Central and Peripheral

Nervous System

Prof. Dr. Shamim Momtaz Ferdousi Begum

Former Member ( Planning)
Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission
Dhaka -1207, Bangladesh, Phone: +88-01-711849903
Email: shamimmomtaz23@[Link]
Road Map
• Functional organization and functions of major
levels of CNS and PNS.
• Somato-sensory sub system and motor system
of the body.
• General outline of organization - Neurons, Nerve,
Fibers, Synapse, Neuro-transmitters.
• Structure and functions of cerebellum, Basal
ganglia, Limbic systems and Hypothalamus.
• Autonomic Nervous system
• States of Brain Activity—Sleep, Brain Waves,
Epilepsy and Circadian Rhythm.
Nervous System
• The nervous system is a complex network of
nerves and cells that carry messages to and from
brain and spinal cord to various parts of the body.
• It coordinates voluntary and involuntary actions in
the body by sending and receiving information.

The nervous system is comprised of an enormous

number of cells (over 100 billion).
• Primarily of two types of cells:
• Neurons (the signaling units)
• Glial cells (the supporting units).
Cont.
• Nervous system function is mostly a story
of the neuron.
• The neuron is the structural and functional
unit of the nervous system and is designed
to transmit information between cells.
Parts of Nervous System
Nervous system can be divided into two major
parts:
• Central nervous system (CNS)
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

• CNS consists of neurons associated with central processing

and which are located in the brain and spinal cord.
• PNS consists of neurons associated with sensory input
(afferent) and motor output (efferent), and functions to
connect the central nervous system to all other parts of the
body.
Cont.
• Stated another way, if the entire structure of the
neuron is contained within the brain and/or spinal
cord, the neuron would be considered part of the
CNS.
• In contrast, if any part of the neuronal structure is
located outside of the brain and/or spinal cord the
neuron would be considered part of the PNS.
Central &
Peripheral
Nervous System
Parts of Nervous System
Central Nervous System
Central Nervous System has two parts
• Brain
• Spinal Cord
Cont.
Parts of Brain
Parts of Brain
• Cerebrum

• Mid Brain
• The Brainstem
• Pons
• Medulla Oblongata

• Cerebellum
Cont.
Parts of forebrain: Cerebrum, thalamus, hypothalamus,
pituitary gland, limbic system, and the olfactory bulb.
Midbrain and hindbrain together compose the brain
stem.
The brainstem connects the spinal cords with the
cerebrum.
The midbrain regulates movement and aids in the
processing of auditory and visual information.
The oculomotor and trochlear cranial are located in the
midbrain. These nerves control eye and eyelid movement.
 Cerebrum
• Cerebrum is the largest part of the brain that occupies the
anterior and middle cranial fossa of skull.
• The cerebrum is divided two halves. The halves are almost
identical so they are called the left and right hemispheres.
• Although they look similar, they have different functions.
• The right hemisphere is associated with creativity and the left
is associated with logic abilities.
• Cerebrum is divided into four lobes
• Frontal lobe
• Parietal lobe
• Temporal lobe
• Occipital lobe
Brain
Grey Matter and White Matter
Grey Matter
• Superficial part of cerebrum is called Grey matter
or Cerebral cortex
• Grey matter composed of body of nerve cells,
dendrites and axon terminal.
White Matter
• Deeper layer White matter of cerebrum is
composed of nerve cell bodies fibers
Grey Matter and White Matter
Functional Areas of Cerebral Cortex
Functional Areas of Cerebral Cortex
• Motor Area
• Premotor Area
• Motor Speech Area (Broca’s area)
• Sensory Area
• Auditory Area
• Visual Area
Functional Areas of Cerebral Cortex
• Motor area: Initiation of voluntary movement of
skeletal muscles.
• Motor Speech area or Broca’s area : Controls the
muscle movement for speech.
• Sensory/Somatosensory area: Here sensation of
pain, temperature, pressure, touch, awareness of
muscular movement or joint position are perceived.
• Auditory area: Ability to perceive sound or hearing
function control area.
• Visual area : Interpret impulses as visual
impression.
Somatosensory system
• The somatosensory system is the part of the
sensory system concerned with the conscious
perception of touch, pressure, pain, temperature,
position, movement, and vibration, which arise
from the muscles, joints, skin, and fascia.
• The somatosensory system is a 3-neuron system
that relays sensations detected in the periphery
and conveys them via pathways through the
spinal cord, brainstem, and thalamic relay nuclei
to the sensory cortex in the parietal lobe.
Somatosensory pathway
The Sensory Homunculus: A cartoon representation of the sensory homunculus
arranged adjacent to the cortical region in which the processing takes place.
Motor System Pathway
• The motor pathway of the nervous system is the network
of nerves that allows the brain to control movement.
• It involves two main types of pathways:
• Direct and Indirect.
• Direct pathways, like the corticospinal and corticobulbar
tracts, transmit signals from the cerebral cortex to lower
motor neurons, which directly innervate muscles.
• Indirect pathways, also called the extrapyramidal
system, involve additional brain structures like the basal
ganglia and cerebellum, and influence movement through
various nuclei and tracts.
Motor System Pathway
Functions of Cerebrum
• Frontal lobe: Reasoning, planning, parts of speech,
problem solving, movements, and emotions are controlled
(Serendip Studio).
• Parietal lobe : Orientation, movement and recognition.
• Occipital lobe: Manages visual processing. It receives
projections from the retina (via the thalamus) from where
different groups of neurons separately encode different
visual information such as color, orientation and motions.
(Areas of the Brain and Their Functions).
• Temporal lobe: Memory, speech, and perception of
stimuli (Serendip Studio).
Spinal Cord
• The spinal cord is the highway for communication
between the body and the brain.
• When the spinal cord is injured, the exchange of
information between the brain and other parts of
the body is disrupted.
 Spinal Cord

