MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY

INTRODUCTION TO MICROBES AND CELLULAR BIOLOGY

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN NURSING / LEVEL 1
SECOND SEMESTER / 2022-2023

CELL STRUCTURE AND TAXONOMY

INTRODUCTION EUKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURE

• The cell is the fundamental unit of any living organism
because it exhibits the basic characteristics of life.
• There are two categories of cells: eucaryotic and
procaryotic.
• Some microbes are procaryotes (bacteria and archaea),
some are eucaryotes (algae, protozoa, fungi), and some
are not composed of cells (viruses, prions, viroids).

ACELLULAR AND CELLULAR MICROBES

THE EUKARYOTIC NUCLEUS

• The “command center” of the cell.
• 3 components: nucleoplasm, chromosomes, and nuclear
membrane.
• Chromosomes are embedded in the nucleoplasm.
• Eucaryotic chromosomes consist of linear DNA molecules
• The microbes that cause disease are sometimes referred to and proteins.
as “germs.” • Genes are located along chromosomes. An organism's
• The scientific term for disease-causing microbes is complete collection of genes is referred to as its genotype
pathogens. or genome.
• Microbes that do not cause disease are called • Each gene contains the information to produce one or more
nonpathogens; the vast majority of microbes are gene products (usually proteins).
nonpathogens. • Highlighting on technology competency, but not being
• Microbes that live on and in our bodies are referred to as dependent on technology
our indigenous microflora • Although most genes code for proteins, some code for 2
• Some members of our indigenous microflora are types of ribonucleic acid (RNA)
opportunistic pathogens o Ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA)
• Opportunistic pathogens are microbes that can cause o Transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA)
disease, but usually do not; they can be thought of as • The number and composition of chromosomes and the
microbes that are awaiting the opportunity to cause disease number of genes on each chromosome are characteristic of
• Pathogens cause two categories of diseases: infectious the particular species of organism.
diseases and microbial intoxications • Human diploid cells have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs).
• Eucaryotic cells contain a “true” nucleus, whereas • It has been estimated that the human genome consists of
procaryotic cells do not. A true nucleus consists of between 20,000 and 30,000 genes.
nucleoplasm, chromosomes, and a nuclear membrane.
• Eucaryotic cells possess a complex system of membranes OTHER EUCARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURES
and membrane-bound organelles, whereas procaryotic
cells do not. CYTOPLASM
• Both eucaryotic and procaryotic cells possess a cell • A semi-fluid, gelatinous, nutrient matrix
membrane. Cell membranes have selective permeability, • Contains storage granules and a variety of organelles
allowing only certain substances to pass through them. • Each organelle has a specific function
• The cytoplasm is where most metabolic reactions occur

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)

• A highly convoluted system of membranes arranged to form
a transport network in the cytoplasm
• Rough ER has ribosomes attached to it; smooth ER does
not
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• Some cells move by means of cilia, which are shorter,
RIBOSOME thinner, and more numerous than flagella; described as
• Consist of ribosomal RNA and protein being “hair-like.”
• The sites of protein synthesis • Cilia can be found on some species of protozoa and certain
types of cells in our bodies (e.g., ciliated epithelial cells in
GOLGI COMPLEX the respiratory tract).
• Also called the Golgi apparatus or Golgi body
• Connects or communicates with ER
• Completes the transformation of newly synthesized
proteins and packages them for storage or export
(“packaging plants”)

LYSOSOMES AND PEROXISOMES

• Originate in the Golgi complex
• Lysosomes contain lysozyme and other digestive enzymes
• Peroxisomes are membrane-bound vesicles where H2O2 is
generated and broken down

MITOCHONDRIA
• “Power plants,” “powerhouses,” or “energy factories” PROCARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURE
• ATP molecules are produced within mitochondria by • Procaryotic cells are about 10 times smaller than eucaryotic
cellular respiration cells.
• Number of mitochondria varies depending on activities of • Procaryotic cells are simple compared to eucaryotic cells.
the cell • Procaryotic cells reproduce by binary fission.
• All bacteria are procaryotes, as are archaea.
PLASTIDS • Unlike eucaryotic cells, the cytoplasm of eucaryotic cells is
• Membrane-bound structures containing photosynthetic not filled with internal membranes.
pigments • The cytoplasm of procaryotic cells is surrounded by a cell
• They are sites of photosynthesis membrane, a cell wall (usually), and sometimes a capsule
• Chloroplasts are a type of plastid; they contain chlorophyll or slime layer.

CYTOSKELETON
• A system of fibers throughout the cytoplasm
• 3 types of fibers: microtubules, microfilaments and
intermediate filaments
• Microtubules and microfilaments are essential for a variety
of activities

CELL WALL
• Some eucaryotic cells contain cell walls – an external
structure to provide shape, protection, and rigidity
• Simpler in structure than procaryotic cell walls
• Chitin found in cell walls of fungi; cellulose in cell walls of
algae and plants

CELL WALL
• Some eucaryotic cells contain cell walls – an external PROKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURE
structure to provide shape, protection, and rigidity
CELL MEMBRANE
• Similar in structure and function to the eucaryotic cell
membrane
• Selectively permeable
• Many enzymes are attached to the cell membrane and
metabolic reactions take place there

