QUANTUM COMPUTING

Syllabus:
Introduction of Quantum computing, linear algebra for quantum computation,
Dirac’s Bra and Ket notation and their properties, Hilbert space, Bloch’s sphere,
concept of quantum computer, classical bits, Qubits, multiple Qubit system,
quantum computing system for information processing, quantum measurements,
entanglement, quantum gates, challenges and advantages of quantum computing
over classical computation.
 QUANTUM COMPUTER

INTRODUCTION

 A Quantum computer is a type of computer that uses Quantum mechanics.

 Quantum computers can solve certain problems much faster than classical
computers.
 Classical computer solve problems step by step.
 Quantum computer can handle many possibilities at once because of
superposition.
 In classical computer, classical bit value is 0 or 1.
 In Quantum computer, quantum bit (Qubit) value can be 0,1 or 0 and 1 at
the same time( super position)

Real space:
A Real space is three dimensional, all constants are belongs to real numbers. Here
every vector is represented by using unit vectors i,j,k as 𝐴𝑥 i+𝐴𝑦 j+𝐴𝑧 k=A and {I,j,k} is
called Basis state.
i.i=j.j=k.k=1 is called normalisation.
i.j=j.k=k.i=0 this condition is called orthogonal.
The basis satisfying these conditions are called orthogonal condition and the basis
is called completeness.

Vector space:

A vector space is a collection of things (called vectors) where you can:

1. Add them
2. Multiply them by numbers
and the results still stay inside the collection.

To define the quantum state (vector) we should need Hilbert space.

Hilbert Space

✅ 1. Definition

A Hilbert space is a vector space over complex numbers.

 It allows addition, scalar multiplication, and inner product operations.

 Elements in the Hilbert space is called Quantum states.
 In quantum mechanics, the Hilbert space is usually over complex numbers.

✅ 2. Physical Meaning

In quantum mechanics:

 Each quantum state is represented by a vector in a Hilbert space.

 Quantum system is defined as linear combination of basis states in Hilbert
space. That is, 𝜓 = 𝑐1 𝜙1 + 𝑐2𝜙2 where c1,c2 is belongs to complex number
and 𝜙1, 𝜙2 are basis.
 Basis states are similar to unit vector (like i, j, k) in real space.
 Hilbet space spanned by basis vector, so Hilbert space is linear.
 Observables are operators acting on this space.
 All physical predictions are derived from operations within the Hilbert space.
 Dirac’s Bra–Ket Notation (Dirac Notation)

 Dirac introduced two very important notations called the Bra and Ket,

 He considered all possible states in the Hilbert space are denoted the typical
vector by symbol | >, called a ket .

 All the ket vectors of a system together form a linear vector space which may
called ket-space.

 The scalar product of two state vectors 𝜓, 𝜙 denoted by kets | 𝜓 > and | 𝜙 >
is written as

< 𝜓| 𝜙 >

 where the < 𝜓| is called the bra vector corresponding to the a ket vector | 𝜙 >,

 In this way, Bra and ket notations distinguish very clearly between pre-
factor(< 𝜓| )and post-factor (| 𝜙 >)wave vectors in a scalar product.

✅ 1. Kets: |𝜓⟩

 A ket represents a column vector (quantum state vector) in a complex vector

(Hilbert) space.

 Example:

𝛼
|𝜓⟩ = [𝛽 ]

with normalization: |𝛼|2 + |𝛽|2 = 1

✅ 2. Bras: ⟨𝜓|

 A bra is the complex conjugate transpose (Hermitian adjoint) of a ket.

 It is a row vector:

⟨𝜓| = [𝛼 ∗ 𝛽∗]
PROPERTIES

1. Operation on a ket vector from the left with an operator A produces another
vector.

A| Ѱ > = |𝜓′ >

2. Operator on a bra vector from right with an operator A produces another Bra
vector.

< Ѱ|A = <𝜓′ |

3. The kets may be multiplied by complex numbers and may be added to give
other kets
𝑎1 |𝑄 > +𝑎2 |𝑅 > = |𝑆 >
Where 𝑎1 and 𝑎2 are two complex numbers.

