LESSON 1

 Earth’s Surface
 The outermost layer of the solid surface of the planet, known
as the Earth's crust, is what gives the planet its thin, inflexible
shell.
 Earth's surface is home to a vast range of landforms and
landscapes, which are
the result of the
interaction of various
minerals, rocks, and
geological
characteristics.
 Continental crust and
oceanic crust are the
two primary categories
of crust.
 Categories of Crust
 Continental Crust – it is made mostly of granitic rocks, this form
of crust is thicker and less dense than other types. The Earth's
continental crust, which is made up of plains, mountain
ranges, and a variety of geological features, creates the
continents and bigger landmasses. Because of its composition
and thickness, it is less dense than the oceanic crust.
 Landforms
Mountains Plains Plateaus
High land rising Flat, wide area Elevated flat area
sharply of land

Mt. Apo (Davao) Agusan Plain Indian peninsula

Valleys Mountain Range Volcano
Low area between Long chain of Opening where
mountains mountains lava and gas
escape

Cagayan Valley Sierra Madre, Mt. Mayon, Bicol

Quezon
  Oceanic Crust – it is mostly composed of basaltic rocks, the
oceanic crust is thinner and denser than the continental crust.
Underwater volcanic activity, deep-sea trenches, and mid-
ocean ridges are characteristics of this type of crust, which
resides beneath the ocean basins. The seafloor spreading and
subduction processes constantly build and destroy oceanic
crust.
 Landforms
Trench Mid-Ocean Ridge
Deepest part of the ocean Underwater mountain chain
floor

Philippine Trench
Seamount Abyssal Plain
Underwater volcano Flat and deep part of the
ocean floor

Benham Rise, Philippines

LESSON 2

 Volcano and Mountain

Distinct Volcano Mountain
Differences
Formation Volcanoes are formed Mountains are typically
by the accumulation of formed by tectonic forces,
volcanic material such as the collision or
ejected during convergence of tectonic
eruptions plates, or by erosion and
uplift over time
Composition Volcanoes are Mountains may consist of
composed of volcanic a variety of rock types,
rocks, lava flows, and including sedimentary,
ash deposits igneous, and
metamorphic rocks.
 Activity Volcanoes are often Mountains may be
associated with relatively dormant and
ongoing volcanic inactive
activity, including
eruptions, earthquakes,
and the release of
gasses
Shape Volcanoes often have Mountains can have a
distinctive shapes, such variety of shapes and
as conical or dome-like forms, depending on
structures, resulting from their geological history
the accumulation of and the processes that
volcanic material shaped them
around the vent.

MOUNTAINS

Mt. Apo Mt. Pulag Mt. Kitanglad

provinces of provinces of Mountain Range in
Cotabato and Benguet, Ifugao and Bukidnon
Davao del Sur Nueva Vizcaya.
VOLCANOES

Mayon Volcano Taal Volcano Mount Pinatubo

Albay, Bicol Batangas tripoint of Zambales,
Tarlac and Pampanga
provinces
 Types of Volcano
 Shield volcanoes
 form when layers of lava from many nonexplosive
eruptions build up. The lava that forms shield
volcanoes is thin and runny.
 Therefore, it spreads out in thin layers over a wide area.
This produces a volcano with a wide base and gently
sloping sides.
  Shield volcanoes can be very large. For example,
Mauna Kea in Hawaii is a shield volcano. Measured
from the base on the ocean floor, Mauna Kea is taller
than Mount Everest!

 Cinder Cone Volcanoes

 are made of pyroclastic material. The pyroclastic
material is produced from explosive eruptions. As it
piles up, it forms a mountain with steep slopes.
 Cinder cones are small. Most of them erupt for only a
short time. For example, Paricutín is a cinder cone
volcano in Mexico. In 1943, Paricutín appeared in a
cornfield. It erupted for only nine years.
 Most cinder cone volcanoes are found in clusters. They
may be found on the sides of other volcanoes. They
erode quickly because the pyroclastic material is
loose and not stuck together.

 Composite Volcanoes
 Composite volcanoes are the most common type of
volcano. They form when a volcano erupts both
explosively and nonexplosively. They have layers of
lava flows and pyroclastic material. They usually have
 a broad base and sides that get steeper toward the
top. Mount St. Helens is a composite volcano.

