AR 17 55 DESIGN OF STRUCTURES I (2017 SCHEME)

MODULE 1

INTRODUCTION

Reinforced concrete, as a composite material, has occupied a special place in the modern construction
of different types of structures due to its several advantages. Due to its flexibility in form and superiority
in performance, it has replaced, to a large extent, the earlier materials like stone, timber and steel.
Further, architect's scope and imaginations have widened to a great extent due to its mouldability and
monolithicity. Thus, it has helped the architects and engineers to build several attractive shell forms and
other curved structures. However, its role in several straight line structural forms like multistoried
frames, bridges, foundations etc. is enormous.

CONCRETE

Concrete is a product obtained artificially by hardening of the mixture of cement, sand, gravel and water
in predetermined proportions. Depending on the quality and proportions of the ingredients used in the
mix the properties of concrete vary almost as widely as different kinds of stones. Concrete has enough
strength in compression, but has little strength in tension. Due to this, concrete is weak in bending,
shear and torsion. Hence the use of plain concrete is limited applications where great compressive
strength and weight are the principal requirements and where tensile stresses are either totally absent
or are extremely low.

PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

The important properties of concrete, which govern the design of concrete mix are as follows:

(i) Weight :The unit weights of plain concrete and reinforced concrete made with sand, gravel of
crushed natural stone aggregate may be taken as 24 KN/m3 and 25 KN/m3 respectively.
(ii) Compressive Strength: With given properties of aggregate the compressive strength of
concrete depends primarily on age, cement content and the water cement ratio are given Table
2 of IS 456:2000. Characteristic strength are based on the strength at 28 days. The strength at 7
days is about two-thirds of that at 28 days with ordinary portland cement and generally good
indicator of strength likely to be obtained.
(iii) Increase in strength with age: There is normally gain of strength beyond 28 days. The quantum
of increase depends upon the grade and type of cement curing and environmental conditions
etc.
(iv) Tensile strength of concrete: The flexure and split tensile strengths of various concrete are
given in IS 516:1959 and IS 5816:1970 respectively when the designer wishes to use an estimate
of the tensile strength from compressive strength, the following formula can be used
Flexural strength, fcr=0.7√fck N/mm2
(v) Elastic Deformation : The modulus of elasticity is primarily influenced by the elastic properties
of the aggregate and to lesser extent on the conditions of curing and age of the concrete, the
 mix proportions and the type of cement. The modulus of elasticity is normally related to the
compressive characteristic strength of concrete
Ec=5000√fck N/mm2
Where Ec= the short-term static modulus of elasticity in N/mm2
fck=characteristic cube strength of concrete in N/mm2
(vi) Shrinkage of concrete: Shrinkage is the time dependent deformation, generally compressive in
nature. The constituents of concrete, size of the member and environmental conditions are the
factors on which the total shrinkage of concrete depends. However, the total shrinkage of
concrete is most influenced by the total amount of water present in the concrete at the time of
mixing for a given humidity and temperature. The cement content, however, influences the
total shrinkage of concrete to a lesser extent. The approximate value of the total shrinkage
strain for design is taken as 0.0003 in the absence of test data (cl. [Link]).
(vii) Creep of concrete:

Figure1: Stress-strain curve of concrete

Creep is another time dependent deformation of concrete by which it continues to deform,
usually under compressive stress. The creep strains recover partly when the stresses are
released. Figure 1 shows the creep recovery in two parts. The elastic recovery is immediate and
the creep recovery is slow in nature.
Thus, the long term deflection will be added to the short term deflection to get the total
deflection of the structure. Accordingly, the long term modulus E ce or the effective modulus of
concrete will be needed to include the effect of creep due to permanent loads. The relationship
between Ece and Ec is obtained as follows:
c = fc /Ec
Where, c =short term strain at the age of loading at a stress value of f c

The creep of concrete is influenced by

• Properties of concrete
• Water/cement ratio
• Humidity and temperature of curing
• Humidity during the period of use
 • Age of concrete at first loading
• Magnitude of stress and its duration
• Surface-volume ratio of the member

viii) Thermal Expansion Of Concrete

The knowledge of thermal expansion of concrete is very important as it is prepared and remains
in service at a wide range of temperature in different countries having very hot or cold climates.
Moreover, concrete will be having its effect of high temperature during fire. The coefficient of
thermal expansion depends on the nature of cement, aggregate, cement content, relative
humidity and size of the section. IS 456 stipulates (cl. 6.2.6) the values of coefficient of thermal
expansion for concrete / o C for different types of aggregate.

