundary of the median class, n is the number of observations in the data set,
𝑐𝑓𝐵 is the cumulative frequency of the class before the median class, 𝑓𝑚 is the frequency of the median
class, and w is the class width.

Note:
 The median class is found by dividing n by 2 and looking it up through the cf< column. Pick the
𝑛
row that has a value that is equal or nearest greater than the quotient .
2
 The cumulative frequency less than (cf<) column is found by starting at the frequency of the lowest
class interval and adding the frequency of the next class each time.
 The lower boundary L is found by subtracting one- half of the distance between an upper limit and
the succeeding lower limit from the lower limit. Sounds vague? Here’s what it means. Suppose
the class intervals are 50-54, 55-59, 60-64, 65- 69, 70-74, and 75- 79, the distance between an
upper limit and the succeeding lower limit is 1. (See 54 and 55; 59 and 60, and so on.) One- half
of 1 is 0.5. So the lower boundary of the class 50-54 is 49.5 (that’s 50- 0.5), the lower boundary
of the class 55-59 is 54.5, and so on. Now, suppose the class intervals are 1.0- 1.4, 1.5- 1.9, 2.0-
2.4, 2.5- 2.9. The distance between an upper limit and the succeeding lower limit is 0.1, and one-
half of it is 0.05. So, the lower boundary of the class 1.0- 1.4 is 0.95 (that’s 1.0- 0.05), the lower
boundary of the class 1.5- 1.9 is 1.45, and so on. (This second example is seldom used.)
Example
The table below gives the frequency distribution of the number of hours spent in studying by 50
students before a quarter exam.

Hours Number of Students

0-3 9
4-7 13
8-11 10
12-15 11
16-19 7

Solution
Let x denote the number of hours spent in studying by 50 students before a quarter exam, and f
denote the frequency. The values of 𝑚 − 𝑥̅ and (𝑚 − 𝑥̅ )2 , and 𝑓(𝑚 − 𝑥̅ )2 are calculated in the
table below.
X f cf< CB
0-3 9 9 -0.5-3.5
4-7 13 22 3.5-7.5
Median
8-11 10 32 7.5-11.5
class
12-15 11 43 11.5-15.5
16-19 7 50 15.5-19.5
𝑛 50
First, we have to identify the median class. In this example, = = 25. Hence, the 25th data can
2 2
be found at the third class. (Since the second class contains only 22 data, and the third class
already contains 32 data which includes the 25𝑡ℎ one.) Remember to pick the class that has a
𝑛
value that is equal or nearest greater than the quotient .
2

With the third class as the median class, 𝐿 = 7.5 , 𝑐𝑓𝐵 = 22, 𝑓𝑚 = 10, and 𝑤 = 4

25 − 22
𝑀𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 7.5 + × 4 = 𝟖. 𝟕
10

Therefore, the median number of hours spent in studying by 50 students before a quarter
exam is 8.7 hours.

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Learning check

Activity 5
Calculate the median score in a Math quiz as shown in the table below:

Score Number of Students

12-15 4
16-19 6
20-23 4
24-27 5
28-31 7
32-35 4

Mode of Grouped Data

To compute for the mode of a grouped set of data, the modal class shall be identified by locating
the modal class- the class with the highest frequency at the f column. If in case there is more
than 1 class with the highest frequency, we will have to compute for more than 1 mode. Then,
use the formula below:

𝑓𝑚𝑜 − 𝑓𝑚𝑜−1
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑒 = 𝐿 + ×𝑤
(𝑓𝑚𝑜 − 𝑓𝑚𝑜−1 ) + (𝑓𝑚𝑜 − 𝑓𝑚𝑜+1 )

Where L is the lower boundary of the modal class, 𝑓𝑚𝑜 is the frequency of the modal class,
𝑓𝑚𝑜−1 is the frequency of the class before the modal class, and 𝑓𝑚𝑜+1 is the frequency of the
class afer the modal class and w is the class width.

The formula above can be written as

𝑑1
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑒 = 𝐿 + ×𝑤
𝑑1 + 𝑑2

where
𝑑1 = the difference between the frequency of the modal class and the frequency of the class
before the modal class;
𝑑2 = the difference between the frequency of the modal class and the frequency of the class after
the modal class

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Example
Calculate the mode of the number of hours spent in studying by 50 students before a quarter exam.
Hours Number of Students
0-3 9
4-7 13
8-11 10
12-15 11
16-19 7

Solution
Let x denote the number of hours spent in studying by 50 students before a quarter exam, and f
denote the frequency. The values of f and 𝑚𝑓 are calculated in the table below.
x f >cf CB
0-3 9 9 -0.5-3.5
4-7 13 22 3.5-7.5
8-11 10 32 7.5-11.5 Modal
12-15 11 43 11.5-15.5 class
16-19 7 50 15.5-19.5

In this frequency distribution table, the modal class is the second class because it has the highest
frequency which is 13. So, L = 3.5, 𝑓𝑚𝑜 = 13, 𝑓𝑚𝑜−1 = 9, 𝑓𝑚𝑜+1 = 10, 𝑤 = 4

13 − 9
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑒 = 3.5 + ×4
(13 − 9) + (13 − 10)
4
= 3.5 + ×4
4+3

4
= 3.5 + × 4
7

= 5.79

Hence, the mode of the number of hours spent in studying by 50 students before a quarter
exam is 5.79 hours.

Learning check

Activity 6
Calculate the modal score in a Math quiz as shown in the table below:

Score Number of Students

12-15 4
16-19 6
20-23 4
24-27 5
28-31 7
32-35 4

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 

Relationships among the Mean, Median, and Mode

A histogram or a frequency distribution curve can assume shapes which are symmetric and
skewed. The shape of a frequency distribution curve can be identified or described using the
knowledge of the values of the mean, median, and mode of a certain set of data.

1. If the values of the mean, median, and mode are identical, and they lie at the center of
the distribution, then, a symmetric histogram and frequency distribution curve has one
peak. This graph is bell- shaped and is called a normal curve.

2. If the value of the mean is the largest, that of the mode is the smallest, and the value of
the median lies between these two, then a histogram and a frequency distribution curve
is skewed to the right (Notice that the mode always occurs at the peak point.) This graph
is called positively skewed.

The value of the mean is the largest in this case because it is sensitive to outliers that occur in
the right tail. These outliers pull the mean to the right. (Note: The horizontal line in the graph is
the x- axis, so values further to the right are greater than those on the left. Hence we say that
the mean here is the largest among the three averages.)

3.) If the value of the mean is the smallest and that of the mode is the largest, with the
value of the median lying between these two, then, histogram and a frequency distribution
curve are skewed to the left.

In this case, the outliers in the left tail pull the mean to the left. This graph is called negatively
skewed.

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 

Following is a matrix comparing the three averages.

COMPARISON OF MEAN, MEDIAN, AND MODE

Takes
Affected
every Advantages
by
Average Definition How Common Existence score and
Extreme
into Disadvantages
Scores?
account?

Works well with

∑X Most Always
Mean X = Yes Yes many statistical
n familiar”average” exists
methods

middle Always Often a good

Median Commonly used No No
score exists choice if there
are some
extreme scores

Might not
Appropriate for
exist; may be
Mode most Sometimes used No No data at the
more than
frequent nominal level
one mode
score

Here are some more takeaways in the comparison of the three averages.

 For a data collection that is approximately symmetric with one mode, the mean, median,
and mode tend to be about the same.
 For a data collection that is obviously symmetric, it would need to report both the mean
and median.
 The mean is relatively reliable. That is, when samples are drawn from the same
population, the sample means tend to be more consistent than the other averages
(consistent in a sense that the means of samples drawn from the same population don’t
vary as much as the other averages).
 A comparison of the mean, median and mode can reveal information about the
characteristic of skewness. A distribution of data is skewed if it is not symmetric and
extends more to one side than the other.
 With a symmetric distribution, if the data is graphed using a histogram, we will see that
the left half of the histogram is roughly a mirror image of its right half. The graph is
roughly bell-shaped.
 Data skewed to the left are said to be negatively skewed; the mean and median are to
the left of the mode. Although not always predictable, negatively skewed data generally
have the mean to the left of the median.
 Data skewed to the right are said to be positively skewed; the mean and median are to
the right of the mode. Again, although not always predictable, negatively skewed data
generally have the mean to the right.

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 

Measures of Variation

In examining averages, some characteristics of a set of data may not be evident. For instance,
the example from the discussion of mean about the savings of siblings in a family, the given
shows that the mean of the savings are equal despite of having an inconsistent value which is
quite far from the others. This example shows that the average does not reflect the dispersion,
spread or scatter of data.

In this section, we will be introducing the measures of variability. In statistics, variability,

dispersion, and spread are synonyms that denote the width of the distribution. A measure of
variability is a summary statistic that represents the amount of dispersion in a dataset. It tells
us how spread out are the values. While a measure of central tendency describes the typical
value in a data set, measures of variability define how far away the data points tend to fall from
the center. We talk about variability in the context of a distribution of values. A low dispersion
indicates that the data points tend to be clustered tightly around the center. High dispersion
signifies that they tend to fall further away.

The two plots below show the difference graphically for distributions with the same mean but
more and less dispersion. The panel on the left shows a distribution that is tightly clustered
around the average, while the distribution in the right panel is more spread out.

[Link]

When a distribution has lower variability, the values in a dataset are more consistent. However,
when the variability is higher, the data points are more dissimilar and extreme values become
more likely. Understanding variability helps us grasp the likelihood of unusual events as it
provides critical information.

Variability is everywhere. Your travel time from the city to your municipality varies a bit every
time. When you order a favorite snack at a restaurant repeatedly, it isn’t exactly the same each
time. The effectiveness of a medicine may vary from one patient to another.

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 

These are all examples of real-life variability. While some degree of variation is unavoidable, too
much inconsistency can cause problems. If your travel time takes much longer than the mean
travel time, it would be difficult to schedule a fetch at the terminal. If the restaurant snack is much
different than how it usually is, you might not like it at all. And, if a medicine’s effect is too
inconsistent, it would be dangerous to take.

Example: Suppose we want to order food online and we are considering two restaurants as
options. They have the same menu and both restaurants sound equally good! Also, they both
advertise a mean delivery time of 20 minutes. Which restaurant do we choose?

Since the mean does not differentiate the two restaurants, we need to we need to analyze the
restaurant’s variability. Suppose we studied their delivery times, calculated the variability for
each place, and learned that their variabilities are different. Suppose again that the graphs below
display the distribution of delivery times for these two restaurants. The restaurant with more
variable delivery times (first chart) has the broader distribution curve.

[Link]

In these graphs, we consider a 30-minute wait or longer to be unacceptable. The shaded area
in each chart represents the proportion of delivery times that surpass 30 minutes. Nearly 0.1587
or 16% of the deliveries for the high variability restaurant exceed 30 minutes. On the other hand,
only 2% of the deliveries take too long with the low variability restaurant. They both have an
average delivery time of 20 minutes, but where would you place your order when you’re hungry?
Of course, you should pick the restaurant with more consistent delivery time.

You see, the central tendency doesn’t always provide complete information. We also need to
understand the variability around the middle of the distribution to get the full picture.

Just as there are multiple measures of central tendency, there are also several measures of
variability. In this module, you’ll learn the four measures of variability, namely, the range, average
deviation, variance and standard deviation.

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 

Range

The range of a set of data values is obtained by getting the difference between the largest data
value and the lowest data value.

𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 𝐿𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝐷𝑎𝑡𝑎 − 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝐷𝑎𝑡𝑎

Example

1.) In a cafeteria, there are three vendo machines which are set to dispense 10 ounces of
coffee to a cup. For the first five trials, the given table below shows the volume (in oz.)
of coffee dispensed by the machines to each cup. Find the range for each machine.
Machine 1: Range = 12.07 – 7.85 = 4.22 oz.
Machine 1 Machine 2 Machine 3 Machine 2: Range = 10.03 – 9.95 = 0.08 oz.
11.52 10.01 8.02 Machine 3: Range = 12.03 – 7.94 = 4.09 oz.
8.41 9.99 12.03
This indicates that Machine 1 varies the most
12.07 9.95 7.94
7.85 10.03 11.99 in volume of dispensing soft drinks, which
10.15 10.02 10 shows its inconsistency unlike for Machine 2,
the volume dispensed is quite consistent.
2.) Calculate the range of the following set of data values:
a.) 10, 2, 5, 6, 7, 3, 4 Range= 10 – 2 = 8
b.) 99, 45, 23, 67, 45, 91, 82, 78, 62, 51 Range = 99 – 23 =76
c.) 15, 14, 17, 13, 11, 19, 25, 22, 21 Range = 25 –11 = 14

Learning check

Activity 7
Compute the range of the following data values
a.) 1, 2, 5, 7, 8, 19, 22
b.) 3, 4, 7, 11, 12, 12, 15, 16
c.) -8, -5, -12, -1, 4, 7, 11
Average Deviation for Ungrouped Data
d.) 2, 4, 6, 7, 9, -5, -7
e.) 12, 16, 12, 16, 14, 12, 11

The range is the easiest measure of variation that you can get. But it only considers the extreme
values; it does not tell us anything about the values between these extreme values. A measure
of variation that takes into consideration the deviations of the individual data scores from an
average is therefore generally considered more accurate and reliable than those determined by
only the single value like the range. One such measure is the average deviation or mean
deviation.

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 

In calculating the average deviation of a data set of values, we must obtain the mean of the data
set first. The average deviation of an ungrouped data set can then be obtained by using the
equation:
∑ |𝑥−𝜇|
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = for population data
𝑁

∑ |𝑥−𝑥̅ |
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = for sample data
𝑛

In calculating the average deviation for a set of grouped data, we have to use the formula:

∑ 𝑓|𝑚−𝜇|
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = for population data
𝑁

∑ 𝑓|𝑚−𝑥̅ |
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = for sample data
𝑛

where m is the midpoint of a class interval and f is the frequency of the class..

Note:
In both formulas we take the absolute value of each difference from the mean because if we
don’t, we will always get a 0. That’s actually one property of the mean: the sum of the differences
of each score from the mean is zero, which reinforces that the mean is at the center of
distribution.

Example

1.) Solve the average deviation of the scores: 17, 15, 18, 19, 15, 13, 14, 16

Score |𝒙 − 𝝁|
17 1.125
15 0.875
18 2.125
19 3.125
15 0.875
13 2.875
14 1.875
16 0.125
Mean = 15.875 Sum = 13

13
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = 1.625
8

Hence, the average deviation of the scores is 1.625 or 1.63.

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 

Example: Compare the two groups below using mean deviation and interpret your answer.

Test scores of a sample of Math 2 students in the morning and afternoon sessions.

Morning Session Afternoon Session

15 10
18 12
16 12
20 24
22 24
23 26
23 26
25 28
28 28
30 30

Solution: We first compute for the mean of each group.

15+18+16+20+22+23+23+25+28+30 220
Morning session: 𝑥̅ = = = 22
10 10

10+12+12+24+24+26+26+28+28+30 220
Morning session: 𝑥̅ = = = 22
10 10
Here, we once again see that a measure of central tendency is not enough to differentiate two
data sets. These data sets have entirely different values but they have the same mean. The next
thing that we will do is subtract each data point from the mean and take the absolute value of
the difference. Then we add each set of differences. We get the following table.

Morning |𝑥 − 𝑥̅ | Afternoon |𝑥 − 𝑥̅ |
Session Session
15 7 10 12
18 4 12 10
16 6 12 10
20 2 24 2
22 0 24 2
23 1 26 4
23 1 26 4
25 3 28 6
28 6 28 6
30 8 30 8
Sum 38 Sum 64

We now plug in the sum of the differences to the mean deviation formula for ungrouped data.