Summary

Type of Tectonic Size and Magma & Example

Volcano Setting Shape Eruption
Characteristics
Shield Volcano Most are at Large (up Magma is Mauna
the mantle to several almost always Loa in
plumes; 1,000 m mafic, and Hawaii
some are high and eruptions are
on 200 km typically
spreading across), not effusive.
ridges steep
(typically 2-
10 degrees)
Cinder Some form Small (10s Most are mafic Mount
Volcano on the to 100s of and form Iriga in
flanks of m) from the gas- Camarines
larger and steep rich early Sur
volcanoes (>20 stages of a
degrees) shield - or rift Paricutin in
associated Mexico
eruption
Composite Almost all Medium Magma Mount
Volcano are at the size (1000s composition Mayon in
(Stratovolcano) subduction of varies Albay
zones m) and from felsic to
moderate mafic, and Mount Fuji
steepness from explosive in Japan
(10 -30 to elusive.
degrees)
LESSON 3

 Types of Volcanic Eruptions

 Explosive eruptions are characterized by gas-driven

explosions that propels magma and tephra.
 Effusive eruptions, meanwhile, are characterized by the
outpouring of lava without significant explosive eruption.
 Phreatic Eruption (Steam-Blast Eruption)
 Description: This eruption happens when magma
heats underground water, causing it to turn into steam
and expand violently.
 Main Feature: It blasts out steam, ash, and rock
fragments — but no new lava is released.
 Example: The 2018 eruption of Mt. Mayon (Philippines)
started with phreatic explosions.
 Hawaiian Eruption
 Description: This type of eruption is gentle and quiet. It
produces highly fluid (runny) lava that flows easily over
long distances.
 Main Feature: Lava fountains and flows form broad,
shield-shaped volcanoes.
 Example: The eruptions of Kīlauea and Mauna Loa in
Hawaii.
  Strombolian Eruption
 Description: This eruption is moderately explosive and
bursts lava into the air at regular intervals.
 Main Feature: Glowing lava fragments and volcanic
bombs are thrown from the crater, producing short,
rhythmic explosions.
 Example: The eruptions of Stromboli Volcano in Italy,
which erupt almost continuously. Mexico’s Paricutin
Volcano, which lasted from 1943 to 1952.
 Vulcanian Eruption
 Description: A short but powerful explosion caused by
thick, sticky lava that blocks the vent.
 Main Feature: Ash clouds, rock fragments, and gas are
violently ejected; lava doesn’t flow easily.
 Example: The 1991 eruption of Mt. Pinatubo
(Philippines) started with Vulcanian activity. It also
occurred in Sakurajima Volcano in Japan.
 Plinian Eruption
 Description: This is the most violent and destructive
type of eruption. It sends huge columns of gas, ash,
and pumice high into the atmosphere.
 Main Feature: Continuous, towering eruption columns
and widespread ashfall; often leads to volcanic
domes or calderas.
 Example: The Mount Vesuvius eruption in A.D. 79 that
buried Pompeii. Also, 1991 Pinatubo explosion in
Zambales, which is also known as the second-largest
volcanic eruption of the 20th century.
 Why do volcanoes erupt?
 The main factor affecting an eruption is the composition of the
magma. The amounts of water, silica, and gas in the magma
determine the type of eruption.
 Water content
 If magma contains a lot of water, an explosive
eruption is more likely.
 Beneath the surface, magma is under high
pressure. The high pressure allows water to
dissolve into the magma. If the magma rises
quickly, the pressure suddenly decreases and
the water turns to bubbles of gas. As the gases
expand, they cause an explosion.
  This is similar to what happens when you shake
a can of soda and open it. When you shake
the can, the gas dissolved in the soda forms
bubbles. Pressure builds up inside the can.
When you open the can, the pressure causes
the soda to shoot out.
 Silica and Gas content
 Silica is a compound made of the elements
silicon and oxygen. Magma that contains a lot
of silica is very thick and stiff. It flows slowly and
may harden inside a volcano’s vents, blocking
them.
 As more magma pushes up from below, the
pressure increases. If enough pressure builds
up, the volcano can explode.
 Silica-rich magma may be so stiff that water
vapor and other gases cannot move out of the
magma. Trapped bubbles of gas may expand
until they explode. When they explode, the
magma shatters and ash is blasted from the
vent. Magma with less silica is thinner and
runnier.
 Therefore, gases can move out of the magma
easily, and explosive eruptions are less likely.
 Magma
 Magmas are different from each other because they contain
a different chemical composition (different amounts of silica),
which causes them to have different minerals present and
results in rocks of different colors. Rhyolites have more silica
and form lighter colored
minerals, while basalt has
less silica and forms darker
colored rocks.
 Average elemental
proportions in Earth’s crust,
which is close to the
average composition of
magmas within the crust
 Magmas can vary widely in composition, but in general they
are made up of only eight elements; in order of importance:
oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, magnesium,
and potassium.
  Oxygen, the most abundant element in magma, comprises a
little less than half the total, followed by silicon at just over one-
quarter. The remaining elements make up the other one-
quarter. Magmas derived from crustal material are
dominated by oxygen, silicon, aluminum, sodium, and
potassium.
 Classification of Magma
 Magma can be classified into basaltic or mafic, intermediate
or andesitic and Rhyolitic/granitic or felsic.