• Spinal cord is
composed of a
series of 31
segments.
• A pair of spinal
nerves come out
from each
segment.
Peripheral Nervous System
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) is one of two
main nervous system and consists of cranial
nerves and spinal nerves and there ganglia
outside the brain and spinal cord.
PNS connecting all organs of the body to the CNS.
Parts of PNS
• Somatic Nervous system: Conscious activities;
Skin, Skeletal system
• 31 pairs spinal nerves
• 12 Pairs cranial nerves
• Autonomic nervous system: Unconscious activities;
Heart, Viscera, Glands
• Parasympathetic Nervous system
• Sympathetic nervous system
Somatic Nervous system
(Spinal and Cranial Nerves)
• The nerves branches out from the spinal cord are
called spinal nerves(31 Pairs)
• These are mixed nerve both motor and sensory.
• It is formed by the union of motor ( anterior) and sensory (posterior)
nerve roots arising from the spinal cord.
• The nerves braches out from the brain are called
cranial nerves (12 pairs)
• Types of cranial nerves
• Sensory
• Motor
• Mixed
Spinal Nerves
Spinal Nerves (31 Pairs) grouped according to the
vertebral location or segment
of spinal cord as follows:
• Cervical Nerves (8)
• Thoracic Nerves (12)
• Lumbar Nerves (5)
• Sacral Nerves (5)
• Coccygeal Nerves (1)
Formation of Spinal Nerve
 Reflex Arc
Typical Reflex Arc:
Numbers show the
sequence of impulses
through the spinal cord
(solid arrows).
Contraction of the
biceps brachii results in
flexion of the arm at the
elbow.
Cranial Nerves
The nerves braches out from the brain are called cranial nerves (12
pairs).
1. Olfactory Nerve( Sense of smell)
2. Optic Nerve (Vision)
3. Oculomotor Nerve( Eye muscle movement)
4. Trochlear Nerve (Eye muscle movement)
5. Trigeminal Nerve
6. Abducent Nerve (Eye ball movement)
7. Facial Nerve ( Facial expression and taste bud of tongue)
8. Vestibulococcholear Nerve (Hearing, maintain posture and balance)
9. Gastropharyngeal Nerve (Swallowing)
10. Vegus Nerve (most of internal organs)
11. Accessory Nerve
12. Hypoglossal Nerve (Movement of tongue for speech and swallowing)
Functions of PNS
1. Primary function of PNS is to connect the CNS to the
reminder of the body such organs, limbs, skin, muscles
and allows complex movement of body.
2. Autonomic part regulates involuntary actions like
breathing, digestion etc and contraction of cardiac
muscle and smooth muscles.
3. Somatic part regulates voluntary actions and body
reflexes.
Autonomic Nervous system
• The autonomic nervous system is a component of the
peripheral nervous system that regulates involuntary
physiologic processes including heart rate, blood
pressure, respiration, digestion etc.
It contains two anatomically distinct divisions:
• Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS)
• Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS)