∑ |𝑥−𝑥̅ |
Morning Session: 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑛
38
=
10
= 3.8

∑ |𝑥−𝑥̅ |
Afternoon Session: 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑛
64
=
10
= 6.4

This means that the performance of the students in the morning session is more uniform than
that of the afternoon session.
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 

Example

2.) Solve the average deviation of the scores of students in a Math Quarter exam with the
given data from the frequency distribution below
Score Number of Students
50-59 5
60-69 3
70-79 5
80-89 10
90-99 12

Solution

Let x denote the scores of the scores of students in a Math Quarter exam. The values of 𝑚 and ,
|𝑚 − 𝜇| and 𝑓|𝑚 − 𝜇| are calculated in the table below.

x f 𝒎 𝒎𝒇 |𝒎 − 𝝁| 𝑓|𝑚 − 𝜇|
50-59 5 54.5 272.5 26 130
60-69 3 64.5 193.5 16 48
70-79 5 74.5 372.5 6 30
80-89 10 84.5 845 4 40
90-99 12 94.5 1134 14 168
N = 35 𝜇 = 80.5 416
416
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
= 11.89
35
Hence, the average deviation of the scores of students in a Math Quarter exam is 11.89.

Learning check

Activity 8
Compute the average deviation of the following data values
a.) 1, 2, 5, 7, 8, 19, 22
b.) 3, 4, 7, 11, 12, 12, 15, 16
c.) -8, -5, -12, -1, 4, 7, 11
d.)
x f
16-18 3
19-21 for Ungrouped Data2
Variance and Standard Deviation
22-24 5
25-27 8
28-30 7
e.)

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The standard deviation is the most commonly used measure of variability. The value of the
standard deviation indicates how close the values of a data set are clustered around the mean.
In general, a lower value of the standard deviation for a data set indicates that the values of that
data set are spread over a relatively smaller range around the mean. Otherwise, it indicates that
data set are spread over a relatively larger range around the mean.

The standard deviation is obtained using the basic formulas which are used to calculate the
variance:

2
∑(𝑥 − 𝜇)2 2
∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2
𝜎 = 𝑠 =
𝑁 𝑛−1

where 𝜎 2 is the population variance and 𝒔𝟐 is the sample variance.

Consequently, to obtain the formula for calculating the standard deviation is:

𝜎 = √𝜎 2 𝑠 = √𝑠 2

where 𝜎 is the population standard deviation and 𝒔 is the sample standard deviation.

Example

The following table gives the estimation of 2008 market values of five international companies
(rounded to trillion of pesos). Compute for the population variance and standard deviation.

Company Market Value

PepsiCo 3.75
Google 5.35
PetroChina 13.55
Johnson and Johnson 6.90
Intel 3.55

Solution
Let x denote the 2008 market value (in billions of dollars) of a company. The values of x, 𝑥 − 𝜇,
and (𝑥 − 𝜇)2 are calculated in the table below

𝒙 𝒙−𝝁 (𝒙 − 𝝁)𝟐
3.75 -2.87 8.2369
5.35 -1.27 1.6129
13.55 6.93 48.0249
6.90 0.28 0.0784
3.55 -3.07 9.4249
𝝁 = 𝟔. 𝟔𝟐 ∑(𝒙 − 𝝁)𝟐 = 𝟔𝟕. 𝟑𝟕𝟖

67.378
𝜎2 = = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟒𝟖 variance
5

𝜎 = √13.48 = 𝟑. 𝟔𝟕 standard deviation

Hence, the population variance of the 2008 market value of the international
companies is 13.47, while the standard deviation is 3.67.

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Example: Compare the two groups below using variance and standard deviation and interpret
your answer.

Test scores of a sample of Math 2 students in the morning and afternoon sessions.

Morning Session Afternoon Session

15 10
18 12
16 12
20 24
22 24
23 26
23 26
25 28
28 28
30 30

Solution: From our previous solution, we computed the mean as both 22. The next thing that we
will do is subtract each data point from the mean and take the square of each difference. Then
we add each set of differences. We get the following table.

Morning 𝑥 − 𝑥̅ (𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2 Afternoon 𝑥 − 𝑥̅ (𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2
Session Session
15 7 49 10 12 144
18 4 16 12 10 100
16 6 36 12 10 100
20 2 4 24 2 4
22 0 0 24 2 4
23 1 1 26 4 16
23 1 1 26 4 16
25 3 9 28 6 36
28 6 36 28 6 36
30 8 64 30 8 64
(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2 = 216 Sum (𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2 = 520

We now plug in the sum of the squared differences to the variance and standard deviation
formulas for sample ungrouped data.

∑(𝑥−𝑥̅ )2
Morning Session: 𝑠2 = 𝑠 = √𝑠 2
𝑛−1
216
= = √24
9
= 24 variance = 4.90 standard deviation

∑(𝑥−𝑥̅ )2
Afternoon Session: 𝑠2 = 𝑠 = √𝑠 2
𝑛−1
520
= = √57.78
9
= 57.78 variance = 7.60 standard deviation

These values further verifies that the performance of the students in the morning session is more
uniform than that of the afternoon session.

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Learning check

Activity 9
The following table shows the grades of a Grade 7 student in the previous quarter. Calculate
for its population variance and standard deviation.

Subject Grade
Math 91
Filipino 94
English 89
Variance and Standard Deviation of Grouped Data
Araling Panlipunan 90
PE 95

Following are the basic formulas used to calculate the population and sample variances for a
set of grouped data respectively:
∑ 𝑓(𝑚 − 𝜇)2 ∑ 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2
𝜎2 = 𝑠2 =
𝑁 𝑛−1
where m is the midpoint of a class and and 𝑥̅ or 𝜇 are the means. Also, the standard deviation
is obtained by taking the positive square root of the variance.
𝜎 2 = √𝜎 𝑠 = √𝑠
Example
The table below gives the frequency distribution of the daily commuting times (in minutes)
from home to work for a sample of 25 employees of a company. Compute for the sample
variance and sample standard deviation.

Daily Commuting Time of Number of Employees

Employees (minutes)
1-10 4
11-20 9
21-30 6
31-40 4
41-50 2

Solution
(1) Let x denote the daily commuting time of employees of a company. The values of 𝑚 − 𝑥̅ ,
(𝑚 − 𝑥̅ )2 , and 𝑓(𝑚 − 𝑥̅ )2 are calculated in the table below.
x f m mf 𝒎−𝒙 ̅ (𝒎 − 𝒙̅ )𝟐 𝒇(𝒎 − 𝒙̅ )𝟐
1-10 4 5.5 22 -16.4 268.96 1075.84
11-20 9 15.5 139.5 -6.4 40.96 368.64
21-30 6 25.5 153 3.6 12.96 77.76
31-40 4 35.5 142 13.6 184.96 739.84
41-50 2 45.5 91 23.6 556.96 1113.92
̅ = 21.9
𝒙 ∑ = 3376
3376
𝑠2 = = 𝟏𝟒𝟎. 𝟔𝟕 𝑠 = √140.67 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟖𝟔
25 − 1
Hence, the sample variance of the daily commuting times of the employees of a
company is 140.67, and the sample standard deviation is 11.86.

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Learning check

Activity 10
Calculate the sample variance and sample standard deviation of the scores of students in a
Chemistry quiz as shown in the table below:

Score Number of Students

15-18 9
19-21 6
22-24 7
25-27 5
28-30 3

Review of Inferential Statistics

 Descriptive statistics applied to populations, and the properties of populations, like the
mean or standard deviation are called parameters. A parameter is a numerical
measurement describing some characteristics of a population.
 Properties of samples, such as the mean or standard deviation, are not called
parameters, but statistics (not to be confused with statistics as a science, this one has a
singular term, statistic). A statistic is a numerical measurement describing some
characteristic of a sample.

Inferential statistics are techniques that allow us to use samples to make

generalizations about the populations from which the samples were drawn. The process of
accurately achieving this is called sampling. Inferential statistics arise out of the fact that
sampling naturally incurs sampling error and thus a sample is not expected to perfectly represent
the population.

The methods of inferential statistics are (1) the estimation of parameter(s) and (2) testing of
statistical hypotheses.

In this module we are only going to focus on testing of statistical hypothesis.

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 

Testing of Statistical Hypothesis

The main purpose of statistics is to test a hypothesis. For example, you might run an
experiment and find that a certain drug is effective at treating mild symptoms of COVID-19. But
if you can’t repeat that experiment, no one will take your results seriously.

A hypothesis is an educated guess about something in the world around you. It should be
testable, either by experiment or observation. For example:

 A new medicine you think might work.

 A new mode of learning you think might be better.
 A possible location of new species.
 A fairer way to administer standardized tests.

It can really be anything at all as long as you can put it to the test.

Statistical Hypothesis

A statistical hypothesis is an assertion or conjecture concerning one or more populations.

Examples:
1. A medical researcher claims that:
“The mean body temperature of healthy adults is not equal to 98.6ᵒF (37ᵒC).”

2. The president of a TV company claims that:

“The majority of all adults are not annoyed by violence on television.”

3. The president of a bank claims that:

“With a single line, customers have more consistent waiting times, with less than 6.2- min
standard deviation.”

Below is the general sense of the thinking used in the tests of such statements, we call this
hypothesis tests or tests of significance.

Example:
Suppose that you take a coin from your pocket and claim that it favors heads when it is
flipped. The claim is a hypothesis, and we can test it by flipping the coin 100 times. We would
expect to get around 50 heads with a fair coin. If heads occur 94 times out of 100 tosses, most
people would agree that the coin favors heads. If heads occur 51 times out of 100 tosses, we
should not conclude that the coin favors heads because we could easily get 51 heads with a fair
and unbiased coin. But what about 60 heads out of 100 tosses? Or 75? Here is the key point:
We should conclude that the coin favors heads only if we get significantly more heads than we
would expect with an unbiased coin. A result of 51 heads out of 100 tosses could easily happen
by chance- it is not significant. But an outcome of 94 heads out of 100 tosses is not likely to
happen by chance and is therefore significant.

This brief example illustrates the basic approach used in testing hypotheses. The formal
method involves a variety of standard terms and conditions incorporated in an organized
procedure.

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COMPONENTS OF A FORMAL HYPOTHESIS TEST

Two types of Statistical Hypotheses:

1. The null hypothesis (denoted by H0) is a statement about the value of a population
parameter (such as the mean 𝜇), and it must contain the condition of equality (that is, it
must be written with the symbol =, ≤, ≥).
For the mean, the null hypothesis will be stated in only one of three possible forms:
H0: 𝜇 = some value or
H0: 𝜇 ≤ some value or
H0: 𝜇 ≥ some value

In short, the null hypothesis is a hypothesis of no difference, and it is ordinarily

formulated with the purpose of being accepted or rejected.

For example, the null hypothesis corresponding to the common belief that the mean body
temperature is 98.6℉ is expressed as H0: 𝜇 = 98.6. We test the hypothesis directly in the sense
that the conclusion will be either a rejection of H0 or a failure to reject H0.

2. The alternative hypothesis (denoted by H1) is a statement that must be true if the null
hypothesis is false.
For the mean, the alternative hypothesis will be stated in only one of three possible
forms:
H1: 𝜇 ≠ some value or
H1: 𝜇 < some value or
H1: 𝜇 > some value

For example, if H0: 𝜇 = 98.6, then it follows that the alternative hypothesis is given by
H1: 𝜇 ≠ 98.6.

The alternative Hypothesis is classified as directional and nondirectional.

a.) Nondirectional – asserts that there is a significant difference between two

measures (uses = or ≠ )
b.) Directional – asserts that one measure is greater (or less) than another measure
of similar nature (uses > or <)

Very Important notes:

 Depending on the original wording of the problem, the original claim will sometimes be
the null hypothesis H0, and other times it will be the alternative hypothesis H1. Regardless
of whether the original claim corresponds to H0 or H1, the null hypothesis H0 must always
contain equality (with the symbolic form of =, ≤, 𝑜𝑟 ≥).

 Even though we sometimes express H0 with the symbol ≤ 𝑜𝑟 ≥ like in H0: 𝜇 ≤ 98.6 or
H0: 𝜇 ≥ 98.6 we conduct the test by assuming that H0: 98.6 is true. We must have a fixed
and specific value for 𝜇 so that we can work with a single distribution having a specific
mean.

 If we are making our own claims, we should arrange the null and alternative hypothesis
so that the most serious error would be the rejection of a true null hypothesis. Ideally, all
claims would be made so that they would all be null hypotheses. Unfortunately, our real
world is not ideal- there are some problems that involve claims that are null hypothesis,

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 

whereas others involve claims that are alternative hypothesis. For example, a
salesperson might claim that Diehard batteries last more than 5 years. The original claim
of 𝜇 > 5 does not contain equality, so it is an alternative hypothesis and the null
hypothesis becomes 𝜇 ≤ 5. If the salesperson claimed that the mean was at least 5 years
(𝜇 ≥ 5), than the original claim would become the null hypothesis because it would contain
equality.

Example
The following are examples of statistical hypothesis:

1. H0: The average monthly salary of nurses in a government hospital is ₱12,000

(μ = ₱12,000).
H1: The average monthly salary of nurses in a government hospital is ₱12,000
(μ ≠ ₱12,000).

2. H0: There is no significant difference between the average battery life of smartphone
brand X and that of smartphone brand Y (μx = μy).
H1: There is a significant difference between the average battery life of smartphone
brand X and that of smartphone brand Y (μx ≠ μy).

3. H0: The percentage of Puerto Princesa City college students who prefer modular
learning is 60% (p = 60%).
H1: The percentage of Puerto Princesa City college students who prefer modular
learning is greater than 60% (p > 60%).

4. H0: The percentage of Twitter users posting tweets from 6:00 to 7:00 in the evening
is the same on Fridays and Saturdays (p1 = p2).
H1: The percentage of Twitter users posting tweets from 6:00 to 7:00 in the evening
is less on Fridays than Saturdays (p1 = p2).

*We can observe that the first two examples are directional while the last two examples are
nondirectional.

Learning check

Activity 11
Write a pair of null and alternative statistical hypothesis (can be about any topic).

Criteria for Rating

Score Criterion Description
6-10 Student was able to create a null and alternative
hypothesis about a certain topic correctly.
1-5 The null and alternative hypothesis provided by the
student was original and/or doesn’t fit the definition of a
hypothesis.
0 Student has no output for this activity.

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Two types of errors

When testing a null hypothesis, we arrive at a conclusion of rejecting it or failing to reject it.
Such conclusions are sometimes correct and sometimes wrong, but there are two different
types of error that can be made.

This is a table showing the four possible consequences of decisions in testing hypotheses and
it is summarized in the table below:

DECISION H0 IS TRUE H0 IS FALSE

ACCEPT H0 Correct decision Type II error
REJECT H0 Type I error Correct decision

 Type I error. The mistake of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true. The type I error
is not a miscalculation or procedural misstep; it is an actual error that can occur when a
rare event happens by chance. The probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is
true is called the significance level; that is, the significance level is the probability of a
type I error. The symbol 𝜶 (alpha) is used to represent the significance level. The values
of 𝛼 = 0.05 and 𝛼 = 0.01 are commonly used.
 Type II error. The mistake of failing to reject the null hypothesis when it is false. The
symbol 𝜷 (beta) is used to represent the probability of a type II error.

In short, if we accept a true null hypothesis or reject a false null hypothesis, we arrive at a
perfect decision. However, if we reject H0 when, in fact, it is true, we commit a type I error; and
if we accept H0 when, in fact, it is false, we commit a type II error.

The probability of committing a type I error is denoted by α and the probability for committing
type II error is denoted by β. Both errors commonly have a value of .01 or .05. Generally, the
lower the value of α is, the lesser the probability of rejecting a true null hypothesis and higher
probability of accepting a false null hypothesis.

Level of Significance
One step in our procedure for testing hypothesis involves the selection of 𝛼. However, we
don’t select 𝛽. It would be great if we could always have 𝛼 = 0 and 𝛽 = 0, but in reality that is
not possible and we must attempt to manage the 𝛼 and 𝛽 error probabilities.

In specifying the probability of committing a type I error α, which is commonly known as the
level of significance, we assume some degree of confidence with our decision.