 Volcanic Hazards
 Ash fall – pulverized rocks, sand, gritty and harsh glasses shoot
out in the air by volcano.
  Mud flow – mixture of water, molten rocks and debris flowing
down from the side of volcano to the ground. It is also called
as Lahar.
 Lava flow – streams of molten rocks and other fragmented
materials emitted by erupting volcano.
 Pyroclastic flow – fast moving hot mixtures of gas, ash, and
molten rocks moving away from the volcano to the ground.
 Tephra – is fragmented volcanic material ejected during an
explosive eruption, ranging in size from fine ash to large
bombs. It is transported by the eruption column or wind and
eventually falls to the ground, blanketing areas downwind.

LESSON 4

 Conditions of Storm
 Unlocking terms
 Adiabatic Temperature Change – a cooling or heating
of the air caused by the contraction or expansion of
air molecules, as opposed to the loss or gain of heat.
 Air pressure – the amount of force exerted on a unit
surface area.
 Altitude – height expressed as the distance above a
reference point, which is normally sea level or ground
level.
 Humidity – the degree to which the air is charged with
water vapor. This may be expressed as absolute
humidity, relative humidity, and specific humidity.
 Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) – an area
closes to the equator where the trade winds of the
Northern and Southern Hemispheres meet.
 Low Pressure Area – an area with meteorological
characteristics such as cloud cover, precipitation,
temperature, and wind that is characterized by lower
air pressure than the surrounding area.
 PAGASA – The Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical,
and Astronomical Services Administration is
responsible for the provision of weather forecasts and
tropical cyclone warnings, flood bulletins and
advisories, and hydrological, climatological, and farm
weather forecasts.
 Storms – these are atmospheric disturbances that are
typified by lightning, thunder, heavy precipitation, and
 powerful winds. Tornadoes, blizzards, and tropical
cyclones are examples of storm forms.
 Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
 An area closes
to the equator
where the trade
winds of the
Northern and
Southern
Hemispheres
meet is known
as the Inter-
Tropical
Convergence Zone or ITCZ.
 ITCZ air becomes more humid and buoyant due to the
combination of warm tropical waters and intense sun heat. By
joining forces, the trade winds help elevate the buoyant air,
which sets off a never-ending chain of thunderstorms as the
air rises, expands, and cools, releasing stored moisture.
 Unlike the typical cold and warm seasons found in higher
latitudes, the seasonal movement of the ITCZ results in
prominent variations in rainfall in many tropical countries,
giving rise to distinct wet and dry seasons unique to tropical
regions. Weather disruptions of a severe nature may arise from
extended movements within the ITCZ.
 Convection Current
 Convection is a mode of heat transfer that occurs in fluids. It
allows hot fluids to be less dense and rise making the cool air
sink. This is called the convection current.
  In terms of Low Pressure Area, it is an area with meteorological
characteristics such as cloud cover, precipitation,
temperature, and wind that is characterized by lower air
pressure than the surrounding area. The air rises, cools, and
forms clouds as it converges into the LPA, which causes rain or
storms to form. The LPA has the potential to intensify into many
weather systems, such as storms or tropical cyclones.
 Storms are atmospheric disturbances that are typified by
lightning, thunder, heavy precipitation, and powerful winds.
Tornadoes, blizzards, and tropical cyclones are examples of
storm forms.