WORKABILITY AND DURABILITY OF CONCRETE

Workability and durability of concrete are important properties to be considered. The relevant issues
are discussed in the following: The workability of a concrete mix gives a measure of the ease with which
fresh concrete can be placed and compacted. The concrete should flow readily into the form and go
around and cover the reinforcement, the mix should retain its consistency and the aggregates should
not segregate. A mix with high workability is needed where sections are thin and/or reinforcement is
complicated and congested. The main factor affecting workability is the water content of the mix.
Admixtures will increase workability but may reduce strength. The size of aggregate, its grading and
shape, the ratio of coarse to fine aggregate and the aggregate-to-cement ratio also affect workability to
some degree.

Measurement of workability

(a) Slump test

The fresh concrete is tamped into a standard cone which is lifted off after filling and the slump is
measured. The slump is 25–50 mm for low workability, 50–100 mm for medium workability and
100–175 mm for high workability. Normal reinforced concrete requires fresh concrete of medium
workability. The slump test is the usual workability test specified.
(b) Compacting factor test
The degree of compaction achieved by a standard amount of work is measured. The apparatus
consists of two conical hoppers placed over one another and over a cylinder. The upper hopper is
filled with fresh concrete which is then dropped into the second hopper and into the cylinder which
is struck off flush. The compacting factor is the ratio of the weight of concrete in the cylinder to the
weight of an equal volume of fully compacted concrete. The compacting factor for concrete of
medium workability is about 0.9.

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE

A durable concrete performs satisfactorily in the working environment during its anticipated exposure
conditions during service. The durable concrete should have low permeability with adequate cement
content, sufficient low free water/cement ratio and ensured complete compaction of concrete by
adequate curing. For more information, please refer to cl. 8 of IS 456.

DESIGN MIX AND NOMINAL MIX CONCRETE

In design mix, the proportions of cement, aggregates (sand and gravel), water and mineral admixtures, if
any, are actually designed, while in nominal mix, the proportions are nominally adopted. The design mix
concrete is preferred to the nominal mix as the former results in the grade of concrete having the
specified workability and characteristic strength (vide cl. 9 of IS 456)

BATCHING

Mass and volume are the two types of batching for measuring cement, sand, coarse aggregates,
admixtures and water. Coarse aggregates may be gravel, grade stone chips or other man made
aggregates. The quantities of cement, sand, coarse aggregates and solid admixtures shall be measured
by mass. Liquid admixtures and water are measured either by volume or by mass (cl. 10 of IS 456)

PROPERTIES OF REINFORCING STEEL

Steel reinforcement used in reinforced concrete may be of the following types

(a) 1. Mild steel bars conforming to IS 432 (part-I)

2. Hot rolled mild steel conforming to IS 1139

(b) 1. Medium tensile steel conforming to IS 432 (part-I)

2. Hot rolled medium tensile steel.

(c) 1. Hot rolled High Yield Strength Deformed (HYSD) steel conforming to IS 1139.

2. Cold-worked steel HYSD bars steel conforming to IS 1786.

(d) 1. Hard drawn steel wire fabric conforming to IS 1566.