The following terms are associated with the key components in hypothesis testing procedure.
 Test statistic: A sample statistic or a value based on the sample data. A test statistic is
used in making the decision about the rejection of the null hypothesis.
 Critical region: The set of all values of the test statistic that would cause us to reject the
null hypothesis.
 Critical value: The value or values that separate the critical region from the values of the
test statistic that would not lead to rejection of the null hypothesis. The critical values depend
on the nature of the of the null hypothesis, the relevant sampling distribution, and the level of
significance 𝛼.

In short, the use of level of significance can determine a critical value which defines a
rejection region (or critical region) and acceptance region, which serves as basis for either
accepting or rejecting a hypothesis. The level of significance also gives the area of the rejection
region. For example, when α= 0.05, the area of the rejection region is 0.05 and the area of the
acceptance region is 0.95.
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 

One-tailed and Two-tailed Tests

The tails in a distribution are the extreme regions bounded by critical values. Our informal
example of hypothesis testing involved a two- tailed test in the sense that the critical region is
in the two extreme regions under the curve. We reject the null hypothesis H0 if our test statistic
is in the critical region because that indicates a significant discrepancy between the null
hypothesis and the sample data. Some tests will be left- tailed, with the critical region located
in the extreme left region under the curve. Other tests may be right- tailed, with the critical
region in the extreme right region under the curve.

In two- tailed tests, the level of significance α is divided equally between the two tails that
constitute the critical region. For example, in a two- tailed test with a significance level of α =
0.05, there is an area of 0.025 in each of the two tails. In tests that are right- or left- tailed, the
area of the critical region is α.

In short, a one-tailed test is a test of any statistical hypothesis when H1 is directional. A

two-tailed test is when H1 is nondirectional. In the first test, the rejection region lies entirely at
one side of the distribution, while in the second test, the rejection region is split into two equal
areas placed at the tails of the distribution.

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 

In determining the critical value, the type of test and level of significance is considered
in connection with the rejection or acceptance of H0.

Level of Significance One-sided Two-sided

α = .05 z > 1.645 z > 1.96 or z < -1.96
(or z < -1.645)
α = .01 z > 2.33 z > 2.575 or z < -2.575
(or z < -2.33)

For a one-tailed test the critical value is z = ±1.645 when α= .05, and z = ±2.33 when α= .01.
Meanwhile, the critical value for a two- tailed test which requires the rejection region to lie on the
right/left tail of the distribution is z = ±1.96 when α= .05 and z = ±2.575, respectively, when α=
.01.

Example: A claim about the population mean weight of all aspirin tablets is tested with a
significance level of 𝛼 = 0.05. The conditions are such that the standard normal distribution can
be used. Find the critical value(s) of z if the test is
(a) two- tailed
(b) left- tailed
(c) right- tailed.

Solutions:
(a) two- tailed: z >1.96 or z < -1.96
(b) left- tailed: z < -1.645
(c) right- tailed: z > 1.645

Writing Conclusions in Hypothesis Testing

Use the chart below to guide you in writing the conclusion in hypothesis testing. Remember that
it is important to be precise in the language used.

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Example: After analyzing 106 body temperatures of healthy adults, a medical researcher
makes a claim that the mean body temperature is less than 98.6℉ (or 37℃)

a. Express this claim in symbolic form.

b. Identify the null hypothesis H0.
c. Identify the alternative hypothesis H1.
d. Identify this test as being two- tailed, left- tailed, or right- tailed.
e. Identify the Type I error for this test.
f. Identify the Type II error for this test.
g. Assume that the conclusion is to reject the null hypothesis. State the conclusion in
nontechnical terms; be sure to address the original claim.
h. Assume that the conclusion is failure to reject the null hypothesis. State the conclusion in
nontechnical terms; be sure to address the original claim.

Solutions:

a. The claim in symbolic form: The mean body temperature is 𝜇 < 98.6℉.

b. Null hypothesis H0: The mean body temperature is 𝜇 ≥ 98.6℉. 1

c. Alternative hypothesis H1: The mean body temperature is 𝜇 < 98.6℉.

d. This test is left- tailed.

e. We commit Type I error if we reject the claim that the mean body temperature is less than
98.6℉ and find out it is true.

f. We commit Type II error if we accept the claim that the mean body temperature is less than
98.6℉ and find out it is not true.

g. If we reject the null hypothesis, the conclusion would be: There is sufficient evidence that the
mean body temperature is less than 98.6℉.

h. If we fail to reject the null hypothesis, the conclusion would be: There is no sufficient evidence
that the mean body temperature is less than 98.6℉.

Note: We use the more technically correct term “fail to reject” instead of “accept” the null
hypothesis because NOT REJECTING a claim does not necessarily mean that we are
ACCEPTING it.

FUNDAMENTALS OF HYPOTHESIS TESTING

The following are the basic steps in testing a hypothesis:

1. Formulate the null and alternative hypothesis (H0).
2. Specify the level of significance α.
3. Choose the appropriate test statistic.
4. Establish the critical region.
5. Compute for the value of the statistical test2.
6. Make a decision and draw a conclusion, if possible.

1 Since the opposite of < is > or =

2 The statistical test will depend on the hypothesis and size of sample.
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 

Testing a Hypothesized Value of the Mean

Testing a Claim About a Mean (Large Samples n≥30)

The test statistic that is applicable in testing the hypothesis of a mean is the z statistic (or z-
test) if:
1. The parameter σ is given.
2. The parameter σ is not given, but the sample size n ≥ 30

𝑥̅ −𝜇0
The formula for z- test is 𝑧 = 𝜎 .
⁄ 𝑛
√

In some situations, σ is not given, but if n ≥ 30, we can we use the sample standard deviation
s to estimate σ. So, to compute the z statistic when σ is not given, we have:
𝑥̅ − 𝜇0
𝑧= 𝑠
√𝑛

Example: It is currently a common belief that the mean body temperature of healthy adults is
98.6℉. But when a study was conducted by University of Maryland researchers, they found out
that for a sample of 106 temperatures, the sample mean is 𝑥̅ = 98.2, the sample standard
deviation is 𝑠 = 0.62, and the distribution is approximately bell shaped. Use a 0.05 significance
level to test the claim that the mean body temperature of healthy adults is equal to 98.6℉.

Solution:
Step 1: Null hypothesis: The mean body temperature of healthy adults is equal to 98.6℉.
(H0: 𝜇 = 98.6)
Alternative hypothesis: The mean body temperature of healthy adults is not equal to
98.6℉.
(H0: 𝜇 ≠ 98.6)

Step 2: The significance level is 𝛼 = 0.05

Step 3: Test statistic: Because the claim is made about the population mean 𝜇, and the sample
is large, the test statistic will be z- test, and since the symbol used in the alternative
hypothesis is ≠ (nondirectional), the test will be two- tailed.

Step 4: The critical region is z<-1.96 or z>1.96 as shown in the picture below.

Step 5. Compute the z- statistic. From the given problem we have the following information:
𝜇0 = 98.6; 𝑛 = 106; 𝑥̅ = 98.2; and since the sample is large, we can use s=0.62 to
estimate 𝜎.

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 

𝑥̅ − 𝜇0 98.2 − 98.6 −0.4

𝑧= 𝜎 = = = −6.64
⁄𝑛 0.62 0.0602
( )
√106

Step 6: Decision and conclusion: Reject H0 (because -6.64<-1.96, it is within the critical region).
There is sufficient evidence to warrant rejection of the claim that the mean body
temperature of healthy adults is 98.6℉.

Example: The Mill Valley Brewery distributes beer in bottles labeled 32 oz. The Bureau of
Weights and Measures randomly selects 50 of these bottles, measures their contents, and
obtains a sample mean of 31.8 oz and a sample standard deviation of 0.75 oz. Using a 0.01
significance level, test the Bureau’s claim that the brewery is cheating consumers (that is, the
mean content of beer bottles is less than 32 oz).

Solution:
Step 1: Null hypothesis: The mean content of beer bottles is greater than or equal to 32 oz.
(H0: 𝜇 ≥ 32)
Alternative hypothesis: The mean content of beer bottles is less than 32 oz.
(H0: 𝜇 < 32)

Step 2: The significance level is 𝛼 = 0.01

Step 3: Test statistic: Because the claim is made about the population mean 𝜇, and the sample
is large, the test statistic will be z- test, and since the symbol used in the alternative
hypothesis is < (nondirectional), the test will be one- tailed, specifically left- tailed.

Step 4: The critical region is z<-2.33.

Step 5. Compute the z- statistic. From the given problem, we have the following information:
𝜇 = 32; 𝑛 = 50, 𝑥̅ = 31.8, and since the sample is large, we can use s=0.75 to estimate
𝜎.
𝑥̅ − 𝜇0 31.8 − 32 −0.2
𝑧= 𝜎 = = = −1.89
⁄𝑛 0.75 0.1061
( )
√50

Step 6: Decision and conclusion: Fail to reject H0 (because -1.89 is not less than -1.96, it is not
within the critical region). There is no sufficient evidence to support the claim that the
brewery is cheating consumers.

Note: A similar conclusion is: There is no sufficient evidence to warrant rejection of the claim
that the mean content of beer bottles is greater than or equal to 32 oz.

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Example

An instructor gives his class a midterm exam, in which from all the midterm exams he’s given
to his previous students, his students gets an average score of 81. His current class of 40
students gets a mean of 88 and a standard deviation mean of 8.5. Can he claim that his current
class is superior to his previous classes? (Use α= .01)

Solution

H0 : μ = 81

H1 : μ > 81

Significance level: α= .01, one-tailed test

Test statistic: z statistic
Critical region: z > 2.33 (superior implies greater than)
Computations:

n = 40
𝑥̅ = 81
𝜇0 = 88
𝜎 = 8.5
𝑠 8.5
𝑠𝑥̅ = =( ) = 1.3439
√𝑛 √40

𝑥̅ − 𝜇0 (88 – 81)
𝑧= = = 5.21
𝑠𝑥̅ 1.3439

The computed z value is greater than 1.96 so we reject H0 and conclude that there is
sufficient evidence to believe that the instructor’s current class is superior.
.

Testing a Claim About a Mean (Small Samples n<30)

If the parameter σ is unknown and the sample size n is less than 30, the applicable test
statistic in hypothesis testing is t statistic.

The formula for t value is given by

𝑥̅ − 𝜇0
𝑡= 𝑠
⁄ 𝑛
√
with df = n – 1, where 𝑠𝑥̅ is the standard deviation of the sample mean.

Note: df means degree of freedom, together with the level of significance, it gives us the
critical region for the hypothesis testing. A table for degrees of freedom for a t-test is provided
in the appendix.

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Example

A doctor at a certain hospital claims that the average blood glucose levels for obese patients
have a mean of 100 with a standard deviation of 15. A researcher thinks that a diet high in raw
cornstarch will have a positive or negative effect on blood glucose levels. A sample of 30
patients who have tried the raw cornstarch diet have a mean glucose level of 140. Test the
hypothesis that the raw cornstarch had an effect. (Use α= .05)

Solution

H0 : The average blood glucose level of obese patients is 100. (μ = 100)

H1 : The average blood glucose level of obese patients is not 100. (μ ≠100)

Significance level: α= .05

Test statistic: t statistic, two- tailed
Critical region: t > 2.04523
.05
(because df=n-1=30-1=29 and α= =0.025 because the test is two- tailed. Use t-table in
2
the appendix of the module, select the intersection of the row for 29 and 0.025. )

Computations:

n = 30
𝑥̅ = 140
𝜇0 = 100
𝜎 = 15
𝜎 15
𝜎𝑥̅ = =( ) = 2.7386
√𝑛 √30

𝑥̅ − 𝜇0 (140 – 100)
𝑡= = = 14.61
𝜎𝑥̅ 2.7386

The computed z value is greater than 2.04523 so we reject H0 .and we can say that there is
enough evidence to believe that the average blood glucose level of obese patients is not
100, and the raw cornstarch diet had an effect.
.

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Example

Maharlika Corporation replaced their old machines to new ones (latest model) which produces
parts of computer monitors. The following data are the numbers of computer monitors
produced at the company for a sample of 10 days.

28 31 40 23 28 27 23 35 33 29

If the average number of computer monitors produced per day using the old machines is 30,
is the management justified in stating that the number of monitors produced per day can be
increased with the new machines? (Use α= .01)

Solution

H0 : The new machines do not change the average number of monitors produced per day. (μ
≤ 30)

H1 :The new machines increases the average number of monitors produced per day.
(μ > 30)

Significance level: α= .01

Test statistic: t statistic, one-tailed test with df = 10 – 1 = 9
Critical region: t > 2.82144
Computations: We first need to compute for the sample mean and standard deviation.

𝒙 (𝒙 − 𝒙̅ )𝟐
28 2.89
31 1.69
40 106.09
23 44.89
28 2.89
27 7.29
23 44.89
35 28.09
33 10.89
29 0.49
Σ = 297 Σ = 250.1

∑ 𝑥 297
̅=
𝒙 = = 29.7
𝑛 10

̅ )𝟐
∑(𝒙 − 𝒙 250.1
𝑠=√ =√ = √27.79 = 5.27
𝑛−1 9

Solution (continutation)

Computations: Then we plug in these computed values to the t- test formula.

𝑥̅ − 𝜇0 (29.7 − 30)
𝑧= 𝑠 = = −0.1800
⁄ 𝑛 5.27⁄
√ √10

Since the computed t-value does not lie in the critical region, we fail to reject the H0 and
conclude that the new machines do not change the average number of monitors
produced per day.

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Learning check

Activity 12
1.) A pharmaceutical firm claims that the average time for a drug to take effect is 15 minutes
with a standard deviation of 1.5 minutes. In a sample of 40 trials, the average time was 23
minutes. Test thee claim that the alternative that the average time is not equal to 15
minutes, using a .01level of significance.

2.) Past experience has shown that the average length of time for students to enroll in a
university is 6.4 hours. A new online enrollment procedure is being tested. If a random
sample of 7 students spent 3.5, 5.3, 4.8, 6, 5, 4.7, and 2 hours for the new online enrollment,
can it be concluded that average number of hours is less than the old procedure?

Testing the Difference Between Means

Sometimes, we need to determine whether or not the mean of one population (μ1) is equal
to the mean of another population (μ2). We can formulate statistical hypothesis in a two-
sample case in three ways:

1. Ho : μ1 = μ2
H1 : μ1 ≠ μ2 (two-tailed)

2. Ho : μ1 = μ2
H1 : μ1 < μ2 (one-tailed)

3. Ho : μ1 = μ2
H1 : μ1 > μ2 (one-tailed)

Where μ1 = mean of population 1 and μ2 = mean of population 2

Just like in the previous section, we use z-statistic when

Standard Error of the difference between z-statistic

means
1.) σ1 and σ2 are 𝑥̅1 − 𝑥̅2
𝜎12 𝜎22 𝑧=
known 𝜎𝑥̅1 −𝑥̅2 = √ + 𝜎𝑥̅1 −𝑥̅2
𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑥̅1 − 𝑥̅2
=
𝜎 𝜎
√𝑛1 + 𝑛2
1 2
2.) σ1 and σ2 are 𝑥̅1 − 𝑥̅2
𝑠12 𝑠22 𝑧=
unknown 𝑠𝑥̅1 −𝑥̅2 =√ + 𝑠𝑥̅1 −𝑥̅2
n ≥ 30 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑥̅1 − 𝑥̅2
=
𝑠 𝑠
√𝑛1 + 𝑛2
1 2
3.) σ1 and σ2 are 𝑠𝑥̅1 −𝑥̅2 𝑥̅1 − 𝑥̅2
𝑡=
unknown 𝑠𝑥̅1 −𝑥̅2
n < 30 (𝑛1 − 1)𝑠12 + (𝑛1 − 1)𝑠22 1 1
=√ ( + ) 𝑜𝑟 𝑥̅1 − 𝑥̅2
𝑛1 + 𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛2 =
𝑠 𝑠
𝑠𝑥̅1 −𝑥̅2 √𝑛1 + 𝑛2
1 2

∑(𝑥1 − 𝑥̅1 )2 + ∑(𝑥2 − 𝑥̅2 )2 1 1 𝑑𝑓 = 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 − 2

=√ ( + )
𝑛1 + 𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛2
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Example
An instructor wishes to determine which of two methods of teaching A or B is more effective
in teaching a certain concept in Biology. In a class of 40 students, he used method A and in
another class where there are 37 students, he used method B. He gave the two classes the
same examination and obtained the following results:

Method A Method B
x1 = 87 x2 = 85
s1 = 6.1 s2 = 5.2

Is he correct in assuming that method A is more effective than method B? Use α=.05

Solution
H0 : There is no significant difference between methods A and B. (μ1 = μ2)

H1 : Method A is more effective than method B. (μ1 = μ2)

Significance level: α= .05, one-tailed test

Test statistic: z statistic
Critical region: z > 1.645
Computations:

𝑠12 𝑠22 6.12 5.22

𝑠𝑥̅1 −𝑥̅2 =√ + =√ + = √0.93025 + 0.730811 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟐
𝑛1 𝑛2 40 37
𝑥̅1 − 𝑥̅2 87 − 85
𝑧= = = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟓𝟏𝟖
𝑠𝑥̅1 −𝑥̅2 1.5518

We may reject H0 and accept H1 since the computed value of z is not in the critical region.