 Condition to form a Typhoon

 In both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, tropical
areas between 5- and 20 degrees’ latitude are where
typhoons normally occur.
 Typhoon formation and intensification require warm sea
surface temperatures of at least 26.5°C (80°F). Typhoons form
over warm ocean waters with sufficient moisture content to
feed the storm.
 Typhoon development is aided by the ITCZ, which provides
the trade winds and an area of low pressure needed for storm
formation to converge.
LESSON 5

 Formation of a Tropical Cyclone

1. Warm Ocean Water (at least 26.5°C):

 The sun heats the ocean’s surface. The warm water
causes evaporation, and the air above becomes warm
and moist.
2. Rising Warm, Moist Air:
 The warm air rises because it is lighter. As it rises, it cools
and forms clouds. This process releases latent heat, which
makes the surrounding air warmer and helps more air to
rise.
3. Development of a Low-Pressure Area:
 As the warm air rises, the air pressure at the surface
decreases, forming a low-pressure area. Air from
surrounding high-pressure areas moves in to fill the space.
4. Coriolis Effect Causes Rotation:
 Because of the Earth’s rotation, the moving air begins to
spin:
 Counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere
 Clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere
 5. Cyclone Growth:
 As the system continues to get energy from the warm
ocean, winds become stronger, and the cyclone grows
larger and more organized.
 When wind speeds reach 63 km/h, it becomes a tropical
storm; at 118 km/h or more, it becomes a tropical cyclone
(typhoon).
6. Formation of the Eye:
 In a mature cyclone, a calm, clear area called the eye
forms at the center, surrounded by a ring of intense storms
known as the eyewall.
 In the Philippines
 Tropical cyclones usually form over the Pacific Ocean east of
the country.
 They move westward and may enter the Philippine Area of
Responsibility (PAR).
 Typhoon Anatomy

Parts of Location Wind Speed Air Pressure

Typhoon
1. eye The center of Calm winds, Lowest air
the typhoon typically under pressure in the
15 mph typhoon
2. eyewall Surrounds the Highest win Very low air
eye speeds, often pressure, slightly
exceeding 150 higher than the
mph eye
3. outer Outer edges Decreasing Gradually
rainbands of the wind speeds as increasing air
typhoon distance from pressure
the center
increases
 4. inner Between the Moderate to Lower air pressure
rainbands eyewall and high wind than outer bands,
the speeds but higher than
outerbands the eyewall
 The eye of the storm is calm because the now strong surface
winds that converge towards the center never reach it.
 The eyewall has strongest winds within the storm are
concentrated. As the storm's rotation intensifies, these winds
accelerate rapidly towards the center, creating a powerful
vortex.
 The outer rainbands can extend outward from the center of
the storm and can span hundreds of miles, influencing regions
well beyond the immediate vicinity of the storm.
 The inner rainbands, situated closer to the storm's center, are
characterized by intense convective activity, producing
heavy rainfall and strong winds. They play a crucial role in the
storm's intensity and structure, often contributing to rapid
intensification and the eyewall replacement cycle.