CHROMOSOME
• Procaryotic chromosome usually consists of a single, long,
supercoiled, circular DNA molecule – serves as the control
center of the cell
• Plasmids are small circular molecules of DNA that are not
FLAGELLA AND CILIA (contain microtubules) part of the chromosome (extra-chromosomal)
• Some eucaryotic cells (e.g., spermatozoa and certain
protozoa) possess long, thin, whiplike organelles of CYTOPLASM
locomotion called flagella. • Semi-liquid that consists of water, enzymes, waste
• Flagellated cells may possess one or more flagella. products, nutrients, proteins, carbohydrates and lipids –
materials required for metabolic functions

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CYTOPLASMIC PARTICLES A PETRICHOUS SALMONELLA CELL
• Most are ribosomes, some of which occur in clusters
• Eucaryotic ribosomes are smaller than procaryotic
ribosomes, but their function is the same – they are the sites
of protein synthesis

BACTERIAL CELL WALL

• A rigid exterior that defines the shape of bacterial cells –
chemically complex
• Main constituent of most bacterial cell walls is
peptidoglycan (only found in bacteria)
• Gram-positive bacteria have a thick layer of peptidoglycan;
Gram-negative bacteria have a much thinner layer
• Mycoplasma spp. do not have a cell wall; they are
pleomorphic
PILI (ALSO CALLED FIMBRIAE)
• Hair-like structures, most often observed on Gram-negative
bacteria
• Composed of polymerized protein molecules called pilin
• Pili are thinner than flagella, have a rigid structure and are
not associated with motility
• Pili enable bacteria to anchor themselves to surfaces
• Some bacteria possess a sex pilus for conjugation

SPORES (ENDOSPORES)
• A few genera (e.g., Bacillus and Clostridium) are capable of
forming thick-walled spores as a means of survival
• The process of spore formation is called sporulation – it is
not reproduction
• Spores have been shown to survive for many years and are
GLYCOCALYX (Slime Layers and Capsules) resistant to heat, cold, drying, and most chemicals
• Some bacteria possess glycocalyx, a slimy, gelatinous • Usually one spore is produced in a bacterial cell and
material produced by the cell membrane and secreted generates into one vegetative bacterium
outside the cell wall • Endospores can be visualized using a spore stain
• 2 types of glycocalyx – slime layer (loosely connected to the
cell wall) and capsule (highly organized and firmly
connected) RECAP OF STRUCTURAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
o Pseudomonas spp. produces a slime layer
PROCARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS
o K. pneumoniae, N. meningitidis and S. pneumoniae
• Eucaryotic cells contain a true nucleus; procaryotic cells do
possess a capsule, which serves an antiphagocytic
not.
function
• Eucaryotic cells are divided into plant and animal types
FLAGELLA o Animal cells do not have a cell wall, plant cells have
a simple cell wall.
• Motile bacteria possess flagella – whiplike appendages
composed of threads of protein called flagellin • Eucaryotic cells contain membranous structures and many
membrane-bound organelles; procaryotic cells possess no
• Number and arrangement of flagella are characteristic of a
membranes other than the cell membrane that encloses the
particular species:
cytoplasm
o Peritrichous bacteria – flagella over entire surface
o Lophotrichous bacteria – flagella at one end
o Amphitrichous bacteria – flagella at both ends REPRODUCTION OF ORGANISMS
o Monotrichous bacteria – single polar flagellum AND THEIR CELLS

PROCARYOTIC CELL REPRODUCTION

• Procaryotic cells reproduce by a process known as binary
fission – one cell splits in half to become two daughter cells.
o Before a procaryotic cell divides in half, the
chromosome must be duplicated.
• The time it takes for binary fission to occur is called the
generation time.
o Generation time varies from one species to another
and depends on growth conditions (under ideal
conditions, E. coli has a generation time of about 20
minutes).

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TAXONOMY
• Taxonomy is the science of classification of living
organisms.
• Taxonomy consists of classification, nomenclature, and
identification.
• Classification is the arrangement of organisms into
taxonomic groups (known as taxa).
• Tool for remembering the sequence of Taxa
o “King David Came Over for Good Spaghetti”
KDCOFGS, K for Kingdom, D for Division, C for
Class, O for Order, F for Family, G for Genus and S
for species.

MICROBIAL CLASSIFICATION
• The science of taxonomy was established based on the
binomial system of nomenclature.
• In the binomial system, each organism is given 2 names –
genus and the specific epithet. Taken together, both names
constitute the species.
o For example, Escherichia coli; Escherichia is the
genus and coli is the specific epithet.
o The genus is frequently abbreviated with just a single
letter, (e.g., E for Escherichia).
• The abbreviation “sp.” is used to designate a single species
and “spp.” for more than one species.
• Organisms are categorized into larger groups based on
their similarities and differences.

The Five-Kingdom System of Classification

1. Bacteria and archaea – Kingdom Procaryotae
2. Algae and protozoa – Kingdom Protista
3. Fungi – Kingdom Fungi
4. Plants – Kingdom Plantae
5. Animals – Kingdom Animalia
• Viruses are not included because they are acellular.
• Other systems of classification do exist.
• The Three-Domain System of Classification
1. Archaea (procaryotic)
2. Bacteria (procaryotic)
3. Eucarya (all eucaryotic organisms)
• The Three-Domain System is based on differences in the
structure of certain ribosomal RNA (rRNA) molecules
among organisms in the 3 domains.

DETERMINING RELATEDNESS AMONG

ORGANISMS
• The most widely used technique for gauging diversity or
“relatedness” of organisms is called ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
sequencing.
• Ribosomes are composed of two subunits; a small subunit
and a large subunit.
• The small subunit is composed of only one rRNA molecule,
which is coded for by a gene called the 16S rRNA gene in
procaryotes and the 18S rRNA gene in eucaryotes.

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