2. Rolled steel made from structural steel conforming to Is 226.

 The most important characteristic of a reinforcing bar is its stress strain curve and the important
property yield stress or 0.2% proof stress, as the case may be.
 The modules of elasticity E for these steel is 2x105 N/mn2.
 Mild steel bars have yield strength of 250 N/mm2 and hence it is known as Fe 250.
 HYSD bars may be hot rolled high yield strength bars or cold rooked steel high strength
deformed bars. The latter are also known as cold twisted deformed bars or Tor steel and are
available in different grades

i) Fe 415 ii) 500 iii) Fe 550 having 0.2% proof stress as 415N/mm2 , 500N/mm2 and 550 N/mm2

 The reinforcing bars should have sufficient % of elongation.

  Its coefficients of thermal expansion should be more or less equal to the cement concrete.

STRESS-STRAIN CURVES FOR REINFORCEMENT

Stress-strain curve for Mild steel (idealised) (Fe 250) with definite yield point

Stress-strain curve for cold worked deform bar

Figures shows the representative stress-strain curves for steel having definite yield point and not having
definite yield point, respectively. The characteristic yield strength f y of steel is assumed as the minimum
yield stress or 0.2 per cent of proof stress for steel having no definite yield point. The modulus of
elasticity of steel is taken to be 200000 N/mm2 .

For mild steel, the stress is proportional to the strain up to the yield point. Thereafter, post yield strain
increases faster while the stress is assumed to remain at constant value of f y .

For cold-worked bars in figure the stress is proportional to the strain up to a stress of 0.8 f y . Thereafter,
the inelastic curve is defined as given below:
Linear interpolation is to be done for intermediate values. The two grades of cold-worked bars used as
steel reinforcement are Fe 415 and Fe 500 with the values of fy .as 415 N/mm2 and 500 N/mm2,
respectively.

DESIGN OF STRUCTURES
METHODS OF DESIGN

A reinforced concrete structure should be designed such that it fulfills the intended purpose of
the structure during its life time with:

1) Adequate safety in terms of strength and stability

2) Adequate serviceability in terms of stiffness and durability.
3) Reasonable economy.

The commonly used structures are designed by theoretical methods. The design methods used
for a design of reinforced concrete structures are:

1) Working stress method/Modular ratio method(WSM)

2) Ultimate load method or load factor Method(ULM)
3) Limit State method(LSM)

 WORKING STRESS METHOD/MODULAR RATIO METHOD(WSM)

It is the traditional method of design of reinforced concrete structures, structural steel and
timber.

 This method is based on the linear elastic theory( Hook’s Law-stress proportional to
strain)
 The assumption of linear elastic behavior is considered justifiable since the permissible
stresses are kept below the ultimate strength of the material.
 Reinforced concrete is a composite material. The WSM assumes strain compatibility. i.e,
the strain in the reinforcing steel is assumed equal to that in adjoining concrete which it
 is bonded. The stress in steel is linearly related to stress in adjoining concrete by a
constant factor called modular ratio.
 Modular ratio is defined as the ratio of modulus of elasticity of steel to that of concrete.
The WSM is therefore called modular ratio method.

Demerits of WSM
1) It does not show the real strength nor gives the true factor of safety (FOS) of the
structure under failure.
2) It does not discriminate different types of load that act simultaneously but have
different uncertainties.
3) Because of creep and non-linear stress-strain relationship, concrete does not have
definite modulus of elasticity.
4) The modular ratio design results in larger percentage of compression steel than that
given by the limit state design, thus leading to un-economic design.

Merits of WSM

1) Simplicity both in concrete as well as application.

2) Results in relatively large sections of structural members, compared to ULM
3) I t is the only method to investigate RC sections for service stresses and serviceability
state of deflection and cracking.

 ULTIMATE LOAD METHOD OR LOAD FACTOR METHOD(ULM)

This method is based on ultimate strength of RCC structure at ultimate load. The ultimate load
is obtained by enhancing the service load by some factor referred to as load factor for giving a
desired margin of safety. Therefore, this method is also known as load factor method or
ultimate strength method.

In this method stress condition at the state of collapse of the structure is analyzed thus
considering non-linear stress-strain curve of concrete and steel. The safety measure is obtained
in design using proper load factor. Therefore, it is possible to used different load factor under
combined loading conditions.