4. Sum of two bras is defined by the condition that its scalar product of ket vector
is equal to sum of scalar product bra and ket.

That is, (<R|+<Q|)|S> =<R|S> +<Q|S>

5. Inner Product (Bra-Ket Notation)

 Inner product is the product of Bra and ket and it is also called scalar product.

 The inner product between two states |𝜓⟩ and |𝜙⟩:

⟨𝜓|𝜙⟩ = ∑ 𝜓𝑖∗ 𝜙𝑖
𝑖

Here 𝜙 is the intial and 𝜓 is taget and ⟨𝜓|𝜙⟩ is probability of amplitude. The
physical meaning of inner product is, what is probability in state 𝜓, when we
make a measurement on 𝜙
 Ex: say Ѱ = 𝛼 |0 > +𝛽 |1 > is quantum state, then the probability of
finding the system in 1, by measuring on Ѱ is Pamp=<1| Ѱ > = 𝛽

1
Example: 𝜓1 = ( 2 ) then
3𝑖

1
<𝜓1 |𝜓1 > = (1 2 −3𝑖 ) ( 2 ) = 3+6i
3𝑖

 Inner product is Used to compute the following

1. Length: ⟨𝜓|𝜓⟩ =∥ 𝜓 ∥2
2. Probability amplitude
3. Orthogonality: ⟨𝜓|𝜙⟩ = 0

✅ 6. Outer Product

 Outer product is the product of Ket and Bra

 |𝜓⟩⟨𝜙| forms a matrix and is used in projections and density operators.

𝛼
 If |𝜓⟩ = [𝛽 ], then:

𝛼
|𝜓⟩⟨𝜓| = [𝛽 ] [𝛼 ∗ 𝛽∗]

1
 Example: 𝜓1 = ( 2 ) then
3𝑖

1 1 1 2
|𝜓1 >< 𝜓1 | = ( 2 ) (1 2 3𝑖 ) = ( 2 2 4)
−3𝑖 3𝑖 3𝑖 6𝑖

 Outer product is a square matrix and its trace is inner product.

✅ 7. Projection

The probability of measuring a system in state |𝜓⟩ to be in Eigen state|𝜙⟩:

𝑃 = |⟨𝜙|𝜓⟩|2

The projection operator is:

𝑃̂𝜙 = |𝜙⟩⟨𝜙|

Ex: Expand an operator in outer product form

0 1
X=[ ] then 𝑋̂ = |0 >< 1| + |1 >< 0|
1 0

8. Completeness Relation (Orthonormal Basis)

The sum of the outer products of the system is always is equal Identity matrix.
If {|𝑖⟩} is an orthonormal basis:

∑ | 𝑖⟩⟨𝑖| = 𝐼̂
𝑖

Ex: Expand an operator in outer product form

0 1
X=[ ] then 𝑋̂ = |0 >< 1| + |1 >< 0|
1 0

9. Eigen value

If an operator A operators on a ket| Ѱ > from left,

A| Ѱ > =λ | Ѱ >

Then the ket | Ѱ > is called an eigen ket of the operator A

and λ is known as its Eigen value.

✅ 10. Expectation Value in Dirac Notation

 The expectation value of an operator A in the state can be written a in these

notations

⟨𝜙|𝐴̂|𝜓⟩=∫ 𝜓 ∗ 𝐴𝜓 𝑑𝑣 =<A>

→ represents the expectation value or transition amplitude.

Linear Algebra for Quantum Computation

Quantum computing is built entirely on linear algebra, especially over complex

vector spaces (Hilbert spaces). Below are the essential topics:

✅ 1. Vector Spaces and Qubits

 Quantum states are vectors in a complex Hilbert space.

 A single qubit is a 2D complex vector:

𝛼
|𝜓⟩ = 𝛼|0⟩ + 𝛽|1⟩ = [𝛽 ] , with 𝛼, 𝛽 ∈ ℂ, |𝛼|2 + |𝛽|2 = 1

✅ 2. Inner Product (Bra-Ket Notation)

 The inner product between two states |𝜓⟩ and |𝜙⟩:

⟨𝜓|𝜙⟩ = ∑ 𝜓𝑖∗ 𝜙𝑖
𝑖

 Used to compute:

o Length: ⟨𝜓|𝜓⟩ =∥ 𝜓 ∥2
 o Probability amplitude
o Orthogonality: ⟨𝜓|𝜙⟩ = 0

✅ 3. Outer Product

 |𝜓⟩⟨𝜙| forms a matrix (used in projections and density operators).