SNS and PNS contain both afferent and efferent fibers that
provide sensory input and motor output, respectively, to the
central nervous system (CNS).
Autonomic Nervous system
• SNS and PNS contain both afferent and efferent fibers
that provide sensory input and motor output, respectively,
to the central nervous system (CNS).
Autonomic Nervous system
• Activation of the SNS leads to a state of overall
elevated activity and attention:
• The “fight or flight” response. In this process, blood
pressure and heart rate increase, glycogenolysis ensues,
gastrointestinal peristalsis ceases etc.
• SNS innervates nearly every living tissue in the body.
• PNS promotes the “rest and digest” processes; heart
rate and blood pressure lower, gastrointestinal
peristalsis/digestion restarts etc.
• PNS innervates only the head, viscera.
• PSN is significantly smaller than the SNS.
Cerebellum
Structure and Functions of Cerebellum
• Cerebellum is the second largest region of the brain.
• It has two hemispheres, separated by a narrow median
strip called the vermis. It has outer grey matter and inner
white matter.
• Functions:
• Maintain balance or equilibrium.
• Maintain muscle tone and posture.
• Facilitate smooth and coordinated voluntary movement,
force of movement and direction of movement.
Basal ganglia
• Basal ganglia lies in the grey matter, deep in cerebral
hemisphere connect cerebral cortex to thalamus.
Function:
• Helps in initiation and fine control of complex movement
and learned coordinated movement.
Limbic systems
• Limbic system is a complex set of structures that lies on
both sides of the thalamus, just under the cerebrum.
• It includes the hypothalamus, the hippocampus, the
amygdala, and several other nearby areas.
• It appears to be primarily responsible for our emotional
life, and has a lot to do with the formation of memories.
 Hypothalamus
• The hypothalamus is a small part of the brain located just below
the thalamus and above the pituitary gland.
• It is composed of a number of group of nerve cells.
Functions:
• Endocrine functions
• It produces releasing hormone and release inhibitory hormones to
regulate pituitary gland secretion.
• Secretion of oxytocin and antidiuretic hormones (ADH).
• Regulation
• Autonomic Nervous System
• Thirst and water balance
• Emotional Reaction
• Sexual behaviors and child rearing
• Biological clock or circadian rhythm e g. sleeping, walking cycles, body
temperature
• Appetite and satiety
Hypothalamus
Neuron
Neuron is the structural and functional unit
of nervous system.
Neurons are cells within the nervous
system that transmit information to other
nerve cells, muscle, or gland cells.
Types of Neuron
• Sensory neurons carry information from the
sensory receptor cells throughout the body to the
brain.
• Motor neurons transmit information from the
brain to the muscles of the body.
• Interneurons are responsible for communicating
information between different neurons in the
body.
Structures of Neuron

• Neurons have four specialized structures

that allow for the sending and receiving of
information:
• Cell body (soma)
• Dendrites
• Axon
• Axon terminals
Neuron
Neuron
Cell body or Soma: The soma of a neuron is the main part of
the neuron in which the dendrites are connected and it contains
nucleus, cytoplasm and many organelles including granules called
Nissl subatance or Nissl granules.
The nucleus is the source of most of the RNA that is produced in
neurons. In general, most proteins are produced in nucleus.
Neuron
Dendrites: Dendrites are short, branched processes that extend
from the cell body of neuron.
Functions:
• Receive information through synopses.
• They transmit impulses towards cell body.
• They do so through numerous receptors located in their membranes
that bind to chemicals; called neurotransmitters.
Neuron
Axon : Single long process of a neuron. It ends at
synapses. It receive information and transmits impulse to
other neurons, muscles, gland cells.
Functions of a Neuron
1. Conduction of nerve impulse.
2. Collection and integration of nerve impulses.
3. Transmission of propagated nerve impulse.
4. Motor neuron stimulates muscles cells of the
body including cardiac muscle, diaphragm,
intestine, urinary bladder and glands.
5. Sensory neurons get information about what's
going on inside and outside of the body and
bring that information into the CNS so it can be
processed.
Neuroglia or Glial Cells
• Neuroglia or glial cells are supporting cells of
nervous system.

Illustration of the four different types of glial cells found in the

central nervous system: ependymal cells (light pink), astrocytes
(green), microglial cells (dark red), and oligodendrocytes (light
blue).
Nerve
Axons enclosed within sheaths of glial cells are called nerve
fibers. Each nerve is formed by many bundle of nerve fibers.