This method utilizes a large strength in plastic region of ultimate strength of member thus
resulting slender or thin elements. It is noted that the satisfactory strength performance at
ultimate loads does not guarantee satisfactory serviceability performance at normal service
loads.
 Merits of ULM

1) ULM uses fully the actual stress-strain curves.

2) The load factor gives exact margin of safety against collapse.
3) The method allows using different load factor for different types of load and their
combination.
4) The failure load computed using ULM matches with the experimental results.

Demerits of ULM

1) This method does not take in to consideration the serviceability criteria of deflection
and cracking.
2) The method does not take in consideration the effect of creep and shrinkage.
3) The use of high strength steel and concrete results in increase of deflection and
crack width.
 LIMIT STATE METHOD (LSM)

-It is an ideal method which takes in to account not only the ultimate strength of the structure
but also the service ability and durability requirements.

-In LSM a structure is designed for safety against collapse and checked for its serviceability at
working loads. Thus rendering the structure fits for its intended use.

-LSM includes consideration of strength at both the working and the ultimate load levels with a
view to satisfy the requirements of both safety and serviceability.

- The designed value is derived from the characteristic value through the use of partial safety
factor for loads and material strength.

Types of Limit state

Limit state is a state of impending failure beyond which a structure ceases to perform its
intended function satisfactorily, in terms of safety or serviceability. The acceptable limit for
safety and serviceability requirements before failure occurs is called a limit state. Two
categories of limit states are considered in design.

1. Limit state of collapse

i) Limit state of collapse in flexure
ii) Limit state of collapse in compression
iii) Limit state of collapse in compression and uniaxial bending
iv) Limit state of collapse in compression and biaxial bending
v) Limit state of collapse in shear
vi) Limit state of collapse in bond
 vii) Limit state of collapse in torsion
viii) Limit state of collapse in tension
2. Limit state of serviceability
i) Limit state of deflection
ii) Limit state of cracking
iii) Other limit states, such as vibration, fire resistance, durability etc

CHARACTERISTIC AND DESIGN VALUES AND PARTIAL SAFETY FACTOR

Characteristic strength of materials

The term ‘characteristic strength‘ means that value of the strength of material below which not more
than minimum acceptable percentage of test results are expected to fall. IS 456:2000 have accepted the
minimum acceptable percentage as 5% for reinforced concrete structures. This means that there is 5%
for probability or chance of the actual strength being less than the characteristic strength.

Frequency distribution curve for strength

Figure shows frequency distribution curve of strength material (concrete or steel). The value of K
corresponding to 5% area of the curve is 1.65.

The design strength should be lower than the mean strength (fm)

Characteristic strength = Mean strength –K x standard deviation

Or

fk=fm-KSd

Where,
 fk=characteristic strength of the material

fm=mean strength

K=constant =1.65

Sd=standard deviation for a set of test results.

The value of standard deviation (Sd) is given by

Where, δ=deviation of the individual test strength from the average or mean strength of n samples.

n= number of test results.

IS 456:2000 has recommended minimum value of n=30.

Characteristic strength of concrete

Characteristic strength of concrete is denoted by fck (N/mm2) and its value is different for different
grades of concrete e.g. M 15, M25 etc. In the symbol ‘M‘ used for designation of concrete mix, refers to
the mix and the number refers to the specified characteristic compressive strength of 150 mm size cube
at 28 days expressed in N/mm2

Characteristic strength of steel

Until the relevant Indian Standard specification for reinforcing steel are modified to include the concept
of characteristic strength, the characteristic value shall be assumed as the minimum yield stress or 0.2%
proof stress specified in the relevant Indian Standard specification. The characteristic strength of steel
designated by symbol fy (N/mm2)

Characteristic loads

The term ‘Characteristic load‘means that values of load which has a 95% probability of not being
exceeded during that life of the structure.

The design load should be more than average load obtained from statistic, we have

Fk = Fm + KSd

Where,

Fk =characteristic load

Fm = mean load
 K=constant=2.65

Sd=standard deviation for the load.