𝛼
 If |𝜓⟩ = [𝛽 ], then:

𝛼
|𝜓⟩⟨𝜓| = [𝛽 ] [𝛼 ∗ 𝛽∗]

✅ 4. Tensor Products (Kronecker Product)

 For multiple qubits:

0
1 0 1
|0⟩ ⊗ |1⟩ = |01⟩ = [ ] ⊗ [ ] = [ ]
0 1 0
0

 Used to build multi-qubit systems.

✅ 5. Matrices and Operators

 Quantum gates are represented by unitary matrices:

𝑈†𝑈 = 𝐼

 Common 1-qubit gates:

0 1
o X-gate (NOT): [ ]
1 0
1 1 1
o Hadamard gate (H): [ ]
√2 1 −1
1 0
o Z-gate: [ ]
0 −1
 o All these are unitary matrices.

✅ 6. Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

 Used in measurements and observables:

𝐴̂|𝜙⟩ = 𝜆|𝜙⟩

 Observable results are eigenvalues, and the state collapses into the
eigenvector.

✅ 7. Hermitian Matrices

 A Hermitian matrix is a square complex matrix that is equal to its own

conjugate transpose that is 𝐴̂ = 𝐴̂†
 Represent observables: position, momentum, energy, etc.
 Eigenvalues of Hermitian operators are real.
Ex:
 Concept of a Quantum Computer

A quantum computer is a computational device that uses the principles of

quantum mechanics to process information.

Unlike classical computers that use bits (0 or 1), quantum computers use qubits
that can exist in superpositions of 0 and 1.

✅ 1. Classical vs Quantum Computers

Feature Classical Computer Quantum Computer

Basic Bit (0 or 1) Qubit (0, 1, or both)

unit

Logic Boolean logic (AND, OR, Quantum gates (unitary operations)

NOT)

Power Grows linearly Grows exponentially (in certain

problems)

✅ 2. Qubit: The Quantum Bit

 A qubit is the fundamental unit of quantum information.

 A qubit can be in a superposition:

|𝜓⟩ = 𝛼|0⟩ + 𝛽|1⟩ with |𝛼|2 + |𝛽|2 = 1

 Measurement collapses it to either |0⟩ or |1⟩.

✅ 3. Key Quantum Phenomena

🔹 Superposition
 A qubit can exist in multiple states at once, unlike a classical bit.
 Enables parallelism in computation.

🔹 Entanglement
 Qubits can be entangled, meaning the state of one qubit depends on another.
 Used in quantum teleportation, quantum algorithms, and cryptography.

🔹 Interference
 Quantum states can interfere with each other constructively or destructively.
 Helps to amplify correct results and cancel incorrect ones in algorithms.

✅ 4. Advantages of Quantum Computing

 Parallelism due to superposition

 Speed-up in solving certain problems (e.g., factoring, search)
 Quantum simulation of physical systems (chemistry, materials)

✅ 5. Challenges

 Decoherence: loss of quantum state due to environment

 Error correction: quantum errors are harder to detect and fix
 Scalability: building many reliable qubits is hard.
 🔷 Bloch Sphere: A Geometric Representation of a Qubit

✅ 1. What is the Bloch Sphere?

The Bloch sphere is a 3D unit sphere that provides a geometrical representation

of any pure state of a single qubit.

 Every pure qubit state can be represented as a point on the surface of this
sphere.
 It gives an intuitive way to visualize quantum gates and qubit rotations.