Classification of nerves
• 1. Structurally
• Myelinated nerve fibers
• Non-Myelinated nerve fibers
• 2. On Basis of distribution
• Somatic nerve
• Visceral nerve
• 3. On basis of origin
• Cranial nerve
• Spinal nerve
• 4. Functionally
• Sensory nerve (Afferent)
• Motor nerve (Efferent)
Synapse
• Synapse is the junction between two neurons where
one neuron ends and other neuron begins. It is functional
communication between two neurons.
• Most synapses are chemical; these synapses
communicate using chemical messengers.
• Other synapses are electrical; in these synapses, ions flow
directly between cells.
• Structures of Synapse
1. Presynaptic knob of presynaptic neuron contains
synaptic vesicles that are filled with neurotransmitter.
2. Synaptic cleft
3. Post synaptic membrane of post synaptic neuron.
Synapse
Functions of Synapse
• Transmit nerve impulse; that is action potential
from one neuron to another neuron.
• Excitatory synapse excites the transmission of
impulse
• Inhibitory synapse inhibits the transmission of
impulse
Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitter is a chemical substance that
acts as a mediator for the transmission of nerve
impulse from one neuron to another neuron
through a synapse.
Neurotransmitters:
• Acetylcholine
• Histamine
• Noradrenaline
• Dopamine
• Serotonin
• Gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA)
• Substance P
• Nitric oxide
 Neurotransmitters
• Acetylcholine is a substance synthesized by neurons, is the primary
neurotransmitter of the para-synpathetic nervous system.
• It controls smooth muscle contraction and blood vessel dilation and
slows heart rate.
• A lack of acetylcholine in the brain is associated with Alzheimer’s
disease.
• The major inhibitory neurotransmitter of the nervous system is GABA
means gamma-aminobutyric acid, which acts to dampen neuronal
activity.
• Endorphins is associated with emotions and pain perception. The
body releases endorphins in response to fear or trauma. These
chemical messengers are similar to opiate drugs such as morphine but
are significantly stronger.
Neurotransmitters
• Dopamine: Associated with thought and pleasurable
feelings.
• Parkinson’s disease is one illness associated with deficits
in dopamine. Doctors may prescribe medications that can
increase dopamine activity in the brain.
• Researchers also have found strong links between
schizophrenia and excessive amounts of dopamine in
certain parts of the brain.
Sleep
• Sleep is an important part of our daily routine and we
spend about one-third of our time doing it.
• Quality sleep and getting enough of it at the right times is
as essential to survival as food and water.
• Without sleep we can’t form or maintain the pathways in
our brain that let us learn and create new memories,
and it’s harder to concentrate and respond quickly.
• Sleep is a number of brain functions. In fact during
sleeping brain and body stay remarkably active.
• Recent findings suggest that sleep plays a housekeeping
role that removes toxins in from the brain that build up
while we are awake.
Types of Sleep and Stages
There are two basic types of sleep:
• Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and
• Non-REM sleep (which has three different stages).
Rapid Eye Movement ( REM) sleep
• REM sleep first occurs about 90 minutes after falling
asleep. Eyes move rapidly from side to side behind
closed eyelids.
• Mixed frequency brain wave activity becomes closer to
that seen in wakefulness. The breathing becomes faster
and irregular, heart rate and blood pressure increase to
near waking levels.
• Most of the dreaming occurs during REM sleep, although
some can also occur in non-REM sleep.
• Arm and leg muscles become temporarily paralyzed,
which prevents from acting out your dreams.
Non-REM sleep Stages
Non-REM sleep
• Stage 1 non-REM sleep is the change over from wakefulness
to sleep. During this short period (lasting several minutes) of
relatively light sleep, your heartbeat, breathing, and eye
movements slow, and your muscles relax with occasional
twitches. Your brain waves begin to slow from their daytime
wakefulness patterns.