Example

For a sample of 16 PinoyPhone smartphones, the mean average battery life is 42 hours with
a standard deviation of 5.6 hours. For a sample of 12 Doon smartphones, the mean average
battery life is 45 hours with a standard deviation of 6.7 hours. (Use α= .01)

Solution

H0 : There is a significant difference between the average battery lives of two smartphone
brands. (μ1 = μ2)

H1 : There is a significant difference between the average battery lives of two smartphone
brands. (μ1 ≠ μ2)

Significance level: α= .01, two-tailed test

Test statistic: t statistic with df = 16+12 – 2 = 26
Critical region: t > 2.998 or t < -2.998
Computations:
(𝑛1 − 1)𝑠12 + (𝑛1 − 1)𝑠22 1 1
𝑠𝑥̅1 −𝑥̅2 = √ ( + )
𝑛1 + 𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛2

(16 − 1)5.6 + (12 − 1)6.7 1 1

=√ ( + ) = 0.906286
16 + 12 16 12
42 − 45
𝑡= = −𝟑. 𝟑𝟏
0.906286

We accept the null hypothesis, since the computed value of t is in the region of acceptance.

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Learning check

Activity 13
A History instructor wants to test if online learning mode is more effective than modular
learning mode. In the final exam, the average score of the 15 students (normal population) in
online mode is 87 with a standard deviation σ1=9.2. The average score of the 18 students
(normal population) in modular mode is 75 with a standard deviation σ2=7.6. Can he claim that
her students perform online learning mode do a better performance compared to those who
are on modular learning mode?

Correlation

 Two variables are correlated if they share a statistical dependence / relationship. For
example, measurements of temperature at noon and 1pm every day are correlated,
because they both lie consistently above the mean daily temperature

 Correlations between variables are important because they indicate some underlying
physical relationship between those variables

Types of Correlation
The scatter plot explains the correlation between the two attributes or variables. It
represents how closely the two variables are connected. There can be three such situations to
see the relation between the two variables –

 Positive Correlation – when the value of one variable increases with respect to another.
 Negative Correlation – when the value of one variable decreases with respect to
another.
 No Correlation – when there is no linear dependence or no relation between the two
variables.

Correlation coefficient (r) Formula:

𝒏(∑ 𝒙𝒚) − (∑ 𝒙)(∑ 𝒚)

𝒓=
√[𝒏 ∑ 𝒙𝟐 − (∑ 𝒙)𝟐 ][𝒏 ∑ 𝒚𝟐 − (𝒚)𝟐 ]

Where:

n = number of pairs of scores

∑𝒙𝒚 = sum of the products of paired scores
∑𝒙 = sum of x scores
∑𝒚 = sum of y scores
∑𝒙𝟐 = sum of squared x scores
∑𝒚𝟐 = sum of squared y scores

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Here’s the correlation coefficient interpretation:

To interpret its value, see which of the following values your correlation r is closest to:

R-value Interpretation
(±) Exactly 1 A perfect uphill/downhill linear relationship
(±)0.70 A strong uphill/downhill linear relationship
(±)0.50 A moderate uphill/downhill relationship
(±)0.30 A weak uphill/downhill linear relationship
0 No linear relationship

Correlation Example
The table below gives the number of years of formal education (X) and the age of entry
into the labour force (Y), for 12 males from the Regina Labour Force Survey. Both variables
are measured in years, a ratio level of measurement and the highest level of measurement. All
of the males are aged 30 or over, so that most of these males are likely to have completed
their formal education.

Respondent
X Y
Number
1 10 16
2 12 17
3 15 18
4 8 15
5 20 18
6 17 22
7 12 19
8 15 22
9 12 18
10 10 15
11 8 18
12 10 16

Table 1. Years of Education and Age of Entry into Labour Force for 12 Regina Males

Since most males enter the labour force soon after they leave formal schooling, a close
relationship between these two variables is expected. By looking through the table, it can be
seen that those respondents who obtained more years of schooling generally entered the labour
force at an older age. The mean years of schooling is 𝑋̅ = 12.4 years and the mean age of entry
into the labour force is 𝑌̅ = 17.8, a difference of 5.4 years.

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 

This difference roughly reflects the age of entry into formal schooling, that is, age five or
six. It can be seen through that the relationship between years of schooling and age of entry into
the labour force is not perfect. Respondent 11, for example, has only 8 years of schooling but
did not enter the labour force until age 18. In contrast, respondent 5 has 20 years of schooling
but entered the labour force at age 18. The scatter diagram provides a quick way of examining
the relationship between X and Y.

Example
Based on the given data from Table 1, determine the correlation between the years of
education and age of entry into labour force for 12 Regina males.

Solution
We have to compute for ∑𝒙𝒚,∑𝒙,∑𝒚,∑𝒙𝟐 , and ∑𝒚𝟐
Respondent
x y 𝒙𝒚 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
Number
1 10 16 160 100 256
2 12 17 204 144 289
3 15 18 270 225 324
4 8 15 120 64 225
5 20 18 360 400 324
6 17 22 374 289 484
7 12 19 228 144 361
8 15 22 330 225 484
9 12 18 216 144 324
10 10 15 150 100 225
11 8 18 144 64 324
12 10 16 160 100 256
∑ ∑𝒙= 149 ∑𝒚=214 ∑𝒙𝒚=2716 ∑𝒙𝟐 =1999 𝟐
∑𝒚 =3876

Substituting this value to the r formula:

𝟏𝟐(𝟐𝟕𝟏𝟔) − (𝟏𝟒𝟗)(𝟐𝟏𝟒)
𝒓=
√[𝟏𝟐(𝟏𝟗𝟗𝟗) − (𝟏𝟒𝟗)𝟐 ][𝟏𝟐(𝟑𝟖𝟕𝟔) − (𝟐𝟏𝟒)𝟐 ]

𝟕𝟎𝟔 𝟕𝟎𝟔
𝒓= = ≈ 𝟎. 𝟔𝟐𝟒
√𝟏𝟕𝟖𝟖(𝟕𝟏𝟔) √𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟕𝟗𝟒𝟗𝟐

With the r-value of 0.624, which is closest to +0.70, there is a strong uphill linear
relationship between the years of education and age of entry into labour force for 12
Regina males.
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Learning check

Activity 13
In a Chemistry quiz, the table below shows the scores of 10 male and female students.

Male (X) Female (Y)

10 12
15 14
8 10
13 11
7 8
9 9
11 15
12 10
10 9
5 11

Compute the correlation coefficient and make an interpretation.

Linear Regression

 Technique used for the modeling and analysis of

numerical data

 Exploits the relationship between two or more

variables so that we can gain information about one
of them through knowing values of the other

 Regression can be used for prediction, estimation,

hypothesis testing, and modeling causal
relationships

For instance, a student wants to know whether there is a

relationship between the number of hours of sleep and
his/her grade in Math. The table below gives the data.

Number of hrs of sleep 8.5 6.8 7.2 8.6 5.9 6.1 5.2 6.3 6.5 8
(x)
Grade in Math (y) 2.0 2.25 1.75 2.50 2.25 1.75 3.0 2.75 2.0 1.0

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Using these data, a scatter plot can be drawn, as shown below.

(5.2, 3.0)

Figure 1 Figure 2

 One way to create a model of relationship between the two variables is to find a line that
approximates the data points plotted in the scattered plot.
 Out of all these possible lines, on that is closest to the behavior of the data is called the
best-fit line or least-squares regression line. This line is best fits the data better than
any other line that can be drawn.
 It can be defined as a set of data that minimizes the sum of squares of the vertical
deviations from each data point to the line. From this definition we get that the linear
equation minimizes the sum
𝑑12 + 𝑑22 + 𝑑32 + 𝑑42 + 𝑑52 + 𝑑62 + 𝑑72 + 𝑑82 + 𝑑92 + 𝑑10
2

is the equation of the best-fit line, where dn represents the distance from the data point
n to the line.
3.5
3
Grade in Math

d6
2.5 d9 d3
2 d7 d4
d2
d8
d10
1.5
d1
1
0.5
0
0 5 10
Number of Hours of Sleep

The Formula for the Least-Squares Line

The equation of the least-squares line for the n ordered pairs is

(x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3), … , (xn, yn) is 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 ̂

+ 𝑏, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒

𝑛(∑ 𝑥𝑦) − (∑ 𝑥)(∑ 𝑦)

𝑎= 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 𝑦̅
𝑛 ∑ 𝑥 2 − (∑ 𝑥)

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Example
Apply the Least-Squares Line formula to the given data of the students’ number of hours of
sleep and grade in Math. Predict the student’s grade in Math if he/she sleeps for 10 hours.

Solution

First we find the value of each summation.

∑ 𝑥 = 69.1 ∑ 𝑦 = 21.25 ∑ 𝑥 2 = 489.29 ∑ 𝑥𝑦 = 144.275

We use the values to find the value of a.

𝑛(∑ 𝑥𝑦) − (∑ 𝑥)(∑ 𝑦) 10(144.275) − (69.1)(21.25)

𝑎= 2 = = −0.216995512
𝑛 ∑ 𝑥 2 − (∑ 𝑥) 10(489.29) − (69.1)2

When then find the values of 𝑥̅ and 𝑦̅,

∑𝑥 69.1 ∑𝑦 21.25
𝑥̅ = = = 6.91 and 𝑦̅ = = = 2.125
𝑛 10 𝑛 10

We use them to find the x-intercept b

𝑏 = 𝑦̅ − 𝑎𝑥̅
𝑏 = 2.125 − (−0.216995516)(6.91) = 3.624439016

The regression equation is

𝒚 = −𝟎. 𝟐𝟏𝟔𝟗𝟗𝟓𝟓𝟏𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑. 𝟔𝟐𝟒𝟒𝟑𝟗𝟎𝟏𝟔

Using this equation, to predict the student’s grade we substitute 10 hrs to x

𝑦 = −0.216995512𝑥 + 3.624439016 = −0.216995512(10) + 3.624439016 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟓
We can say that a student who sleeps for 10 hours is likely to get a grade of 1.45 in Math.

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Learning check

Activity 14

A researcher wants to find out the relationship between the speed of an adult man and a cow’s
pace (stride/walk) and his length of pace. The following gives the data of the two variables for
eight men.

a. Adult man

Pace length (meters) x 2.6 2.9 3.2 3.6 3.7 3.9 4.3 4.4
Speed (meters/seconds) y 3.3 4.8 5.6 6.7 7.1 7.6 8.2 8.6

b. Cow

Pace length (meters) x 2.7 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.7 4.0 4.2 4.4
Speed (meters/seconds) y 2.5 3.9 4.6 5.2 5.7 6.4 7.3 7.8

Predict the speed of the adult man and the cow if their pace lengths are 3.0 m and 5.0 m.

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REFLECTION
Express briefly your learning, points of clarification, insights, and feelings towards the given
learning material.

Rubrics %
Substance
40%
(depth and validity of the content)
Relevance
30%
(connection to the topic)
Comprehensiveness
20%
(extensiveness of the content)
Clarity
10%
(organization of though)
Total 100%

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EVALUATION

I. Solve the puzzle below by encircling the words identified by the descriptions in the
following items.

X A B N O I T A L E R R O C

S Q E X U U N I M O D A L R

Z V O Y A H I B D D V N E E

H J K U W F B M R E L N H G

Y D E W T F H C D B A R N R

P Y J G D L E Z E I D F D E

O M E N E R I X D T O H Q S

T O M R A H Y E D O M L E S

H A K A I Q M W R E I R T I

E B U V E C X Z P O T N I O

S I R O C E S Y R R L A E N

I R M O D E U B N A U E R C

S N I N A N Y O E O M M A I

L U T O P R S E N N A E M RS

1.) This measure of central tendency is defined as the data with the highest
frequency
2.) Statistical dependence / relationship between two variables.
3.) This measure of central tendency can be identified by dividing the sum of the
data values by the total frequency of the sample or population.
4.) This data is comparatively large or small to the other values among the data set.
5.) An educated guess.

II. Find the mean, median, mode, and average deviation of the given set of data.

1.) -5, 44, 66, 44, 33, 55, 77

2.) 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5
3.) -2, -11, -31, -5, -4, -18, -17
4.) 1, 4, 7, 11, 1, -5, -8, -9, -11
5.) 12.7, 13.7, 11.7, 14.7, 13.7

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III. Compute for the mean, median, mode, and variance of the given set of sample data.
Round off to the nearest tenth.

1.) The following data shows the number of players there are in each university
basketball teams in a certain state.
18 12 16 13 14 12 13 10
11 15 17 8 9 10 21 10

2.) A survey of 10 households noted the average number of visitors they receive in
a week. The results are given below.
12 5 8 7 13 20 18 3 5 1

3.) The box below shows a random sample of the number of candies 7-year old
children eat in a single day.
6 10 7 6 5 12 9 8

IV. Solve the mean, median, mode, variance, and standard deviation of the given data set in
the following problems. Write all necessary solutions and final answer(s).

1. The following is a distribution for the number of runners in a 21-kilometer category of a

marathon, with the respective distance which they have run in the marathon.
Distance Ran Number of Runners

7–9 8

10 – 12 6

13 – 15 5

16 – 18 10

19 – 21 6

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2. The following is a distribution for the number of quizzes given by a Statistics teacher in
the entire school year
Number of Weeks Number of Companies

16 – 20 5

21 – 25 4

26 – 30 6

31 – 35 7

36 – 40 3

IV. Compute for the correlation coefficient of the given data and make an interpretation.
The following table represents the survey results from the 7 online stores.

Online Monthly E-commerce Sales Online Advertising Sales

Store (x) (y) (1000 s)
(in 1000 s)
1 9200 42.5
2 8500 37.5
3 13625 70
4 13850 125
5 8275 32.5
6 11900 55
7 9400 32.5

V. Using the same data in the previous part, find the equation least-squares line. Predict the
online advertising sales of an online store if its monthly-ecommerce sales is 10,500 and
7,250.

VI. Solve the following word problems.

1.) The average amount of cellular data usage of teenagers daily is normally distributed
with a mean of 625 mb. What can you say about this claim if a random sample of 1,254
16-year olds spends 743 mb with a standard deviation of 60 mb? Use a .05 level of
significance.

2.) A certain brand of canned sardines is advertised as having a net weight of 15 oz. If the
net weights of a random sample of 10 cans are 13.9, 15.2, 14.5, 14.7, 14.3, 15.5, 14.9,
16, 15.2, and 13.5 oz, can it be concluded that the average weight of cans is less than
the advertised amount? Use a .01 level of significance.

3.) In a certain university in Iloilo, a study was conducted to determine whether the IQ
scores of students who came from provincial high schools differ significantly from those
students who came from city high schools. An IQ test was given to 300 (100 from each
group) college freshmen and the results are as follows:
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 

Students from provincial high schools: 𝑥̅1 = 99, 𝑠12 = 5

Students from city high schools: 𝑥̅2 = 102, 𝑠22 = 8

4.) In order to determine the effect of music on the speed of students in answering exams,
an instructor administered a comprehensive test while listening to music to his students
and recorded the time that they completed and submitted the test. He divided the class
of 32 students into 2 groups. 17 were in the exam room with music playing, and 15
were in the exam room without music. The 17 students who listened to music had an
average score of 59 with a standard deviation of 10. The other had an average of 65
with a standard deviation of 15. Can the instructor conclude that music distracts
students from taking exams?