✅ 2. Qubit State and the Bloch Sphere

Any normalized qubit state:

|𝜓⟩ = 𝛼|0⟩ + 𝛽|1⟩ with |𝛼|2 + |𝛽|2 = 1

can be rewritten as:

𝜃 𝜃
|𝜓⟩ = cos ( ) |0⟩ + 𝑒 𝑖𝜙 sin ( ) |1⟩
2 2

 𝜃 ∈ [0, 𝜋]: polar angle (from z-axis)

 𝜙 ∈ [0,2𝜋): azimuthal angle (around z-axis)

This maps the qubit to a point on a unit sphere.

✅ 3. Bloch Sphere Coordinates

The qubit |𝜓⟩ corresponds to a point (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) on the sphere:

𝑥 = sin𝜃cos𝜙
𝑦 = sin𝜃sin𝜙
𝑧 = cos𝜃

So:

 North Pole: |0⟩ where θ=00 and φ=00

 South Pole: |1⟩ where θ=1800 and φ=00
|0⟩+|1⟩
 Equator: Equal superpositions (like |+⟩ = ) where θ=450 and φ=00
√2

✅ [Link] the Bloch Sphere

 Intuitive visualization of single-qubit operations.

 Helps understand:

o Superposition
o Relative phase
o Gate effects (rotations)
o Measurement projections
 Classical Bits

1. Definition
A classical bit (short for binary digit) is the smallest unit of information in
classical computing.

 It can exist in only one of two possible states:

Bit value = 0 or 1

2. Physical Representation
In physical systems, bits are represented using two distinguishable states of a
system:

 Voltage levels: 0V (bit = 0), 5V (bit = 1)

 Magnetic poles: North (0), South (1)
 Light: Off (0), On (1)

3. Binary Logic
Classical bits are manipulated using Boolean logic gates:

Gate Operation
NOT Flips bit: 0 → 1, 1 → 0
AND 1 if both bits are 1
OR 1 if at least one is 1
XOR 1 if bits are different
4. Bit Strings
Multiple bits are grouped to represent more information:

 1 bit → 2 values (0 or 1)
 2 bits → 4 values (00, 01, 10, 11)
 𝑛 bits → 2𝑛 possible combinations

Example: A byte = 8 bits → 256 possible values.

5. Storage and Computation

Classical bits are used in:

 Memory: RAM stores data in bits

 CPUs: Perform logical and arithmetic operations on bits
 Storage: Hard drives, SSDs, store files as long sequences of bits

Qubits (Quantum Bits)

A qubit is the basic unit of quantum information, just as a bit is for classical
information. But unlike classical bits (which are either 0 or 1), a qubit can exist in
a superposition of both.

✅ 1. Qubit State (Superposition)

A qubit can be in the state:

|𝜓⟩ = 𝛼|0⟩ + 𝛽|1⟩

where: 𝛼, 𝛽 are complex numbers

 The normalization condition: |𝛼|2 + |𝛽|2 = 1

This means |𝛼|2 is the probability of measuring the qubit as 0

|𝛽|2 is the probability of measuring the qubit as 1

✅ 2. Computational Basis

The standard basis states are {|0 >, |1 >}:

1
|0⟩ = [ ]
0

0
|1⟩ = [ ]
1

Any qubit is a linear combination (superposition)

of these two.

A qubit may be visualized as a unit vector on the

plane.

In general, however, α and β are complex Numbers.

 Multiple Qubit System

In quantum computing, combining multiple qubits allows us to build powerful

quantum circuits and perform complex computations.

✅ 1. State Space Grows Exponentially

 A single qubit lives in a 2-dimensional space.

 Two qubits → 22 = 4 dimensions
 Three qubits → 23 = 8 dimensions
 n qubits → 2𝑛 -dimensional Hilbert space

This exponential growth is what makes quantum computers powerful.

TWO QUBIT SYSTEM:

The state of multiple qubits is formed using the tensor product (⊗) of
individual qubit states.

In Two qubit system basis sets are {|0>⊗|0>, |0>⊗|1>, |1>⊗|0>, |1>⊗|1>}.