 The Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical and Astronomical Services

Administration (PAGASA) usually measures the strength of a tropical
cyclone through its wind speeds.
 PAGASA modified the Tropical Cyclone Wind Signal (TCWS)
system uses five (5) levels of wind signals that are numbered
from 1 to 5, with a higher signal number associated with higher
general wind strength and shorter warning lead time.
 Signal No. 1 (Tropical Depression) – 39-61 km/h
(previously 30 to 60 km/h), minimal to minor threat to
life and property.
 Signal No. 2 (Tropical Storm) – 62-88 km/h (previously
61 to 120 km/h), minor to moderate threat to life and
property.
 Signal No. 3 (Severe Tropical Storm) – 89-117 km/h
(previously 121 to 170 km/h), moderate to significant
threat to life and property.
 Signal No. 4 (Typhoon) – 118-184 km/h (previously 171
to 220 km/h), significant to severe threat to life and
property.
 Signal No. 5 (Super Typhoon) – 185 km/h or higher
(previously more than 220 km/h), extreme threat to life
and property.
 Effects of Landmasses on Typhoons
 Landmasses weaken typhoons.
 Mountain ranges can impede or slow down the wind speed
and strength of typhoons.
 Orthographic lifting can weaken the impact of a typhoon in
an area.
 Effects of Bodies of Water
 It provides the water necessary for evaporation to produce
warm, moist air that fuels a typhoon.
 These bodies of water determine the humidity and
temperature which are important in the formation of
typhoons.
 Bodies of water like oceans strengthen a typhoon.
LESSON 6

 Precautionary Measures (Typhoon)

BEFORE DURING AFTER
1. Prepare an 1. Stay indoors and 1. Check for
emergency kit. away from injuries and
windows. administer first
aid.
2. Secure loose 2. Listen to weather 2. Avoid flooded
outdoor items. updates and area and fallen
alerts. power lines.
3. Create a family 3. Use a battery- 3. Assess and
evacuation powered radio document
plan. for information. property
damage for
insurance.
4. Stock up on 4. Turn off gas and 4. Clean and
food and water electricity if disinfect
supplies. instructed. affected areas
to prevent
disease.
5. Charge mobile 5. Shelter in a safe 5. Stay informed
phones and windowless about relief and
power banks. room. recovery efforts.
 Warnings and Advisories from Government Agencies

 What do the NDRRMC alert levels (yellow, orange, or red)

mean?
 These color-coded rainfall warning advisories describe
how strong the rains are and how likely flooding is.
 These colors also stand for what actions must be taken
by the community.
 Yellow Rainfall Warning
 Community Awareness
 it means that heavy rains have fallen and will
continue for the next three hours. Flooding is
possible in low-lying areas and near river
channels.)
 Orange Rainfall Warning
 Community Alert/Preparedness
 it means that intense rains have fallen and will
continue for the next three hours. Flooding is
threatening in low-lying areas and near river
channels. Be prepared. Residents in affected
areas must be ready for a possible evacuation
due to threats of a flood.)
 Red Rainfall Warning
 Community Response
 it means torrential rains have fallen and will
continue for the next three hours.
 Since severe flooding is to be expected, you
must quickly take action. Residents in affected
areas must start evacuating as soon as
possible.
 Just remember that the darker the color, the more
dangerous the situation in an affected area.
 Disaster Response Agencies: Roles and Functions

Logo of Government Name of Government Role and Function

Agency Agency During Disaster
PAGASA (Philippine Monitors weather
Atmospheric, conditions and issues
Geophysical and typhoon warnings
Astronomical Services and advisories.
Administration)

NDRRMC (National Coordinates disaster

Disaster Risk Reduction response and relief
and Management operations.
Council)
Philippine Red Cross Prepares rescue
teams, first aid
volunteers, and relief
goods.
 DOH (Department Ensures public health
of Health) and medical response
during disasters

DSWD (Department Provides aid and relief

of Social Welfare and to affected
Development) communities

DPWH (Department Repairs and maintains

of Public Works and infrastructure affected
Highways) by disasters.

LESSON 7

 Motion of Planets
 Scientists use the term rotation to describe the motion of a
body spinning on its axis. As the Earth rotates, different parts of
its surface face the sun. It is daytime in the part that faces the
sun. It is night in the part that faces away from the sun. At any
time, only one-half of the Earth faces the sun.
 In addition to rotating, all planets move around the sun. The
path that a planet follows around the sun is called its orbit.
One complete trip around the sun is called a revolution.
 The amount of time it takes for a planet to complete one
revolution is called its period of revolution. Each planet has a
different period of revolution.

 How does Gravity Affect a Planet’s Orbit?