Design

In a group of 5 members, conduct a study and create a min-research paper wherein

you have to collect data from at least 30 respondents. Apply either Pearson
correlation or Linear regression for data analysis. The format of the paper will be
provided to you by your teacher.

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ANSWER KEY

Learning Check (Activity 1: Mean - Ungrouped Data)

a. ₱155.58
b. 23.5
c. 89.5

Learning Check (Activity 2: Median - Ungrouped Data)

a. 11.5
b. -1
c. 8.38
d. 23
e. 15

Learning Check (Activity 3: Mode - Ungrouped Data)

a. 13
b. 5
c. 1
d. 55
e. 980

Learning Check (Activity 4: Mean – Grouped Data)

Mean = 17.38 = 17
Learning Check (Activity 5: Median – Grouped Data)
Median = 24.3 = 24
Learning Check (Activity 6: Mode – Grouped Data)
Median = 29.1= 29

Learning Check (Activity 7: Range – Ungrouped Data)

a. 21
b. 13
c. 23
d. 16
e. 5

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 

Learning Check (Activity 8: Range)

a. 6.49
b. 4
c. 6.77
d. 0.79

Learning Check (Activity 9: Variance and Standard Deviation-Ungrouped Data)

𝜎 2 = 5.36; 𝜎 = 2.31

p. 186, maam aivs correction po sa table na to yung naka red font

Score Number of Students

16-18 9
19-21 6
22-24 7
25-27 5
28-30 3

Learning Check (Activity 9: Variance and Standard Deviation-Ungrouped Data)

𝜎 2 = 5.36; 𝜎 = 2.31

Learning Check (Activity10: Variance and Standard Deviation-Grouped Data)

𝜎 2 = 3.39; 𝜎 = 1.84

Learning Check (Activity 11: Null and Alternative Hypothesis)

Criteria for Rating
Score Criterion Description
6-10 Student was able to create a null and alternative
hypothesis about a certain topic correctly.
1-5 The null and alternative hypothesis provided by the
student was original and/or doesn’t fit the definition of a
hypothesis.
0 Student has no output for this activity.

Learning Check (Activity 12: z-test and t-test)

H0 : μ = 15
H1 : μ ≠ 15

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 

Significance level: α= .01, one-tailed test

Test statistic: z statistic
Critical region: z > 2.575 or z <-2.575
Computations:

n = 40
𝑥̅ = 23
𝜇0 = 15
𝜎 = 1.5
𝑠𝑥̅ = 0.237171

Computed value: 𝒛 = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟕𝟑

The computed z value is greater than 2.575 so we reject H0

Learning Check (Activity 13)

H0 : μ 1 ≤ μ 2
H1 : μ 1 > μ 2

Significance level: α= .05, one-tailed test

Test statistic: t statistic
Critical region: z > 1.645
Computations:

n1 = 15
n2 = 18
μ1 = 87
μ2 = 75
σ1= 9.2
σ2= 7.6

Compute value: 𝒛 = 𝟒. 𝟐𝟑𝟓𝟗

The computed z value is greater than 1.645 so we reject H0

Learning Check (Activity 14: Pearson Correlation)

r = 0.506933
interpretation: A moderate uphill relationship

Learning Check (Activity 15: Linear Regression)

a. 𝑦 = −3.46965𝑥 + 2.785217
b. 𝑦 = −6.15023𝑥 + 3.171296

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REFERENCES

1. Bluman, A. G. (2003). Elementary Statistics: A Step by Step Approach. 5th Ed. McGraw
Hill, Inc.
2. CENGAGE (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World.
3. Guillermo, R.M. (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World. Quezon City: Nieme
Publishing House Co. Ltd.
4. Lactuan, I. R. et. al. (2018). Instructional Material in Mathematics in the Modern World.
Puerto Princesa City: Palawan State University.
5. Walpole, M. and M. (2002). Probability and Statistics for Engineers and Scientists. 7th
Ed. Prentice Hall Int’l. Inc.
6. [Link] [Link]
7. [Link]
8. [Link]
coefficient-r/

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APPENDICES

[Link]
Appendix 1. Critical values of the t-distribution

244
 

[Link]
Appendix 2. Critical values of the z-distribution

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 

Module 4

Mathematics as a Tool

Mathematics of Finance

Mathematics in the Modern World

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 

Overview

To make sound financial decisions, it is essential for both business persons and consumers
to understand financial mathematics. Employees nowadays take out loan to buy real estate
like house and lot, personal properties such as cars, household appliances and many others to
make life comfortable to live. Some may plan for retirement and be involved in investing in
various types of investments. This may include Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs), stocks,
bonds, and annuities and to be oriented to these investments, interest formulas for borrowing
and investing money are introduced in this chapter.

Learning Outcomes

After completing the study of this module, you should be able to:
1. Explain simple interest and discount;
2. Differentiate simple interest from compound interest;
3. Understand the benefit of consumer loans and credit cards; and
4. Know the advantages/disadvantages of buying stocks, bonds, mutual funds, and home
ownership.

Initial Activity (Accessing Prior Knowledge)

Trina’s Dilemma:
Her car suddenly broke down, and the mechanic informed her that the repairs
would cost PhP20 000. She currently does not have that amount, but she desperately
needs a car. One option is to borrow the money from a friend or a relative, which she
is hesitant to do or avail of a loan from a lending institution.

1. Why is it important for Trina to understand the cost of borrowing money from any
lending institution?
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of obtaining a loan from any
lending institution?
3. What is the impact of borrowing money on her personal finances?

Did you know?

Origin of Banks……
In ancient Babylonia, as early as 2000 B.C., temples were considered
safe depositors for assets. It was believed that these sacred places
enjoyed the special protection of the gods and were not likely to be
robbed. It is no coincidence that many of the bank buildings built during
the early twentieth century resembled ancient temples. In medieval
times, money was kept in vaults protected by the armies of the ruling
nobility. The word bank is derived from the Italian word “banca” meaning
“board”. It refers to the counting boards used by the merchants.
Dishonest money changers in the marketplace had their boards smashed
to prevent them from continuing in business. The word bankrupt is literally
The People in Medieval Period “a broken (ruptured) board”. (Source: A Survey of Mathematics with Application Section 11.2 p.611, Allen R. Angel et.
Source:[Link]
ct5/middleages/[Link] al., 9th Edition, Cenveo Publisher)

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 

A. Simple Interest and Discount

Interest is the fee paid to use someone else’s money. Interest on loans of a year or
less is frequently calculated as simple interest, which is paid only on the amount borrowed or
invested and not on past interest. Simple interest is the product of the principal, rate, and time.
The amount borrowed or deposited is called the principal. The rate of interest is given as a
percent per year, expressed as a decimal. The time the money is earning interest is calculated
in years.

Formula for Simple Interest:

I = Prt F = P + I or F = P(1 + rt)

Where:
I = simple interest
P = principal
r = rate of interest
t = term or time for which the money will be used (years, months, or days)
F = accumulated or final amount

i. If the time is expressed in years:

I = Prt
ii. If the time is expressed in months:
no. of months
I = Pr( )
12

iii. If the time is expressed in days:

no. of days
a. Ordinary Interest (Io): Io = Pr( )
360
no. of days
b. Exact Interest (Ie): Ie = Pr( )
365
Example 1: A bank pays simple interest at the rate of 5% per year for 5 years for a time deposit
of PhP50,000 and above. If a client deposits PhP250 000, what is the interest
earned for that period?

Solution:
I = Prt
I = (PhP250,000) (0.05) (5)
I = PhP62,500

Example 2: A loan of PhP20,000 is made at 9 months at a simple interest of 10% per annum.
a. What is the interest charged?
b. What is the accumulated value at the end of 9 months?

Solution:

no. of months
a. I = Pr( )
12
3
I = (PhP20,000) (0.10) ( )
4
I = PhP1,500

b. F = P + I
F = PhP20,000 + PhP1,500
F = PhP21,500
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Example 3: How much interest will be charged on a loan of PhP185,000 for 180 days at an
interest rate of 4%? (Compute for the exact interest.)

Solution:

no. of days
Ie = Pr( )
365
180
Ie = (PhP185,000) (.04) ( )
365
Ie = PhP3,649.32

Example 4: If principal earns interest of PhP19,600 in 3 years and 6 months at a simple interest
rate of 6 ½ %. Find the principal invested.

Solution:

no. of months
I = Pr( )
12
1
I = (PhP19,600) (.065) (3 )
2
I = PhP4,459

Example 5: A maturity value of PhP800,000 was accumulated from a principal invested to a

10-year trust fund that pays 4% annual simple interest.
a. What was the principal invested on the 10-year trust fund?
b. How much interest did the investment earn?

Solution:

F
a. P = (derived from F = P(1 + rt))
1+rt
800,000
P=
1+(0.04)(10)
P = PhP571,429

b. I = F – P
I = PhP800,000 – PhP571,429
I = PhP228,571

Try this!

1. Find the simple interest of Php 8,500 at 8.5 percent for 123 days.
2. Ethel Gaspar borrowed Php 75,000 from her neighbor to start a small business. She
repaid her neighbor after seven months, with an interest of 7.5 percent. Find the total
amount she repaid.

Discounted Loans
The loan is said to be discounted if the bank deducts the interest from the time the
borrower receives the loan. The interest charged in advance or deducted from the amount of
the loan is termed as bank discount, and the amount the borrower receives is called the
proceeds. Maturity Value refers to the amount (F) to be repaid at the end of the term of the
loan which is actually equal to the principal (P) borrowed.

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 

Formula for the Interest of a Discounted Loan:

Interest (bank discount) = (Amount borrowed) (discount rate) (time)

Id = (F)(rd )(t)

Where:

Id = interest charged in advance or bank discount

rd = discount rate
F = amount lent or borrowed
Pd = amount the borrower has to receive after deducting the bank
discount

Proceeds
Example 1: Ana applied= for
Amount borrowed
a PhP15,000 – Bank
loan using discount
a 10% (interest
discount charged
rate for a periodinof 1 year.
advance)
Determine
a. the interest she must pay to the bank upon receiving the loan.
b. the proceeds of her loan.
P = F - I or P = F [1- (r )(t)]
d d d d

Solution:

a. Id = (F)(rd )(t)
Id = (PhP15,000) (0.10) (1)
Id = PhP1,500

b. Pd = F - Id
Pd = PhP15,000 – PhP1,500
Pd = PhP13,500

Example 2: Supposed you wish to borrow PhP10,000 for 3 months. If the lender offers a
discounted loan at 9%, how much must you repay at the end of 3 months?
Solution:

Pd
A = [1- (derived from Pd = F [1- (rd )(t)])
(rd )(t)]

PhP10,000
A= 1
[1- (0.09) ( )]
4
A = PhP10,230.18

Try this!

3
1. Accumulate PhP580,000 for 4 years and 9 months at 6 % simple discount.
8
2. If the proceeds of a loan of PhP245,000 will be paid with PhP284,000 at the
end of 1 year and 3 months, what is the simple discount rate?

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 

The Banker’s Rule

When a loan is in terms of days, interest can be computed using either exact interest or
ordinary interest using actual time or approximate time. Actual time refers to the actual number
of days found in each month, whereas approximate time assumes that each year has 360 days
or each month has 30 days. The ordinary method of computing interest is called the Banker’s
rule, which considers a year to have 360 days.

To determine the exact number of days in a period, you can refer to the Table of Days in
Each Month below.

Source: [Link]

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 

Formulas for Computing Exact and Ordinary Interest Using Actual and Approximate Time:

number of days
i. Ie − Actual Time = (P)(r) ( )
365

number of days
ii. Ie − Approximate Time = (P)(r) ( )
365

number of days
iii. I𝑜 − Actual Time = (P)(r) ( )
360

number of days
iv. I𝑜 − Approximate Time = (P)(r) ( )
360

where Ie is exact interest

Io ordinary interest

Example 1: Find the actual and approximate time from February 21, 2018 to October 24, 2018.
Solution:

A. Actual time

i. Listing Method
February (remaining days: 28-21) 7
March 31
April 30
May 31
June 30
July 31
August 31
September 30
October _24_
TOTAL 245 days

ii. Using the Days in Each Month Method

October 24 297
February 21 - 52_
TOTAL 245 days

B. Approximate Time

i. Listing Method (on the assumption that each month has 30 days)
February (remaining days: 30-21) 9
March 30
April 30
May 30
June 30
July 30

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 

August 30
September 30
October _24_
TOTAL 243 days

ii. On the assumption that each year has 360 days or each month has 30 days.

Year Month Day

2018 October 24 2018 10 24
2018 February 21 2018 02_ _21_
0 8 3 → 8(30) + 3 = 243 days

Example 2: Determine the interest that will be paid on PhP30,000 loan on a simple interest rate
of 7% from March 20, 2019 to September 15, 2019 using the following:

i. Ie − Actual Time

ii. Ie − Approximate Time

iii. Io − Actual Time

iv. Io − Approximate Time

Solution:

Step 1. Determine first the actual and approximate time.

Actual Time
September 15 258
March 20 - 79_
179 days

Approximate Time
Year Month Day
2019 September 15 2019 09 15
2019 March 20 2019 03_ _20_
0 5 25 → 5(30) + 25 = 175 days

(Note: Since it is impossible to subtract 20 from 15, borrow 1 from 9 and convert it to 30 days,
thus you have now (15+30) -20 = 25 on the Day column and obtained a difference of 5 in a
Month column)

Step 2. Compute for the exact and ordinary interest using actual an approximate
time with principal (P) of PhP30 000; r = 7% or 0.07

number of days
i. Ie − Actual Time = (P)(r) ( )
365

179
= (30 000) (0.07) ( )
365
= PhP1 029.86

number of days
ii. Ie − Approximate Time = (P)(r) ( )
365

175
= (30 000) (0.07) ( )
365
= PhP1 006.85

number of days
iii. Io − Actual Time = (P) (r) ( )
360
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 

179
= (30 000) (0.07) ( )
360
= PhP1 044.17
number of days
iv. Io − Approximate Time = (P) (r) ( )
360

175
= (30 000) (0.07) ( )
360
= PhP1 020.33

Take note that formula iii has the highest accumulated interest, and this is what the bank
adapts in their loan transactions.

Try this!

Determine the interest that will be paid on PhP18 000 loan on a simple
interest rate of 7% from Feb 20, 2018 to July 15, 2019 using the following:

i. Ie − Actual Time
ii. Ie − Approximate Time
iii. Io − Actual Time
iv. Io − Approximate Time

Learning Check

Activity # 1

Solve for the following:

1. If ₱50,000 is invested at 8% simple interest for 5 years, what is the final amount?
2. If Pika borrows ₱120,000 for 10 months at 12%, how much interest would she have to
pay?
3. At what rate of interest should ₱60,000 be invested to earn ₱2,500 after 5 months?
4. How long will it take ₱305,000 to earn ₱32,500 at 4%?
5. Find the present value of Php 7000 at 8.2 percent for 11 months. (Assume 360 days in
a year.)
5
6. Discount PhP67,200 for 2 years and 3 months at 3 %.
8
7. Find the proceeds for the loan Php 7250 at 8.5 percent for 11 months.
8. Find the interest rate to the nearest tenth on the proceeds for the simple discount
note of Php 6,200 at 10 percent for 10 months.
9. Determine at which rate the borrower pays the least interest: A discounted loan for 9
months at 9% or a loan using a simple interest rate of 10%.
10. Determine the due date of the loan using the exact time if the loan is made on the
given date for the given number of days.
i. May 15; 60 days
ii. October 25; 100 days
11. Find the interest that will be paid on PhP500 000 loan on a simple interest rate of 8%
from July 22, 2017 to March 15, 2019 using the following:
i. Ie − Actual Time
ii. Ie − Approximate Time
iii. Io − Actual Time
iv. Io − Approximate Time

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 

B. Compound Interest

Did you know?