1 1
|0>⊗|0>= [ ]⊗[ ] = =|00>
0 0

It is nothing but the bit values as (00, 01, 10, 11) in classical computing
And equal to 0,1,2,3 in binary system.
Therefore this basis can be written as {|0>, |1>, |2>, |3>}
Tensor Product of Qubits

If:

|𝜓⟩ = 𝛼|0⟩ + 𝛽|1⟩, |𝜙⟩ = 𝛾|0⟩ + 𝛿|1⟩

Then:

|𝜓⟩ ⊗ |𝜙⟩ = 𝛼𝛾|00⟩ + 𝛼𝛿|01⟩ + 𝛽𝛾|10⟩ + 𝛽𝛿|11⟩

This gives a combined state vector in ℂ4 .

THREE QUBIT SYSTEM:

The state of multiple qubits is formed using the tensor product (⊗) of individual
qubit states.

In Three qubit system basis sets are

{|000>, |001>, |010>, |011>, |100>, |101>|110>|111>}.
And equal to 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7 in binary system.
Therefore this basis can be written as {|0>, |1>, |2>, |3>, |4>, |5>, |6>, |7>}
The basis sets are from |0> to |23-1>

N-QUBITS

For 𝑛 qubits, the computational basis has 2𝑛 basis states:

|0>⊗|0>⊗|0>⊗-----|0> = |0 >⊗n= |00000…..>

The basis sets are from |0> to |2n-1>
Any state is a linear combination:

2𝑛 −1

|𝜓⟩ = ∑ 𝑐𝑖 |𝑖⟩ with ∑|𝑐𝑖 |2 = 1

𝑖=0
 🔷 Quantum Gates

Quantum gates are the basic operations used to manipulate qubits in quantum
computing. They are unitary matrices, meaning:

𝑈†𝑈 = 𝐼

They preserve probability and evolve quantum states without loss of information.

✅ 1. Single-Qubit Gates

These gates operate on one qubit and are represented by 2 × 2 unitary matrices.

Pauli Gates

a) Pauli X-gate:

0 1
Pauli x-gate matrix form is [ ] it is act as NOT gate
1 0

Outer product operator is X|0><1|+|1><0|

X |0> =|1>

X |1>= |0>

According to Bloch sphere, it flips rotation around 1800

b) Pauli Y-gate:

0 −𝑖
Pauli Y-gate matrix form is [ ] it is act as NOT gate
𝑖 0
 Outer product operator is Y i(|1><0|-|0><1|)

Y |0> =i|1>

Y |1>= -i|0>

c) Pauli Z-gate:

1 0
Pauli z-gate matrix form is [ ] it is act as NOT gate
0 −1

Outer product operator Z gate is |0><0|-|1><1|

Z |0> =|0>

Z |1>= -|1>

According to Bloch sphere, we get phase change.

🔹 (b) Hadamard Gate (H)

A Hadamard gate is a fundamental single-qubit gate in quantum computing that

creates a superposition state from a classical state of |0⟩ or |1⟩

It is represented by the matrix

1 1 1 1
𝐻= [ ] = [𝑋 + 𝑍]
√2 1 −1 √2

The outer product of the Hadmard gate is

𝟏
H= (|𝟎 >< 𝟎| + |𝟎 >< 𝟏| + |𝟏 >< 𝟎| + |𝟏 >< 𝟏|)
√𝟐

1
H|0> = (|0 > +< 1|) =|+>
√2

Creates superposition:
 1
𝐻|1⟩ = (|0⟩ − |1⟩) =|- >
√2

If Hadamard gate operated on a the output is appears as

1
𝐻|𝑎⟩ = (|0⟩ − (−1)𝑎 |1⟩)
√2

Hadamard gate is reversible. It means

H|+> = |0> and H|-> =|1>

In Bloch sphere, the Hadamard gate operation make chage between X and Z basis.

Key properties and functions

 Superposition: The primary function of the Hadamard gate is to put a qubit

into an equal superposition of |0⟩ and |1⟩, meaning it has a 50% chance of
being measured as |0⟩ and a 50% chance of being measured as |1⟩.
 Inverse: Applying the Hadamard gate twice returns the qubit to its original
state, as H2 = I where I identity matrix
 Applications: The Hadamard gate is a building block for many quantum
algorithms, such as Grover's search and the Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm, where
it is used to prepare initial super positions.