Since data are not available to express loads in statistical terms, for the purpose of this standard, dead
loads given in IS 875(Part-1), imposed loads given in IS 875(Part-2), wind loads Given in IS 875 (Part-3),
snow load as given in IS 875(Part-4) and seismic forces given in IS 1893 shall be assumed as the
characteristic loads.

Design strength of materials

The design strength of materials (fd) is given by

fd= fk/m

Where, fk=characteristic strength of material.

m =partial safety factor appropriate to the material and the limit state being considered

Design loads

The design load (Fd) is given by. Fd = Fk. f

f =partial safety factor appropriate to the nature of loading and the limit state being considered.

The design load obtained by multi plying the characteristic load by the partial safety factor for load is
also known as factored load.

Partial safety factor (m) for materials

When assessing the strength of a structure or structural member for the limit state of collapse, the
values of partial safety factor, m should be taken as 1.15 for steel.
Thus, in the limit state method, the design stress for steel reinforcement is given by

fy/ms= fy/1.15=0.87fy

According to IS 456:2000 for design purpose the compressive strength of concrete in the structure shall
be assumed to bee 0.67 times the characteristic strength of concrete in cube and partial safety factor mc
=1.5 shall be applied in addition to this. Thus, the design stress in
in concrete is given by

0.67fck / mc = 0.67 fck /1.5 =0.446 fck

Partial safety factor for loads

The partial safety factors for loads, as per IS 456:2000 are given in table below

THEORY OF REINFORCED BEAMS AND SLABS

Plain cement concrete has high compressive strength with its tensile strength relatively low.

Therefore, the tensile strength of a beam which is made up of PCC is very low. Therefore, it is
reinforced by placing steel bars in the tensile zone of concrete so that the compressive stress is
carried by the concrete and the tensile stress is carried by steel reinforcing bars only.

Figure (a) shows a simply supported RC beam subjected to transverse loads and bending
downwards.

Figure (a) Simply supported beam

In this the reinforcing steel bars is placed at a suitable depth below the neutral axis.

Figure (b) shows a cantilever beam bending downwards.

Figure (b) cantilever beam

The tensile zone is above the neutral axis therefore, the reinforcing steel bars are provided at a
height above the neutral axis.

In both the cases the reinforcement is provided in the tensile zone only. Such kinds of sections
are referred as singly reinforced section. In some cases reinforcing steel bars are provided in
the compressive zone to carry the compressive loads also. Such kinds of sections are called as
doubly reinforced section.

The joint action of steel and concrete in a RC section depends on the following factors:

 The bond between the concrete and steel bars

 Absence of corrosion of steel bars embedded in concrete
 Thermal expansion of both concrete and steel.

LIMIT STATE OF COLLAPSE IN FLEXURE

The behavior of reinforced concrete beam sections at ultimate loads has been explained in detail in
previous section. The basic assumptions involved in the analysis at the ultimate limit state of flexure (Cl.
38.1 of the Code) are listed here.

Assumptions:

a) Plane sections normal to the beam axis remain plane after bending, i.e., in an initially straight beam,
strain varies linearly over the depth of the section.

b) The maximum compressive strain in concrete (at the outermost fibre) cu shall be taken as 0.0035 in
bending.
 c) The relationship between the compressive stress distribution in concrete and the strain in concrete
may be assumed to be rectangle, trapezoid, parabola or any other shape which results in prediction of
strength in substantial agreement with the results of test. An acceptable stressstress-strain
strain curve is given
below in figure. For design purposes, the compressive strength of concrete in the structure shall be
assumed to o be 0.67 times the characteristic strength. The partial safety factor y, = 1.5 shall be applied in
addition to this.

d) The tensile strength of the concrete is ignored.

e) The stresses in the reinforcement are derived from representative stress

stress-strain curve for the type of
steel used.

f) The maximum strain in the tension reinforcement in the section at failure shall not be less than:
(fy/1.15ES)+.002

MODES OF FAILURE: TYPES OF SECTION

A reinforced concrete member is considered to have failed when the strain of concrete in
extreme compression fibre reaches its ultimate value of 0.0035. At this stage, the actual strain
in steel can have the following values:

(a) Equal to failure strain of steel (0.87fy/ES)+0.002 corresponding to balanced section.