A penny saved……

Benjamin Franklin left 1000 pounds sterling (£) in his will to the City of
Boston, where he was born. The money was to be lent to young apprentices
1
who would pay of the principal each year plus 5% compounded yearly.
10
The money earned was to be used to benefit the inhabitants of Boston. By
Benjamin Franklin
1894, the fund’s value had increased to 90000 £. Part of this legacy became
Source: [Link]
[Link]/[Link]
the Benjamin Franklin Institute of Technology, a 2-year technical college
founded in 1908.
(Source: A Survey of Mathematics with Application Section 11.3 p.622 by Allen R. Angel et. al., 9 th Edition, Cenveo Publisher)

Working with problems involving compound interest involved the use of the term
payment period enumerated as follows:

Annually once per year

Semiannually twice per year
Quarterly four times per year
Monthly twelve times per year
Daily three hundred sixty-five times per year* (*Banks use 360 times per year)
A bank computes the interest periodically (for example, quarterly or daily), this interest is
added to the original principal. The interest is again computed for the next period using the
new principal which means that the principal grows as the interest is added to it. In effect the
bank computes interest on interest which is called the compound interest.

Compound interest is an interest computed on the principal and any accumulated

interest. The interest for each period is added to the principal before computing the interest for
the next period which indicates that the interest is said to have been compounded.

Formula for Compound Interest:

F = P (1 + i)n I=F–P

Where: F = final or accumulated amount

P = original principal
r
i = periodic payment (i = , r is the annual interest rate)
m
n = mt (t = no. of years, m = compounding times)

compounding period m
Semiannually 2 periods/year

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 

I = compound interest Quarterly 4 periods/year

Monthly 12 periods/year
Daily 365 periods/year

Example: What is the accumulated value of PhP15 000 at the end of 3 years if it earns an
interest at the rate of 8% compounded semiannually? Calculate the interest earned.

Solution:

0.08
P = PhP15 000; t = 3; m = 2; r = 8% or 0.08; i = = 0.04; n=(3)(2) or 6
2

i. Accumulated value (F)

F = P (1 + i)n
F = PhP15,000 (1 + 0.04)6
= PhP18 979.79

ii. Interest (I) earned

I=F–P
= PhP18 979.79 - PhP15 000
= PhP3 979.79

In example above, the interest rate is stated as annual rate of 8% but the number of
0.08
conversion period per year is 2, hence the rate for 1 period is i = or 0.04 per period.
2

If we want to calculate the amount (F) and interest (I) on Php1 invested at 8%
compounded semiannually for 1 year, it will be

F =1(1 + 0.04)(2)(1)
= 1.0816

Computing for the Interest: I = A – P

= 1.0816 – 1
= 0.0816

This shows that the interest for 1 year is 0.0816 and called the effective annual yield when
written in percent. Majority of financial institutions refer to the effective annual yield as the
annual percentage yield, that is, If Php1 is invested at a simple interest rate of 8.16% and Php1
is invested at 8% compounded semiannually (equivalent to an effective yield of 8.16%), then
the interest for both investments will be the same.

Try this!
Suppose Php1,000 is deposited for 5 years in an account paying 8.5 percent
per year compounded semiannually.

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 

a. Find the compound amount; and

b. Find the amount of interest earned.

You may be interested about what amount of money you must deposit in an account to
have a certain amount of money in the future; thus, this is concerned with finding the Principal
P to be invested now called the Present Value.

The formula used for determining the present value is P = F (1 + i)−n .

Example 1: The desired accumulated amount is PhP100 000 after 5 years to be invested in an
account with 8% interest compounded annually. Determine the amount to be
invested now.

Solution:
r 0.08
F = PhP100,000; t = 5; m = 1; i = = = 0.08; n = mt = (5)(1)=5
m 1

P = F (1 + i)−n
P = 100,000 (1 + 0.08)−5
P = PhP68,058.32

Example 2: What amount must be invested now in order to have PhP12 000 after 3 years if
money is worth 10% compounded semiannually?

Solution:
r 0.10
A=PhP12,000; t = 3; m = 2; i= = = 0.05; n = mt =(3)(2) =6
m 2

P = F (1 + i)−n
P = 12 000 (1 + 0.05)−6
P = PhP8,954.58

Try this!

At the birth of a boy, what amount of money should his parents deposit in a
savings account paying 7/8% every months in order to provide the boy with
₱500,000 at the age of 15?

Learning Check

Activity # 2

A. Find the total number of compounding/conversion periods and the interest rate per
period.

Term of Investment Annual Interest Conversion Total number Rate per

Rate period per year of conversion conversion
(%) period period
2 years 4 annually
10 years 3 semiannually
5 years 6 quarterly
12 years 8 semiannually

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 

1
4 years 12 monthly
2

B. Use the simple interest formula to complete the missing values in the table.

Principal Term of Annual Conversion Compound Compound

Investment Interest Rate period per Amount Interest
(%) year
PhP8 000 2 years 4 annually
PhP10 000 6 years 3 semiannually
PhP18 000 5 years 6 quarterly
PhP25 000 11 years 8 semiannually
PhP30 000 1
4 years 12 monthly
2
C. Find the Present value of the following amount of money.

1. PhP300,000 at 10% compounded annually for 5 years

2. PhP85,000 at 6% compounded semiannually for 4 years
1
3. PhP25,000 at 5 % compounded quarterly for 2 years
2
4. PhP10,000 at 4% compounded monthly for 1 year

C. Credit Card Interest

When one buy by a credit card such as bank cards (VISA or MASTERCARD or
a department store charge) and travel and entertainment cards, he is, in effect, borrowing
money. He, as the borrower, must pay interest. Not all companies issuing credit cards impose
the same interest. Different companies (banks, stores) charge different rates, and they compute
the balance on which the interest is paid in different manners, with considerable variation from
one to another. Shopping by credit card makes as much sense as trying to get the best price
on any deal. All cards require you to make payments on monthly basis when their balance due,
getting the “best” card (the one with terms most advantageous to the card holder).

If you have noticed, the credit card company’s terms are usually stated in small prints in
an out-of-the-way place on the bottom or on the back of your monthly statement. The rate of
interest is referred to the “periodic rate.” Computers do the calculations of purchases done
together with the interest. However, it is suggested that you should check that there are no errors
in recording the individual charges and cash advances by matching the amount shown in the
statement with the amount on the “customer’s” copy of each charge slip.

There are two factors you need to understand in paying finance charges: the annual
effective rate and the average daily balance. The annual effective rate of interest is based on
the quoted rate of interest (also given on each monthly statement) and is the actual interest
rate you pay per year for the use of the credit card. To understand the annual effective rate,
the credit card issuing company is earning interest from you as borrower. Interest can be
charged on new purchases and on old purchases. If you will wait until the end of the year to
pay for the bill, additional interest on the interest, purchases and balance will be imposed. In
effect, you would be paying interest on the interest. That is what happens with many, but not
all, credit cards.

Example 1: XYZ Bank’s interest charge on its MASTERCARD purchases is given as follows: monthly
periodic rate 3.5%. Find the annual effective rate.
Solution:
r m
Annual Effective Rate =100 (1+ ) -100
m

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 

= 100(1+.035)12 -100
= 51.11%
Hence, the quoted annual percentage interest rate of 42% results in the paying interest
at the rate of 51.11% per annum.

In terms of average daily balance, remember that it is not calculated in the same way
by all banks or credit card companies. Some companies exclude finance charges if you pay
your balance on the required date, while others include them. Some do not add interest
charges to new purchases if those purchases are paid for on time. There are credit cards that
require you to pay interest from the date the purchase is made (the date of the transaction),
while others begin computing interest from the posting date (the day the company or bank
received the bill from the establishment where the purchase was made).
The following examples will illustrate two different methods for computing the average
daily balance.

Example 2: Consider the December/January monthly statement below.

Amount
Date of Purchase Posting Date Description of Transaction
(in peso)
12/07/18 12/14/18 New Global Store 475.00
12/17/18 12/27/18 MS Department Store 907.25
12/21/18 01/07/19 Golden Records 450.00
12/2718 01/07/19 Pizza House 875.00
01/09/19 01/09/19 Payment – Thank you 1,000.00

Additional information was collected from the current bill and from the previous month
statement.
Closing Date: 1/11/19 (from current bill)
Closing Date: 12/11/18 (from previous bill)
Previous Balance ((including interest due): PhP1,291.47 (from current bill)
Prior Month’s Interest Charge: PhP20.48 (from previous bill)
Monthly Periodic Rate: 3.5 % (from both bills)

a. What is the annual effective rate?

b. Compute the average daily balance.

Solution:
r m
a. Annual Effective Rate = 100 (1+ ) - 100
m

=100(1+.035)12 - 100
= 51.11%
Hence, the quoted annual percentage interest rate of 42% results in paying interest at
the rate of 51.11% per annum.

b. Three steps are involved in computing the average daily balance.

1. Compute the number of days in the billing cycle that runs from 12/11/18 to 01/11/19.
From 12/11/18 to 12/31/18 there are: 20 days
From 12/31/18 to 01/11/19 there are: 11 days
Total 31 days
2. Subtract the interest due from both the previous balance and the payment
(Method 1 excludes interest payments):
Net previous balance due = PhP1,291.47 – PhP20.48 = PhP1,270.99
Net payment made = PhP1,000.00 – PhP20.48 = PhP979.52

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3. Find the average daily balance:

i. Count the previous balance due:
Multiply Net previous balance by the total number of days.
That is, PhP1,270.99 (31 days) = PhP39,400.99
ii. Count the net payment made:
Multiply Net payment made by the number of days from the billing cycle.
(closing date – date payment made + 1 = 3 days)
That is, PhP979.52 (3 days) = PhP2,938.56
iii. Subtract the amount calculated in ii) from the amount calculated in i) then divide
by 31.
That is, (PhP39,400.99 – PhP2,938.56)/31 = PhP1,176.21 which is the average daily
balance.
To compute the current interest due to charges, multiply the average daily balance by
the specified monthly periodic rate. That is,
Current interest due = 3.5% (PhP1,176.21)
= PhP41.17
To compute the total amount owe in the credit card company this month, add the
previous balance due (including previous interest due), the current interest due, and the total
of all new purchases. That is,
Total due for this month = PhP1,291.97 + PhP41.17 +PhP2,707.25 – PhP1,000
= PhP3,040.39
Some credit card companies compute the average daily balance tends to be favored
by stores and banks that encourage you to carry forward a balance by requiring only a token
minimal payment each month. As you might expect, this includes interest charges and new
purchases in of the average daily balance. New purchases will be counted from the transaction
date unless that date is earlier than the beginning of the current billing cycle. If this is the case,
the new purchases will be considered to have occurred on the first day of the billing cycle. This
situation may arise if the establishment where the purchases were made did not submit the bills
to the credit card company quickly. The next method is more costly to the credit card users.

Example 3: Consider the data of the previous example. Compute the average daily balance.
Solution:
1. Compute the number of days in the billing cycle that runs from 12/11/18 to
01/11/19
From 12/11/18 to 12/31/18 there are: 20 days
From 12/31/18 to 01/11/19 there are: 11 days
Total 31 days
2. Count the previous balance due:
Multiply Net previous balance by the total number of days.
That is, P 1,291.47 (31 days) = 40,035.57
3. Count the appropriate number of days for each purchase and multiply the
amount of the new purchases by that number of days.

i. Since the closing date of the previous billing cycle was 12/10/18, the date of
this transaction is taken to be the first day of the current cycle, which is
12/11/18; thus, the purchase is counted 31 times.
475.00 x 31 = 14,725

ii. The purchase made at MS Department Store:

From 12/17/18 to 12/31/18 15 days
From 01/01/19 to 01/11/19 11 days
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907.25 x 26 = 14,725

iii. The purchase made at Golden Records:

From 12/21/18 to 12/31/18 11 days
From 01/01/19 to 01/11/19 11 days
450.00 x 22 = 9,900
iv. The purchase made at Pizza House:
From 12/27/18 to 12/31/18 5 days
From 01/01/19 to 01/11/19 11 days
875.00 x 16 = 14,725
Number Purchase
Posting Date of Description of Amount
of days times no. of
Date Purchase Transaction (in peso) days
12/14 12/07 New Global Store 475.00 31 14,725.50
12/27 12/17 MS Department Store 907.25 26 23,588.50
01/07 12/21 Golden Records 450.00 22 9,900.00
01/07 12/27 Pizza House 875.00 16 14,000.00
01/09 01/09 Payment – Thank you 1,000.00

4. Count the full payment made:

Multiply full payment made by the number of days from the billing cycle.
(closing date – date payment made + 1 = 3 days)
That is, PhP1,000 (3 days) = 3,000.00
5. Compute the average daily balance. Subtract step 4 from the sum of steps 2
and 3, then divide by the number of days in the billing cycle (step 1). That is,
(40,035.57+14,725.50+23,588.50+ 9,900.00+14,000.00) – 3,000
= 3,201.60
31
The difference between the first and the second method is P161.21. The current interest
due charges is:
Current interest due = 3.5% (PhP3,201.60)
= PhP112.06
The total amount owe in the credit card company is the sum of the previous balance
due, the current interest due, the total of all new purchases.
Total due for this month = PhP1,291.47 + PhP112.06 + PhP2,707.25 – PhP1,000
= PhP 3,110.78

Learning Check

Activity # 3
Do the following:
A new credit card with a credit limit of P100,000 is opened with the following
information during the first billing cycle. The billing cycle starts on the 11th of the month
and ends on the 10th of the next month with due date 25 days following the end of the
billing cycle. The monthly periodic interest rate is 3.5%. The minimum payment is P500 or
5% of the new balance, whichever is larger. If the entire new balance from the previous
billing cycle is paid on before the due date, no interest will be charged for the purchases
made for the current billing cycle. Find the following:
a) Available credit and due date
b) Total purchases
c) Minimum payment
d) Average daily balance
e) Interest and New balance due

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Date of Posting Amount

Description of Transaction
purchase Date (in peso)
03/10/18 03/12/18 Jollibee Puerto Princesa 520.00
03/14/18 03/14/18 National Bookstore Robinsons Place Palawan 487.00
\

03/18/18 03/19/18 Tongyang 1,950.00

03/23/18 03/26/18 Coffee Bean SM Palawan 1,064.00
04/10/18 04/10/18 Payment – Thank you 1,000.00

D. Stocks and Bonds

Though in today’s generation, there are lot of young individuals who are engaging in
investment, still majority are not religiously investing their money. We are still searching for the
perfect investment possessing the following factors such as completely secure (the worth of the
investment would not be less than what you have paid for); investments that can be turned
back into cash at any time; appreciates in values; and offers a high yield.
The security factor of an investment (whether or not you will get at least the original
investment back) is based on the anticipated financial condition of the economy and the
issuing corporation, agency or government body. The Philippine Deposit Insurance Corporation
(PDIC) is responsible for the security of some investments – saving accounts and certificates of
deposit for each depositor is entitled to payment of the total amount of his deposit but not
exceeding Php 500,000 which is the maximum amount of insurance coverage for a closed bank.
Some of these investments offer good yields as well, but they do not appreciate. Certificates of
deposit give highest yields. However, it may also carry a penalty for early withdrawal.
Liquidity as a factor is the most intuitively obvious aspects of investments. It pertains to
how readily an investment can be turned back into cash. An individual can usually sell a stock
in one business day, although not necessarily for the price he originally paid for it, but not for the
investments like arts and antiques.
Appreciation as a factor tends to be more speculative since it primarily reflects future
occurrences. However, the lure of getting more than your original investment back is one of
the major attractions of investing.