🔹 Phase Shift Gates

1 0
The rotational matrix form is [ ]
0 𝑒 𝑖∅

a) I-gate:

1 0
I-gate matrix form is [ ] , here global phase value is 0
0 1

Outer product operator of I is |0><1|+|1><1|

 I |0> =|0>

I |1>= |1>

According to Bloch sphere, it flips rotation around 1800

a) S-gate:

1 0
S-gate matrix form is [ ] , here global phase value is 900
0 𝑖

Outer product operator of S is |0><1|+i|1><1|

I |0> =|0>

I |1>= i|1>

According to Bloch sphere, it flips rotation around 900

a) T-gate:

1 0 𝜋
T-gate matrix form is [ 𝑖
𝜋 ] , here global phase value is 4
0 𝑒 4

𝜋
Outer product operator of I is |0><1|+ 𝑖 |1><1|
4

I |0> =|0>

𝜋
I |1>= 𝑖 4 |1>

According to Bloch sphere, there is a some phase.

T-gate is square root of S

Two-Qubit Gates

These gates operate on two qubits and can create entanglement.

🔹 (a) CNOT (Controlled-NOT)

Controlled –NOT gate is act as XOR gate in digial electrons. The

corresponding matrix is

1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
CNOT = 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
[ ]

Flips target qubit if control qubit is |1⟩

The circuit diagram is as shown in figure

Example:

CNOT(|10⟩) = |11⟩

CNOT(|01⟩) = |00⟩
🔹 (b) Controlled-Z (CZ)

Adds a phase of -1 when both qubits are |1⟩

𝐶𝑍 = diag(1,1,1, −1)

The circuit diagram is as shown in figure

3--- -3 that is , |11> = -|11>

🔹 (c) SWAP

Swaps the two qubits:

|01⟩ ↔ |10⟩

The circuit diagram is as shown in figure

✅ 3. Multi-Qubit Gates

Toffoli (CCNOT): Controlled-Controlled-NOT

Fredkin (CSWAP): Controlled-SWAP

Used in reversible computing and quantum error correction.

Important Properties of Quantum Gates

Reversible (can undo operations)

Unitary (probability preserved)

Can form universal gate sets (e.g., {H, T, CNOT})

Can build any quantum circuit using combinations

 🔷 Evolution of Quantum Systems

In quantum mechanics, the evolution of a quantum system refers to how the state
of a system changes over time. This evolution is governed by the Schrödinger
equation and represented by unitary transformations in quantum computing.

✅ 1. Time Evolution: Schrödinger Equation

The time-dependent Schrödinger equation describes the continuous evolution of

a closed quantum system:

𝑑
𝑖ℏ ̂ |𝜓(𝑡)⟩
|𝜓(𝑡)⟩ = 𝐻
𝑑𝑡

|𝜓(𝑡)⟩: state vector at time 𝑡

̂ : Hamiltonian (energy operator)

𝐻

ℏ: reduced Planck’s constant

✅ 2. Solution to Schrödinger Equation

For a time-independent Hamiltonian, the solution is:

|𝜓(𝑡)⟩ = 𝑒 −𝑖𝐻̂𝑡/ℏ |𝜓(0)⟩

The operator 𝑈(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑖𝐻̂𝑡/ℏ is a unitary time evolution operator

It preserves the norm and probability of the quantum state

✅ 3. Unitary Evolution in Quantum Computing

In quantum computing, the evolution of quantum states is represented by unitary

matrices:

|𝜓′ ⟩ = 𝑈|𝜓⟩ where 𝑈 † 𝑈 = 𝐼

🔷 Quantum Measurements

In quantum mechanics, measurement is the process by which the quantum state

collapses to a definite classical outcome. Unlike classical systems, measuring a
quantum system affects its state.

✅ 1. What Happens During Measurement?

Let the quantum system be in state:

|𝜓⟩ = ∑ 𝛼𝑖 |𝑖⟩
𝑖

 |𝑖⟩: measurement basis states (usually computational basis: |0⟩, |1⟩)

 |𝛼𝑖 |2 : probability of measuring outcome 𝑖

After measurement, the system collapses to the state |𝑖⟩ with probability |𝛼𝑖 |2 .