 Newton observed that objects fall toward Earth. He reasoned
that all objects are attracted to each other through the force
of gravity. The strength of the force depends on two factors—
the masses of the objects and the distance between them.
  Newton’s law of universal gravitation describes how the force
of gravity is related to these two factors. When the masses are
large, the force of gravity is strong. When the objects are far
apart, the force of gravity is weak.
 Orbits and Gravity
 If gravity is pulling on the moon, why doesn’t the moon fall to
Earth? The answer has to do with the moon’s inertia. Inertia is
an object’s resistance to changes in its speed or direction.
 Gravity is like a string holding the moon in orbit around the
Earth. Without gravity, the moon would move in a straight line
away from the Earth. The moon’s orbit is a balance between
its inertia and the force of gravity. This balance is the reason
that all bodies in orbit, including the Earth, travel along curved
paths.

 Moon
 Gravity or gravitational force is a non-contact force. This
means objects do not have to be in contact feel the force
they exert on each other.
 On the surface of the Earth, it causes the objects to fall
towards the ground.
 The Moon keeps on revolving on its around Earth due to the
Earth's gravity.
 The Moon must circle Earth in a curved route because of the
constant inward pull of Earth's gravity.
 Because of this interaction, the moon serves as the natural
satellite of the Earth.
 It has a rocky surface covered with craters, valleys,
mountains, and flat areas.
  It does not have water or air and is 1/4 the size of Earth.
 It does not have its light; it only reflects the light from
the sun. It takes about twenty days to revolve around
the Earth. This revolution results in various views of the
Moon from the Earth.
 Lunar Cycle (Phases of the Moon)
Third quarter (Last): This is when Waning gibbous: After the full
half of the Moon’s illuminated Moon, the illuminated portion
surface is visible from Earth. The of the Moon visible from Earth
illuminated part is the half of begins to wane, or decrease in
the near side of the Moon that size. During the waning gibbous
was not illuminated at first phase, the Moon’s surface
quarter. visible from Earth is still mostly
illuminated.
Full Moon: When the Moon is on New Moon: This is when you
the opposite side of the Earth can’t see the Moon easily at all,
from the Sun, we see the entire because the part that is
near-side of the Moon illuminated by the Sun is on the
illuminated. For the same side of the Moon pointing away
reason we don’t have solar from Earth. This phase happens
eclipses with every new Moon, when the Moon is between the
we don’t get lunar eclipses with Sun and Earth. Because the
every full Moon. The Moon's Moon’s orbit around the Earth is
orbit around the Earth is tilted tilted by about five degrees, it’s
by about five degrees, usually either above or below
meaning sometimes it’s below the Sun. But sometimes it lines
our shadow and sometimes it’s up directly with the Sun, and
above it. But every once in a this creates a solar eclipse. On
while, things line up so that it average, a solar eclipse
does go through the Earth’s happens between two and five
shadow, and we get a lunar times each year.
eclipse.
First quarter: This is when half of Waxing crescent: As it moves in
the Moon’s illuminated surface its orbit, a small sliver of the
is visible from Earth. This is the Moon becomes visible. It
equivalent of saying we are takes a crescent shape
seeing one-quarter of the because of the Moon’s
total Moon’s surface roundness; we only see the
illuminated, hence the rather edge of the part that’s
confusing name. illuminated by the Sun, and
that edge is on a round object
so it appears curved.
Waxing gibbous: When more Waning crescent: The final
than half of the Moon’s surface phase of the Moon is the
visible from Earth is illuminated, waning crescent, which
we call it a Gibbous Moon. happens when only a small
sliver of the Moon is visible (on
the far side of the Moon’s visible
surface, compared to the
waxing crescent) before it
disappears into the new Moon
phase once again.
 What Are Tides?
 Tides are the regular rise and fall of sea levels along the shore.
 They happen because of the gravitational pull of the moon
and the sun on Earth’s oceans.
 When the ocean water is pulled toward the moon, it causes a
high tide.
 The areas at a right angle to this will have a low tide at the
same time.
 Tides usually happen twice a day — two high tides and two
low tides.
 How the Moon Affects the Tides?
 The moon’s gravity pulls on Earth’s oceans.
 The side of Earth facing the moon has a bulge of water — this
is a high tide.
 Another high tide happens on the opposite side of Earth
because water is left behind as the Earth is pulled slightly
toward the moon.
 Between these bulges are areas with low tides.
 So, as the Earth rotates, different places on Earth move into
the areas of high and low tides.
 Types of Tides
 1. High Tide
 The water level rises to its highest point.
 This happens when the ocean water is pulled strongly
by the moon’s gravity.
 2. Low Tide
 The water level falls to its lowest point.
 This happens in areas between the two high tides.