The yield on investment is essentially the rate of interest you can earn on the original
investment.
Investments always involve risks. In real estate investments offer possibilities of
appreciating but tend not to be liquid. You cannot immediately turn back into cash. Once you
need the cash, you might have to sell at a loss.
Aside from real estate, you can invest in stocks and bonds. Stock is a share of the value
of a company which can be bought, sold, or traded as an investment while bonds are official
documents in which a government or company promises to pay back an amount of money
that it has borrowed and to pay interest for the borrowed money.
Investing in stocks is high in liquidity but varies widely with respect to security and
appreciation. There are stocks that are highly secured and offer a good yield but tend to
appreciate very slowly; and the more speculative stocks may show very rapid appreciation – or
equally rapid and dramatic drops in value – but are likely to have zero yield.
Bonds produce higher yields than stocks. Bonds with higher quality ratings, signify
greatest security but have lower yields than bonds which are rated less highly. There is no bond
that is totally secure. If the corporation, state of the city agency that issues the bond runs into
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financial trouble and cannot pay anymore its debts, the bond may not be redeemed at all, or
it may be redeemed for less than its face value at maturity.
Bonds are issued with a maturity date (the date they are redeemable for the peso value
printed on the bond – the face or par value). Each accountable officer whose total
accountability is not less than Php 5,000 shall be bonded. The amount of bond shall depend on
the total accountability of the officer as fixed by the Head of the Agency (COA Circular No.
2006 – 005).
The annual effective yield is the rate of interest that you would realize if you put you
money on time deposit and savings accounts. The yield on stocks is the amount of money you
can earn in dividends expressed as a percentage of the price you paid per share of the stock.
A stockholder can also make money from a stock when there is an increase in price of a share.
The example below illustrates how an individual will be earning a dividend from stock.

Example 1: In March 2017, ABC Corporation stock was paying a yearly dividend of Php 200 per
share. If you owned 50 shares of ABC how much you would be earning each year?
Solution:
You would earn a dividend of
200 (50) = Php 10,000 each year
Note:
1. The total amount of dividends you receive is independent of what you paid for the stock.
It reflects only the total number of shares you own.
2. The yield on your investment is based on the price you paid for each share of stock. It is
independent of the number of shares you own.
Consider the next example.

Example 2: Suppose you bought ABC on January 15, 1988 at the closing price of PhP200 per
share. The dividend of PhP10 per share (per annum) is like earned interest. Find the
yield (interest rate).

Solution:
Annual Dividend per share
Percent (Dividend) Yield = x 100%
Current Price per share
10
Percent (Dividend) Yield = x100%=5.0 percent
200

Note: When the stock was bought for less money, the yield would be higher, while when it was
paid for more money, the yield would be smaller if the dividends remain the same.
Hence, the yield on stocks is a percentage on the dividend and price paid per share,
those people who buy the same stock at different prices earn different yield.

Example 3: Suppose the original price per share of your ABC shares is P1,000 and pay you P25
per share in annual dividends. What is the total stock return of investment if the
current price per share is P1,075?
Solution:
(Current Stock Price-Original Stock Price) +Dividends
Total Stock ROI =
Original Stock Price
(1,075-1000) +25
Total Stock ROI = =10 percent
1000

Example 4: Few weeks after Julie bought ABC Corporation stock at Php200 per share, it went
up to Php250 per share, would it affect Julie’s yield?
Solution:

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It would not affect Julie’s yield. No matter what the current price of the stock is, the fact
that she invested Php200 per share, and earned Php 10 per year per share, then 5 percent was
still be the yield.

Example 5: Refer to the previous example, observe that a yield of 5 percent may not seem high.
If she sold the stock at Php250 per share, how much she had realized as her annual
return?
Solution:
There was an increased of Php 50 per share ( capital grain per share) with percent
increase of 25 percent. Hence, she had realized an annual return of 30 percent ( 30 percent =
25 percent appreciation + 5 percent dividend yield).
Notes: 1. Irrespective of appreciation (capital gain) or depreciation (capital loss), the yield does
not change during the time one owns the stock. But the annual return varies up or down
with capital gains or losses.
2. In comparing different investments, look at the annual return and annual effective
yield.
3. The stock was sold after one year, so the annual yield was relatively straightforward. In
real situation, however, it would not be as simple because you probably won’t sell the
stock in exactly one year, then the computation of annual return (internal rate of
return) becomes very complex and it is beyond the scope of the book.

The following examples are illustrations of yields on bonds.

Example 6: Supposed on January 15, 1988, ABC Agency issued bonds at 4.875% (retail treasury
bond rate) with a maturity date of 2020. If University XYZ bought a Php 3,000,000
bond for Mrs. Rodriguez and paid Php 3,000,000 for it (that is, paid its full-face value).
How much she will be earning per year in interest?
Solution:
Using the simple interest rate,
I = Prt
I = 3,000,000(.04875)(1)= PhP146,250
Notes: 1. In buying a bond, you rarely pay the face value.
2. Bonds are traded or sold for more or less than their face value. The selling price
depends on general market conditions, the soundness of the issuing agency and
competing interest rates.
3. The yield on bonds depends on the price you pay for each Php100 of face value,
even though the quoted interest rate remains unchanged.
4. There are two kinds of bonds: Government bonds (issued by the government to
finance its activities; and Corporate bonds (issued by the private corporations to
finance their long-term requirements).
In our country, Retail Treasury Bonds (RTBs) are medium to long-term investments to make
securities available to small investors. RTBs allow investors to invest and grow their money with
very low risk of losing. It’s considered a fixed income security, which means that one can earn a
fixed interest rate of 6.25% (subject to 20% final withholding tax except for tax-except institutions)
based on the principal market given on a quarterly basis. These can easily be bought or sold in
the secondary market through PDEX accredited brokers like Security Bank.
People buy bonds because of the following reasons:
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1. Bonds tend to be a reasonable secure investment.

2. Bonds are redeemable at maturity for their full-face value (if the issuer is then financially
healthy enough to meet the debt).
3. Their yield is relatively high. Yields on bonds are computed as follows:

Quoted Interest rate

Current Yield= x100%
Price Paid per Php100 of face value

Example 7: What is the current yield if you paid the premium price of Php105 for ABC bond with
quoted interest of 6.25 percent?
Solution:
6.25
Current Yield= x100%= 5.95%
105

Take note that the yield is less than the quoted 6.25 percent interest.

Example 8: If you bought a bond at the discounted rate of Php93 (per Php100 of face value),
compute for the yield.
Solution:
6.25
Current Yield= x100%= 6.72%
93

Observe that it is seventy-seven hundredths of a percent more than the quoted interest
rate.
The selling price of bonds is, in large part, dependent upon the prevailing interest rates in
the market. The bond issued at a low rate, in terms of current standards, is likely to sell at a
considerable discount, thereby boosting the yield to a level that is more in line with the other
interest rates.

Try this!

1. On January 25, 2017, a JBA bond, maturing in 2036, sold for Php63.25 with a quoted
interest rate of 7 1/8 percent. Find the current yield.
2. Refer to (1). An earlier issue of JBA bond (maturing 2015) sold for P104.85. It has a
quoted interest rate of 13.25 percent. What is the current yield? How does it differ
from the quoted interest rate?

Notes: 1. Like the yield on stocks, the yield on bond is independent of what the bond sells for
before or after you buy it.
2. The yield only reflects the prince you paid and the rate of interest quoted.
3. If you sell the bond before maturity, you may experience a capital gain or loss which
would affect total return, just it did on stocks.
But like any investment, neither stocks or bonds come up to “par” on every factor that
need to be considered. Weigh the importance of the factors of yield, security, appreciation and
liquidity against one another. Always remember that there is no such thing as a perfect
investment.

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Learning Check
Activity # 4

Do the following.
1. A man owns 100 shares of ABC Corporation stock paying a yearly dividend of Php 200
per share. How much the man would be earning each year?

2. Suppose your friend bought 50 shares of stock at the closing price of P1,000 per share.
The dividend of Php 15 per share (per annum) is like earned interest. Find the yield
(interest rate).

3. Suppose the original price per share of your IRL shares is P1,500 and pay you P50 per
share in annual dividends. What is the total stock return of investment if the current
price per share is P1,700?

4. A stock at P500 per share goes up to Php250 per share, would it affect the yield?

5. If the yield of 5 percent is given per share per annum. If she sold the stock at Php1000
per share from the original of P800 per share, how much she had realized as her annual
return?

6. ABC Agency issued bonds at 4.875% (retail treasury bond rate) on January 15, 2005
worth P6M for Mrs. Lopez and she paid its full face value with a maturity date of 2020.
How much she will be earning per year in interest?

7. What is the current yield if you paid the premium price of Php 500 for ABC bond with
quoted interest of 5.75 percent?

8. If you bought a bond at the discounted rate of Php 190 (per Php200 of face value),
compute for the yield.

9. On January 10, 2018, a JBA bond, maturing in 2030, sold for Php85 with a quoted
interest rate of 8 percent. Find the current yield.

10. Refer to Number 8: An earlier issue of JBA bond (maturing 2016) sold for P110. It has a
quoted interest rate of 12 percent. What is the current yield? How does it differ from
the quoted interest rate?

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E. Mutual Funds

A mutual fund is an investment that pools money from the investing public and use that
money to buy other securities, usually stocks and bonds. Investing in a share of a mutual fund is
different from investing in shares of stock. A share of a mutual fund represents investments in
many different stocks (or other securities) instead of just one holding. The common categories
of mutual funds are as follows: Equity or stock funds, fixed income or bond funds, balanced
fund, and money market funds.

The largest category is that of equity or stock funds. The funds are invested principally in
stocks.

A fixed income or bond mutual funds focus on investments that pay a set rate of return,
such as government bonds, corporate bonds, or other debt instruments. These funds are
often actively managed and seek to buy relatively undervalued bonds in order to sell them at
a profit. These mutual funds are likely to pay higher returns than certificates of deposit and
money market investments.

Balanced funds or asset allocation funds invest in both stocks and bonds to reduce the
risk of exposure to one asset class or another. An investor may expect to find the allocation of
these funds among asset classes relatively unchanging, though it will differ among funds. The
goal of the balanced fund is asset appreciation with lower risk. However, these funds carry the
same risk and can be as subject to fluctuation as other classifications of funds.

The money market consists of safe (risk-free) short-term debt instruments, mostly
government treasury bills. This is a safe place to park your money. You won't get substantial
returns, but you won't have to worry about losing your principal. A typical return is a little more
than the amount you would earn in a regular checking or savings account and a little less than
the average certificate of deposit (CD).

The price of a mutual fund’s share is referred to as the net asset value per share
(NAVPS). Mutual fund shares can typically be purchased or redeemed as needed at the fund's
current net asset value (NAV), which unlike a stock price it doesn't fluctuate during market hours,
but is settled at the end of each trading day. A fund's NAV is the ratio of total value of the
securities in the portfolio and the total amount of shares outstanding (all shareholders). It should
be noted also that most funds will charge a fee either upon investment or redeeming the shares
of mutual funds. The mutual fund will classify expenses into either annual operating fees or
shareholder fees. Annual fund operating fees are an annual percentage of the funds under
management, usually ranging from 1-3%.

Annual operating fees are collectively known as the expense ratio. A fund's expense ratio
is the summation of the advisory or management fee and its administrative costs. Shareholder
fees come in the form of sales charges, commissions, and redemption fees, are paid directly by
investors when purchasing or selling the funds. Sales charges or commissions are known as "the
load" of a mutual fund. When a mutual fund has a front-end load, fees are assessed when shares
are purchased. For a back-end load, mutual fund fees are assessed when an investor sells his
shares. ([Link]

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Example 1: What is the net asset value of an investment company with P100M in assets, P30M
in current liabilities, and P2,000 shares outstanding?

Solution:
Assets PhP100M
Liabilities PhP30M
Equity PhP70M
PhP70M
Net asset value (per share) = =PhP35,000
PhP2,000

Example 2: A man invested P200,000 with the LACRO Equity Fund with 3.0052 NAVPS for this
equity.
a. What is the value of his money in terms of shares?
b. Find his gain over the original invested amount if after a year he decided to redeem
all his shared from the equity fund upon knowing that the NAVPS has increased to
3.4835.

Solution:
Investment
a. Asset Value =
NAVPS
PhP200,000
Asset Value = = PhP66,551.31
PhP3.0052

Value man’s money in terms of the number of shares in the mutual fund.
b. Find first the man’s returns = Asset Value x Increase in NAVPS
= PhP66,551.31(PhP3.4835 - PhP3.0052)
= PhP31,831.49
Returns 31,831.49
Gain = = =15.92 percent
Investment 200,000

An investor buys shares in a mutual fund for P20,000 per share. At the end of the year the
fund distributes a dividend of P2,500, and after the distribution the net asset value of a share is
P22,500. What would be the investor’s percentage return on the investment?

Solution:
The investor received P2,500 and experienced appreciation of $2,500 (P22,500 - P20,000)
5,000
for a total gain of P5,000. On an investment of P20,000, the return (for one year) is = 25%.
20,000

Example 3: If a mutual fund’s net asset value is P10,000 and the fund sells its shares for P11,000,
what is the load fee as a percentage of the net asset value?

Solution:
Load fee: PhP12,000 – PhP11,000 = PhP1,000
1,000
Load fee as a percent of net asset value: = 10%
10,000
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Example 4: If an investor buys shares in a no-load mutual fund for P300 and the shares
appreciate to $333 in a year, what would be the percentage return on the
investment? If the fund charges an exit fee of 1 percent, what would be the return
on the investment?
Solution:
The investor earned PhP33 on an investment of PhP300 for a percentage gain of 11%.

33
That is, = 0.11
300

The exit fee reduces the terminal value by PhP3.33 (1% of PhP33) to PhP329.67 (PhP333 –
29.67
PhP3.33), so the net gain is PhP29.67, and the percentage return is = 9.89%. Notice that the
300
1 percent exit fee applies to the total value and not the gain so that the percentage increase
is reduced by more than 1 percent.

Example 5: A closed-end investment company is currently selling for PhP1000 and its net asset
value is PhP1000. Elkee decide to purchase 100 shares. During the year, the
company distributes PhP100 per share in dividends. At the end of the year, you sell
the shares for PhP1200. At the time of the sale, net asset value is PhP1300. What
percentage return do you earn on the investment if no commissions were charged?
Solution:
For closed-end funds, the net asset value does not affect the return, which depends on
the distributions received and the change in the price. The value of the shares rose from
PhP100,000 to PhP120,000, hence the capital gain is PhP20,000, and the company made a
distribution of PhP10,000. The percentage return is

PhP120,000 + 10,000
− 1 = 30%
100,000

Example 6: A closed-end investment company is currently selling for PhP1,000 and a man
purchases 100 shares. During the year, the company distributes PhP100 in dividends.
At end of the year, you sell the shares for PhP1,200. The commission on each
transaction (purchase and sale) is PhP50. What percentage return do you earn on
the investment?
Solution:
This problem adds the commissions on the purchase and sale. The percentage return is
PhP1,200(100) + 100(100)-50(100)
− 1 = 19.05%
1,000(100)+50(100)

The PhP50 commissions on both the purchase and the sale cut the return substantially.
(Using an online broker would reduce the commissions.)

Example 7: You buy 100 shares in a mutual fund at its net asset value of P1,000. The fund charges
a load fee of 6 percent. During the year, the mutual fund distributes P100 in
dividends. You redeem the shares for 1,200 per share, and the fund does not charge
an exit fee. What percentage return do you earn on the investment?

Solution:
In this problem, the investor acquires shares in a mutual fund that charges a load fee,
which is charged when the shares are bought. The percentage return is
120,000+10,000
− 1 = 22.64%
100,000+6,000
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Unlike the commissions in the previous example, the load fee is paid only when the shares
are purchased.

F. Home Mortgages

Home mortgage is probably the largest loan an individual will ever have and next is
car loan. Any loan where you pay back part of the principal and interest in periodic installments
over time works much the same way. All mortgages operated at a fixed rate of interest. This
means that the interest rates do not fluctuate and, consequently, the amount of the payment
remained constant over the life of the loan.

The amount of the payment is based on the total amount of the loan, the length of the
loan (its term), the rate of interest and the frequency of the payments (usually in monthly basis).
The formula for computing the exact amount of the mortgage payment or payment on an auto
loan or nay other long-term, fixed – rate loan is
n
i∙(1+i)
Payment = Amount of loan ∙ n
(1+i) -1
where i is the periodic interest rate (quoted interest); and 𝑛 is the total number of payments to
be made.

