Structured Query Language (SQL) is a standard language used to create, read, update, and
manage data in relational databases.
What SQL Is Used For
SQL allows you to:
Store data in tables
Retrieve specific data
Update existing records
Delete data
Control access and permissions
Define database structure
Common SQL Databases
MySQL
PostgreSQL
Oracle Database
Microsoft SQL Server
SQLite
Basic SQL Commands
1. Data Query Language (DQL)
Used to retrieve data.
SELECT * FROM students;
SELECT name, age FROM students WHERE age > 18;
2. Data Definition Language (DDL)
Used to define database structure.
CREATE TABLE students (
id INT PRIMARY KEY,
name VARCHAR(50),
age INT
);
DROP TABLE students;
3. Data Manipulation Language (DML)
Used to modify data.
INSERT INTO students VALUES (1, 'Alice', 20);
UPDATE students
SET age = 21
WHERE id = 1;
DELETE FROM students WHERE id = 1;
4. Data Control Language (DCL)
Used to control access.
GRANT SELECT ON students TO user1;
REVOKE SELECT ON students FROM user1;
5. Transaction Control Language (TCL)
Used to manage transactions.
COMMIT;
ROLLBACK;
SAVEPOINT sp1;
Key SQL Concepts
Table: Rows and columns storing data
Primary Key: Uniquely identifies a record
Foreign Key: Links tables together
Index: Improves query speed
JOIN: Combines rows from multiple tables
Example:
SELECT [Link], [Link]
FROM orders
JOIN customers ON orders.customer_id = [Link];
Advantages of SQL
Easy to learn
Works with large datasets
Standardized language
Secure and reliable
If you want, I can explain SQL joins, normalization, constraints, or provide practice queries
for beginners.
all about sql a level computer science east detailded notse
Below are A-Level Computer Science (UK) – SQL notes, written in exam-ready, detailed
form, suitable for AQA / OCR / Edexcel.
These cover everything typically required at A-Level, with clear definitions, examples, and
key exam points.
STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE
(SQL)
A-Level Computer Science – Detailed Notes
1. What is SQL?
SQL (Structured Query Language) is a standardised language used to manage and
manipulate relational databases.
SQL is used to:
Create database structures
Insert, update, delete data
Retrieve data using queries
Control user access
Maintain data integrity
2. Relational Databases
A relational database stores data in tables (relations).
Table Structure
Rows (records / tuples) – individual entries
Columns (fields / attributes) – data items
Example table:
StudentID Name Age
1 Alice 20
3. Keys in Databases
Primary Key
Uniquely identifies each record
Cannot be NULL
Must be unique
Example:
StudentID INT PRIMARY KEY
Foreign Key
Links one table to another
Refers to a primary key in another table
Example:
StudentID INT REFERENCES Students(StudentID)
4. Types of SQL Commands
4.1 Data Definition Language (DDL)
Used to define the structure of the database.
CREATE
Creates tables or databases.
CREATE TABLE Students (
StudentID INT PRIMARY KEY,
Name VARCHAR(50),
Age INT
);
DROP
Deletes tables or databases permanently.
DROP TABLE Students;
ALTER
Modifies an existing table.
ALTER TABLE Students ADD Email VARCHAR(100);
4.2 Data Manipulation Language (DML)
Used to manipulate data in tables.
INSERT
Adds new records.
INSERT INTO Students
VALUES (1, 'Alice', 20);
UPDATE
Changes existing data.
UPDATE Students
SET Age = 21
WHERE StudentID = 1;
DELETE
Removes records.
DELETE FROM Students
WHERE StudentID = 1;
⚠️Without a WHERE clause, all records are deleted (exam point).
4.3 Data Query Language (DQL)
Used to retrieve data.
SELECT
SELECT * FROM Students;
SELECT Name, Age FROM Students;
WHERE
Filters records.
SELECT * FROM Students
WHERE Age > 18;
Logical Operators
WHERE Age > 18 AND Name = 'Alice'
WHERE Age = 18 OR Age = 21
WHERE NOT Age = 18
Comparison Operators
Operator Meaning
= Equal
> Greater than
< Less than
Operator Meaning
>= Greater or equal
<= Less or equal
<> Not equal
LIKE
Pattern matching.
SELECT * FROM Students
WHERE Name LIKE 'A%';
ORDER BY
Sorts results.
SELECT * FROM Students
ORDER BY Age DESC;
5. Aggregate Functions
Used to perform calculations on data.
Function Purpose
COUNT() Number of records
SUM() Total
AVG() Average
MAX() Highest value
MIN() Lowest value
Example:
SELECT AVG(Age) FROM Students;
GROUP BY
Groups records.
SELECT Age, COUNT(*)
FROM Students
GROUP BY Age;
HAVING
Filters groups (used with GROUP BY).
SELECT Age, COUNT(*)
FROM Students
GROUP BY Age
HAVING COUNT(*) > 1;
6. JOINs (Very Important for Exams)
Used to retrieve data from multiple tables.
INNER JOIN
Returns matching records only.
SELECT [Link], [Link]
FROM Students
INNER JOIN Courses
ON [Link] = [Link];
LEFT JOIN
Returns all records from the left table.
SELECT [Link], [Link]
FROM Students
LEFT JOIN Courses
ON [Link] = [Link];
RIGHT JOIN
Returns all records from the right table.
7. Constraints
Used to enforce data integrity.
Constraint Purpose
PRIMARY KEY Unique identifier
FOREIGN KEY Links tables
NOT NULL Prevents empty fields
UNIQUE Prevents duplicates
CHECK Restricts values
Example:
Age INT CHECK (Age >= 0)
8. Normalisation (Theory Heavy – Exam Favourite)
Purpose of Normalisation
Reduce data redundancy
Improve data integrity
Prevent update anomalies
First Normal Form (1NF)
No repeating groups
Atomic values
Second Normal Form (2NF)
In 1NF
No partial dependency
Third Normal Form (3NF)
In 2NF
No transitive dependency
9. Advantages of SQL Databases
Efficient data retrieval
Strong data integrity
Supports large datasets
Standardised language
10. Disadvantages
Requires specialist knowledge
Can be complex for large systems
Performance issues without indexing
11. Exam Tips (VERY IMPORTANT)
Always include WHERE when updating/deleting
Use correct SQL keywords (capitalisation helps clarity)
Know JOINs and GROUP BY
Be able to write SQL from a scenario
Know definitions word-for-word