 Special Types of Tides

 Spring Tide
 Occurs during the New Moon and Full Moon phases.
  The sun, moon, and Earth are in a straight line, so their
gravitational forces combine.
 This causes very high tides and very low tides.

 Neap Tide
 Occurs during the First Quarter and Last Quarter moon
phases.
 The sun and moon pull at right angles to each other.
 This causes weaker tides — the difference between
high and low tides is small.

LESSON 8

 The Earth’s Crust

 The Earth’s crust is the outermost solid layer of our planet,
forming a thin, rigid shell that covers the entire Earth. Though
it makes up less than 1% of Earth’s total volume, it plays a vital
role in supporting life and shaping the planet’s appearance.
The crust is made up of rocks, minerals, and soil, which
together form the foundation for landforms, ecosystems, and
human activities such as farming, building, and mining.
 Earth’s surface displays a variety of landforms and
landscapes—from towering mountains and wide plains to
 deep ocean floors and
valleys. These features
are the result of
complex interactions
between minerals,
rocks, and
geological
processes over
millions of years. The
crust is divided into two main
types: continental crust and oceanic
crust.
 Importance
 The crust provides the solid foundation that supports all forms
of life. It holds the soil, minerals, and natural resources humans
need to survive—like water, fossil fuels, and metals. Moreover,
it interacts continuously with the layers beneath it, particularly
the mantle, through processes such as plate movements,
volcanic activity, and earthquakes.
 Lithosphere and Tectonic Plates
 The lithosphere includes both the crust and the uppermost
part of the mantle, forming a rigid layer that is broken into
large, solid sections called lithospheric plates or tectonic
plates. These plates are like giant puzzle pieces that float and
move slowly on top of the semi-fluid asthenosphere beneath
them.
  The movement of these plates is driven by convection
currents in the mantle—hot material rises, cools, and sinks,
creating a circular motion that pushes the plates in different
directions.
 There are major plates such as the Pacific Plate, North
American Plate, Eurasian Plate, African Plate, Antarctic Plate,
South American Plate, and Indo-Australian Plate, along with
smaller plates like the Philippine Sea Plate. The boundaries
where these plates meet are areas of intense geological
activity.
 Types of Plate Boundaries
 Divergent Boundaries – Plates move away from each other,
allowing magma to rise and form new crust. This process
occurs at mid-ocean ridges, such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
 It forms: Mid-ocean ridges, Rift valleys, and volcanic islands.

 Convergent Boundaries – Plates move toward each other.

One plate may subduct (sink) beneath another, forming
mountain ranges (like the Himalayas) or volcanic arcs (like the
Philippines).
 It forms: mountain ranges, volcanic arcs, deep sea trenches,
and island arcs.
  Transform Boundaries – Plates slide past each other
horizontally along faults, such as the San Andreas Fault in
California, causing earthquakes.
 It forms faults, linear valleys and ridges and cause
earthquakes.

 The Theory of Plate Tectonics

 The theory of plate tectonics explains how Earth’s lithospheric
plates move and interact over time. These movements shape
continents and ocean basins, create mountains, and trigger
natural events like earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
 This theory is fundamental to understanding how Earth’s
surface is constantly changing, how continents drift, and how
landforms are formed and destroyed. It connects all the
geological processes that continuously renew, recycle, and
reshape the planet’s crust.

This material is prepared by Ms. Marefel Catuboran for the students

of Agusan National High School grade 8 level. It is intended for
educational purposes only and is based on the Matatag Curriculum.
This document is not for sale, reproduction, or distribution outside the
intended class. All contents are provided solely for classroom
instruction and learning support. No legal actions should be pursued
as this material is shared in good faith for academic use only.