Example 1: Suppose the house cost PhP1,800,000 and you made a PhP200,000 down payment
with 30 – year mortgage at 6.5 percent. How much is each monthly payment?
Solution:
.065
Amount of loan = PhP1,600,000 ; i = = 0.005417 ; n = 360
12
n
i∙(1+i)
Payment = Amount of loan ∙ n
(1+i) -1

(.005417) ∙ (1 + .005417)360
Payment = PhP1,600,000 ∙
(1 + .005417)360 − 1
= Php10,113.09

The monthly mortgage payment would be Php 10,113.09 for 30 years.

Example 2: Refer to the previous example. What will happen to the monthly payment on
Php1,600,000 for 20 – year mortgage at the same rate?
Solution:
.065
Amount of loan = Php1,600,000 ; 𝑖 = = 0.005417 ; 𝑛 = 240
12
𝑖∙(1+𝑖)𝑛
𝑃𝑎𝑦𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑛 ∙
(1+𝑖)𝑛 −1

(.005417) ∙ (1 + .005417)240
𝑃𝑎𝑦𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 1,600,000 ∙
(1 + .005417)240 − 1
= 𝑃ℎ𝑝11,929.17

Thus, the effect of a shorter term (all other factors being unchanged) is to increase the
amount of each payment. The difference between two terms is only Php1,816.08 (almost
Php2,000). Putting into contract for shorter term is considered as “best buy” than the longer term

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of loan. The decision will still be dependent on the capacity of the buyer to handle the monthly
payment.

Example 3: You are going to buy a car which cost Php1,200,000 by paying 20 percent deposit
and the remaining amount to be paid at 12 percent and are to make equal
payments for three years. How much will your monthly car payments be?
Solution:
0.12
𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑛 = 𝑃ℎ𝑝 960,000 ; 𝑖 = = 0.01 ; 𝑛 = 36
12
𝑖∙(1+𝑖)𝑛
𝑃𝑎𝑦𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑛 ∙
(1+𝑖)𝑛 −1

(.01)∙(1+.01)36
𝑃𝑎𝑦𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 960,000 ∙
(1+.01)36 −1

= 𝑃ℎ𝑝31,885.74

Note:
Keep as many decimal places as possible. Keeping only a limited number of decimal
positions results in slight inaccuracies in your answers compared with the answers the bank
would obtain.

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Evaluation

Let us now determine how much you understand from this module!

I. Do the following simple interest problems.

1. Find the simple interest of the following.
a. Php 3,420 at 6.5 percent for 9 months
b. Php 21,000 at 8 percent for 11 months
2. Find the simple interest. Assume a 360 – day year and a 30-day month.
a. Php 11,200 at 10 percent; loan made on June 15 and due September 16.
b. Php 5,480 at 12 percent; loan made on January 18 and November 12.
3. Find the present value of the following future amount. Assume 360 days in a year.
a. Php 30,000 at 9.3 percent; loan made on July 8 and due December 16.
b. Php 15,050 at 6 percent for 128 days
4. Find the proceeds for each loan. Assume 360 days in a year.
a. Php 35,200 at 9 percent; loan made on June 15 and due September 16.
b. Php 15,350 at 11 percent; loan made on January 18 and November 12.
5. Find the interest rate to the nearest tenth on the proceeds for the following simple
discount notes.
a. Php 58,000 at 9 percent for 9 months
b. Php 43,000 at 9.5 percent for 4 months
6. To pay for bills, a student borrows P2,500 from the student credit union at 3 percent simple
interest. He will repay the loan in 38 days when he expects to receive his monthly
allowance. How much interest will he pay? (Assume 360-day year)
7. A Php40,000 certificate of deposit held for 60 days is worth Php41,300. To the nearest
tenth of a percent, what interest rate was earned?
8. Tuition of Php 6780 will be due when the first term begins in 4 months. What amount should
a student deposit today, at 6.5 percent, to have enough to pay the tuition?
9. Dr. Amy Coo needs a loan from her bank and agreed to pay Php100,000 in 11 months.
The bank subtracts a discount of 13 percent and gives the balance to Dr. Coo. Find the
amount of the discount and the proceeds.
10. A building contractor gives Php25,000 note to a plumber. The note is due in 10 months,
with interest rate of 6 percent. Four months after the note is signed, the plumber discounts
it at the bank. The bank charges a 10 percent discount rate. How much will the plumber
receive? Will it be enough to pay a bill for Php26,000?
II. Answer the following compound interest questions.
1. What is the difference between 𝑟 and 𝐼, and 𝑡 and 𝑛 in the compound interest formula?
2. What factors determine the amount of interest earned on the fixed principal?
3. In your own words, describe the maturity value of a loan.
4. If interest is compounded more than once per year, which rate is higher, the stated rate
or the effective rate?
5. If money can be invested 8% compounded quarterly, which is larger: Php 1000 now or
Php 1210 in 5 years? Use present value to decide.
6. Find the compound amount and the interest earned by the following deposits.
1. Php15000 at 12% compounded quarterly for 8 years
2. Php 8000 at 4% compounded semiannually for 6.4 years

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7. Find the compound amount if Php 20000 is invested at 10 percent compounded

continuously for the following number of years.
a. 8 years c. 15 years
b. 9.4 years d. 20 years

8. Find the effective rate corresponding to the following nominal rates.

a. 4% compounded quarterly
b. 8% compounded semiannually
9. Given the following future amounts, find the present values.
a. Php 4253.90 at 6% compounded annually for four years
b. Php 5240 at 8% compounded quarterly for six years
10. A particular bank offered the following special on certificate of deposits rates. The rates
are annual percentage yield, or effective rates, which are higher than the corresponding
nominal rates. Assume quarterly compounding. Solve for r to approximate the
corresponding nominal rates to the nearest hundredth.
11. A man decides to invest a Php 100,000 bonus in a money market fund that guarantees
6% annual interest rate compounded monthly for five years. A one-time pay of Php 300 is
charged to set up the account. In addition, there is an annual administrative charge of
1.25% of the balance in the account at the end of each year.
a. How much is in the account at the end of the first year?
b. How much is in the account at the end of the five years?

III. Answer/Solve the following application problems

1. Elkee is saving for a car. At the end of each month he puts P10,000 in a savings account
that pays 8 percent interest rate compounded quarterly. How much is in the account
after 5 years?
2. Joy deposits P20,000 at the end of each year for 10 years in an account paying 12%
interest compounded quarterly.
(a) Find the final amount she will have on account.
(b) Her sister Allen invested in bank B that pays 8% compounded semiannually. If Joy
deposits her money in this bank B instead of the one above, how much will she have
in her account?
(c) How much would Joy lose/gain over 10 years by investing her money in bank B?
3. At the end of each month, a 50-year old professional puts P5,000 in a retirement account
that pays 12 percent interest compounded quarterly. When he reaches age 60, she
withdraws the whole amount and places it in a mutual fund that pays 18% interest
compounded monthly. From them on the deposits P1,250 in the mutual fund at the end
of each month. How much is in the account when he reaches age 65?
4. Denise made payments of P2,000 per month at the end of each month to purchase a
piece of property. At the end of 10 years, she completely owned the property, which
she sold for P500,000. What annual interest rate would she need to earn on an ordinary
annuity for a comparable rate of return?
5. Mr. Torre plans to retire in 20 years. He will make 120 equal monthly contributions to his
account. Ten years after his last contribution he will begin the first of 120 monthly
withdrawals from his account. He also expects to withdraw P25,000 per month. His
account also earns interest of 10.5%, compounded monthly throughout the life of this
problem. How large must Mr. Torre’s monthly contributions be in order to accomplish his
goals?

IV. Answer/Solve the following problems.

1. In your own understanding, what are the present value and future values of an annuity.
For a given annuity, which is larger? Why?
2. Suppose the man in Example 6.3.2, cannot get the highest interest rate to produce P3.5M
in 20 years. To meet that goal at an interest rate of 8 percent, he must increase his monthly
payment. What payment should he make each month?
3. Eljay plans to buy a house for P2,212,000. He will pay 20% down and finance the remaining
for 15 years at 8.9% interest, compounded monthly.
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a) How large are the monthly payments?

b) What will be the loans balance right after he has made 90 payment?
c) How mch interest will he pays during the 7th year of the loan?
d) If he was to increase his monthly payments by P5000, how long would it take to pay
off the loan?

V. Solve the following application problems

1. Elkee is saving for a car. At the end of each month he puts P10,000 in a savings account
that pays 8 percent interest rate compounded quarterly. How much is in the account
after 5 years?
2. Joy deposits P20,000 at the end of each year for 10 years in an account paying 12%
interest compounded quarterly.
(d) Find the final amount she will have on account.

VII. Solve the following application problems

A new credit card account with credit limit of P90,000 is opened with the following information
during the first billing cycle. The billing cycle starts on the 11th of the month and ends on the
10th of the next month with due date 25 days following the end of the billing cycle. The monthly
periodic interest rate is 3.5%. The minimum payment is P500 or 5% of the new balance,
whichever is larger. If the entire new balance from the previous billing cycle is paid on of
before the due date, no interest will be charged for the purchases made for the current billing
cycle. Find the following:
f) Available credit and due date
g) Total purchases
h) Minimum payment
i) Average daily balance
j) Interest and New balance due
1.
Date of Posting Amount
Description of Transaction
purchase Date (in peso)
04/15/18 04/16/18 Department Store Megamall 3,450.25
04/1718 04/17/18 Palawan Cafe Robinsons Place Palawan 1,540.00
04/21/18 04/23/18 NCCC Department Store Palawan 3,425.80
04/27/18 04/27/18 Shakey’s Pizza SM Puerto Princesa 2,019.00
04/27/18 04/28/18 Globe Telecom, Inc. SM Puerto Princesa 1,741.00

2.
Date of Posting Amount
Description of Transaction
purchase Date (in peso)
Previous Statement Balance 1,176.05
05/11/18 05/11/18 Grocery Robinson’s Place Palawan 2,021.75
05/11/18 05/12/18 Palawan Cafe Robinsons Place Palawan 775.00
05/11/18 05/11/18 PLDT Puerto Princesa City 1,723.00
05/11/18 05/12/18 Mesa Restaurant SM Puerto Princesa 1,332.95
05/12/18 05/12/18 Globe Telecom, Inc. SM Puerto Princesa 1,741.00
05/18/18 05/18/18 Payment Received – Thank you (2,176.05)
05/27/18 05/27/18 National Bookstore SM Puerto Princesa 2,478.00
05/27/18 05/27/18 Gerry’s Grill SM Puerto Princesa 1,098.90

3.
Date of Posting Amount
Description of Transaction
purchase Date (in peso)
Previous Statement Balance 11,522.34
06/12/18 06/12/18 Handyman Robinson’s Place Palawan 3,500.00
06/1518 06/15/18 Palawan Cafe Robinsons Place Palawan 945.00
06/16/18 06/18/18 PLDT Puerto Princesa City 1,723.00
06/20/18 06/20/18 Shakey’s Pizza House NAIA Terminal 3 2,560.75
06/21/18 06/21/18 Globe Telecom, Inc. SM Puerto Princesa 3,739.00
06/22/18 06/22/18 Payment Received – Thank you (10,000.00)
06/25/18 06/25/18 National Bookstore Robinsons Place Palawan 1,425.00
06/29/18 06/29/18 NCCC Department Store Palawan 2,321.40

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4.
Date of Posting Amount
Description of Transaction
purchase Date (in peso)
Previous Statement Balance 5,000.00
07/10/18 07/10/18 NCCC Grocery Store Palawan 2,982.35
07/12/18 07/15/18 Watsons Megamall 945.00
07/12/18 07/12/18 Jollibee UPLB 921.75
07/16/18 07/16/18 PLDT Puerto Princesa City 1,723.00
07/18/18 07/18/18 Globe Telecom, Inc. SM Puerto Princesa 1,132.00
07/20/18 07/20/18 National Bookstore SM Puerto Princesa 2,321.40
08/06/18 08/06/18 Payment Received – Thank you (10,000.00)
08/08/18 08/08/18 NCCC Department Store Palawan 1,425.00

5.
Date of Posting Amount
Description of Transaction
purchase Date (in peso)
Previous Statement Balance 4,680.00
08/10/18 08/10/18 CitiHardware Palawan 8,575.00
08/11/18 08/13/18 Wilcon Puerto Princesa 2,745.00
08/13/18 08/13/18 Shakey’s Pizza Rizal 2019.00
08/20/18 08/20/18 PLDT Puerto Princesa City 1,723.00
08/22/18 08/22/18 Globe Telecom, Inc. SM Puerto Princesa 5,147.00
08/31/18 08/31/18 SM Grocery Puerto Princesa 2,980.15
09/06/18 09/06/18 Payment Received – Thank you (20,000.00)
08/09/18 08/09/18 NCCC Department Store Palawan 3,799.00

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ANSWER KEY

Learning Check (Simple Interest and Discount)

1. ₱70,000
2. ₱12,000
3. 10%
4. 2 2/3 yrs or 2 years and 8 months
5. ₱6,510.62
6. ₱59,106.56
7. ₱6,685.10
8. 9.23%
9. 9%
10. (i) July 14, (ii) February 2 of the following year
11. (i) ₱65,863.01 (ii) ₱64,986.30 (iii) ₱66,777.78 (iv) ₱65,888.89

Learning Check (Compound Interest)

A. Total number of compounding/conversion periods and the interest rate per period.
Term of Investment Annual Interest Conversion Total number Rate per
Rate period per year of conversion conversion
(%) period period
2 years 4 annually 2 4%
10 years 3 semiannually 20 1 ½% or 1.5%
5 years 6 quarterly 20 1 ½% or 1.5%
12 years 8 semiannually 24 4%
1
4 years 12 monthly 54 1%
2
B. Compound Amount and Compound Interest
Principal Term of Annual Conversion Compound Compound
Investment Interest Rate period per Amount Interest
(%) year
PhP8 000 2 years 4 annually ₱8,652.8 ₱652.8
PhP10 000 6 years 3 semiannually ₱11,956.18 ₱1,956.18
PhP18 000 5 years 6 quarterly ₱24,243.97 ₱6,243.39
PhP25 000 11 years 8 semiannually ₱54,247.97 ₱34,247.97
PhP30 000 1
4 years 12 monthly ₱51,342.31 ₱24,342.31
2
C. Present value
1. ₱186,276.40
2. ₱67,099.78
3. ₱22,412.64
4. ₱9,608.53

Learning Check (Credit Card)

a. ₱100,000; 4th of the month following the end of billing cycle
b. ₱4,021
c. ₱1,000
d. ₱2,649
e. ₱92.72 (Interest); ₱3,113.72 (New Balance Due)

Learning Check (Stocks and Bonds)

1. ₱20,000 6. ₱292,500
2. 1.5% 7. 1.15%
3. 16.67% 8. 3.03%
4. No 9. 9.41%
5. 30% 10. It differs by 1.09%

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References

1. Aufmann, R. [Link]. (2018). Mathematical in the Modern World Excursions. Manila,

Philippines: Rex Book Store, Inc.
2. Bluman, A. G. (2003). Elementary Statistics: A Step by Step Approach. 5th Ed. McGraw Hill,
Inc.
3. CENGAGE (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World.
4. DS Malik, MK Sen. Discrete Mathematical Structures.
5. Johnsonbaugh, R. Discrete Mathematics.
6. Guillermo, R.M. (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World. Quezon City: Nieme Publishing
House Co. Ltd.
7. Lactuan, I. R. et. al. (2018). Instructional Material in Mathematics in the Modern World.
Puerto Princesa City: Palawan State University.
8. Nocon, R. C. & E. G. Nocon (2018). Essential Mathematics for the Modern World. C & E
Publishing, Inc.
9. Nocon and Nocon (2018). Essential Mathematics for the Modern World.
10. Stewart, I. Nature’s Numbers. [Link]
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