✅ 2. Measurement Postulate

Measurement is defined by a set of measurement operators {𝑀𝑚 } that satisfy:

†
∑ 𝑀𝑚 𝑀𝑚 = 𝐼
𝑚
  If outcome 𝑚 occurs, the state becomes:

𝑀𝑚 |𝜓⟩ †
|𝜓′ ⟩ = where 𝑝(𝑚) = ⟨𝜓|𝑀𝑚 𝑀𝑚 |𝜓⟩
√𝑝(𝑚)

In computational basis, these operators are usually projectors.

✅ 3. Projective (Von Neumann) Measurement

Most quantum algorithms use projective measurements:

If |𝜓⟩ = 𝛼|0⟩ + 𝛽|1⟩, measuring in the {|0⟩, |1⟩} basis gives:

 Outcome 0 with probability |𝛼|2 → state becomes |0⟩

 Outcome 1 with probability |𝛽|2 → state becomes |1⟩

Entanglement in Quantum Mechanics

1. What Is Entanglement?

Entanglement is a quantum phenomenon where two or more qubits become

linked such that the state of one qubit instantly affects the state of the other—no
matter how far apart they are.

The qubits do not have independent states; instead, they share a joint state
that cannot be factored into individual states.
2. Mathematical Definition

A two-qubit state |𝜓⟩ is entangled if it cannot be written as:

|𝜓⟩ ≠ |𝜓𝐴 ⟩ ⊗ |𝜓𝐵 ⟩

This means the full system cannot be separated into parts.

3. Example of Entangled States: Bell States

The Bell States are maximally entangled two-qubit states:

1
|Φ+ ⟩ = (|00⟩ + |11⟩)
√2

1
|Φ− ⟩ = (|00⟩ − |11⟩)
√2

1
|Ψ+ ⟩ = (|01⟩ + |10⟩)
√2

1
|Ψ− ⟩ = (|01⟩ − |10⟩)
√2

Each Bell state is inseparable and displays perfect correlations.

 Advantages of Quantum Computing

🔹 1. Quantum Parallelism

 Qubits can be in a superposition of multiple states.

 This allows a quantum computer to process many possible outcomes
simultaneously.

🔹 2. Speed-up for Specific Problems

Quantum computers offer exponential speedup for some problems:

Problem Classical Time Quantum Time

Factoring (RSA) Exponential Polynomial (Shor's)

Database Search Linear (𝑂(𝑁)) Square Root (𝑂(√𝑁)) – Grover’s

Simulation of Quantum Systems Exponential Polynomial

🔹 3. Entanglement for Correlated Systems

 Entangled qubits share states instantaneously.

 Enables highly correlated computations that classical bits cannot emulate
efficiently.

🔹 4. Compact Representation of Information

 𝑛 qubits encode much more information than 𝑛 classical bits.

 This allows solving problems that are intractable for classical systems.
🔹 5. Secure Communication (Quantum Cryptography)

 Quantum key distribution (QKD) uses quantum states to detect

eavesdropping.
 It offers unconditional security based on quantum principles.

Challenges of Quantum Computing

🔹 1. Decoherence and Noise

 Qubits are fragile and easily influenced by the environment.

 Loss of quantum information (decoherence) is a major obstacle.

🔹 2. Error Correction is Difficult

 Unlike classical bits, quantum errors are continuous (phase + amplitude

errors).
 Quantum error correction requires many physical qubits per logical qubit
(e.g., 1,000+:1).

🔹 3. Scalability Issues

 Building and maintaining large-scale quantum computers is complex.

 Requires low temperature, high isolation, and precise control.

🔹 4. Measurement Collapses the State

 Reading a qubit destroys superposition and collapses the state.

 Careful design is needed to extract useful information.
🔹 5. Lack of Universal Algorithms

 Not all problems benefit from quantum speed-up.

 Algorithms like Shor's and Grover’s are useful but limited in scope.

🔹 6. Hardware Technology is Still Evolving

 Competing platforms (superconducting qubits, trapped ions, photonic qubits)

exist.
 No dominant or fully scalable quantum hardware yet.