(b) More than failure strain, corresponding to under reinforced section.

(c) Less than failure strain corresponding to over reinforced section.

Thus for a given section, the actual value of xu/d can be determined from equation

Three cases may arise.

In balanced section, the strain in steel and strain in concrete reach their maximum values
simultaneously. The percentage of steel in this section is known as critical or limiting steel
percentage. The depth of neutral axis (NA) is xu=xu,max

Under-reinforced section

An under-reinforced section is the one in which steel percentage (pt) is less than critical or
limiting percentage ( Pt,lim ). Due to this the actua l NA is above the balanced NA and xu< xu,max

Over-reinforced section

In the over reinforced section the steel percentage is more than limiting percentage due to
which NA falls below the balanced NA and xu> xu,max . Because of higher percentage of steel,
yield does not take place in steel and failure occurs when the strain in extreme fibres in
concrete reaches its ultimate value. Thus the failure takes place due to the crushing of concrete
while strain in steel still remains below the yield strain. It should be noted that compression
failure is sudden and therefore not desirable. The code recommends that if x u/d is found
greater than the limiting value, the beam should be resigned.

Limiting Depth of Neutral Axis

Stress strain variations against cross sections

Based on the assumption given above, an expression for the depth of the neutral axis at the
ultimate limit state, xu, can be easily obtained from the strain diagram in figure. Considering
similar triangles,
The limiting depth of neutral axis, xu,max corresponds to the so-called balanced section, i.e., a
section that is expected to result in a ‘balanced‘ failure at the ultimate limit state in flexure. If
the neutral axis depth xu is less than xu,max , then the section is under-reinforced (resulting in a
tension‘ failure); whereas if xu exceeds xu,max, it is over-reinforced (resulting in a ‘compression‘
failure).

ANALYSIS OF SINGLY REINFORCED RECTANGULAR SECTIONS

Analysis of a given reinforced concrete section at the ultimate limit state of flexure implies the
determination of the ultimate moment MuR of resistance of the section. This is easily obtained
from the couple resulting from the flexural stresses.

MUR = CU.z = TU.z

Where Cu and Tu are the resultant (ultimate) forces in compression and tension respectively,
and z is the lever arm.

TU = [Link]

Where fst = .087fy , for xu≤ xu,max.

and the line of action of Tu corresponds to the level of the centroid of the tension steel.

Concrete Stress Block in Compression

In order to determine the magnitude of Cu and its line of action, it is necessary to analyse the
concrete stress block in compression. As ultimate failure of a reinforced concrete beam in
flexure occurs by the crushing of concrete, for both under- and over-reinforced beams, the
shape of the compressive stress distribution (‘stress block‘) at failure will be, in both cases, as
shown in Figure. The value of Cu can be computed knowing that the compressive stress in
concrete is uniform at 0.447 fck for a depth of 3xu / 7, and below this it varies parabolically over
a depth of 4x u / 7 to zero at the neutral .

For a rectangular section of width b,

Also, the line of action of Cu is determined by the centroid of the stress block, located at a
distance x_ from the concrete fibres subjected to the maximum compressive strain. Accordingly,
considering moments of compressive forces C u , C 1 and C 2 [Fig. 1.9] about the maximum
compressive strain location,

DEPTH OF NEUTRAL AXIS

For any given section, the depth of the neutral axis should be such that Cu=Tu, satisfying equilibrium of
forces. Equating Cu=Tu , with expressions for Cu and Tu given by the equations,

Ultimate Moment of Resistance

The ultimate moment of resistance MuR of a given beam section is obtained. The lever arm z, for the
case of the singly reinforced rectangular section is given by

Limiting Moment of Resistance

The limiting moment of resistance of a given (singly reinforced, rectangular) section, according
to the Code (Cl. G−1.1), corresponds to the condition defined by the equation