• Stage 2 non-REM sleep is a period of light sleep before you

enter deeper sleep. Your heartbeat and breathing slow, and
muscles relax even further. Your body temperature drops and
eye movements stop. Brain wave activity slows but is marked
by brief bursts of electrical activity. You spend more of your
repeated sleep cycles in stage 2 sleep than in other sleep
stages.
Non-REM sleep Stages
• Stage 3 non-REM sleep is the period of deep sleep that
you need to feel refreshed in the morning. It occurs in
longer periods during the first half of the night. Your
heartbeat and breathing slow to their lowest levels during
sleep. Your muscles are relaxed and it may be difficult to
awaken you. Brain waves become even slower.
Sleep Mechanism
Two internal biological mechanisms work
together to regulate the sleep
• Circadian rhythm
• Homeostasis; Sleep-Wake homeostasis
Several structures within the brain are
involved with sleep
• Hypothalamus is the control center affecting sleep
& arousal.
• Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in hypothalamus;
clusters of thousands of cells that receive
information about light exposure directly from the
eyes and stimulates to release of hormone
melatonin, causes sleepiness.
• Brain stem
• Thalamus
Cont.
• Pineal gland, located within the brain’s two
hemispheres, receives signals from the SCN and
increases production of the hormone melatonin.
• Basal forebrain, release of adenosine causes
sleepiness.
• Caffeine counteracts sleepiness by blocking the
actions of adenosine.
• Amygdala, an almond-shaped structure involved in
processing emotions, becomes increasingly active
during REM sleep.
 Brain Waves
• At the root of all our thoughts, emotions and behaviors is the
communication between neurons within our brains.
• Brainwaves are produced by synchronised electrical
pulses from masses of neurons communicating with each
other in brain.
• Brainwaves can be detected by using sensors placed on the
scalp.
• Our brainwaves change according to what we’re doing and
feeling. When slower brainwaves are dominant we can feel
tired, slow, sluggish, or dreamy. The higher frequencies
are dominant when we feel wired, or hyper-alert.
• Brainwave speed is measured in Hertz (cycles per second)
and they are divided into bands delineating slow, moderate,
and fast waves.
Types of Brain Waves
• INFRA-LOW (<.5HZ)
• Infra-Low brainwaves (also known as Slow Cortical Potentials), are thought to be
the basic cortical rhythms that underlie our higher brain functions. Very little is
known about infra-low brainwaves. Their slow nature make them difficult to detect
and accurately measure, so few studies have been done. They appear to take a
major role in brain timing and network function.
• DELTA WAVES (.5 TO 3 HZ)
• Delta brainwaves are slow, loud brainwaves (low frequency and deeply
penetrating, like a drum beat). They are generated in deepest meditation and
dreamless sleep. Delta waves suspend external awareness and are the source of
empathy. Healing and regeneration are stimulated in this state, and that is why
deep restorative sleep is so essential to the healing process.
• THETA WAVES (3 TO 8 HZ)
• Theta brainwaves occur most often in sleep but are also dominant in deep
meditation. Theta is our gateway to learning, memory, and intuition. In theta, our
senses are withdrawn from the external world and focused on signals originating
from within. It is that twilight state which we normally only experience fleetingly as
we wake or drift off to sleep. In theta we are in a dream; vivid imagery, intuition
and information beyond our normal conscious awareness. It’s where we hold our
‘stuff’, our fears, troubled history, and nightmares.
Types of Brain Waves
• ALPHA WAVES (8 TO 12 HZ)
• Alpha brainwaves are dominant during quietly flowing thoughts, and in some
meditative states. Alpha is ‘the power of now’, being here, in the present. Alpha is
the resting state for the brain. Alpha waves aid overall mental coordination,
calmness, alertness, mind/body integration and learning.
• BETA WAVES (12 TO 38 HZ)
• Beta brainwaves dominate our normal waking state of consciousness when
attention is directed towards cognitive tasks and the outside world. Beta is a ‘fast’
activity, present when we are alert, attentive, engaged in problem solving,
judgment, decision making, or focused mental activity.
• Beta brainwaves are further divided into three bands; Lo-Beta (Beta1, 12-15Hz)
can be thought of as a 'fast idle', or musing. Beta (Beta2, 15-22Hz) is high
engagement or actively figuring something out. Hi-Beta (Beta3, 22-38Hz) is highly
complex thought, integrating new experiences, high anxiety, or excitement.
Continual high frequency processing is not a very efficient way to run the brain, as
it takes a tremendous amount of energy.
• GAMMA WAVES (38 TO 42 HZ)
• Gamma brainwaves are the fastest of brain waves (high frequency, like a flute),
and relate to simultaneous processing of information from different brain areas.
Gamma brainwaves pass information rapidly and quietly. The most subtle of the
brainwave frequencies, the mind has to be quiet to access gamma.
Epilepsy
• Epilepsy is a central nervous system (neurological) disorder in
which brain activity becomes abnormal, causing seizures or
periods of unusual behavior, sensations, and sometimes loss of
awareness.
• Epilepsy is a chronic non-communicable disease of the brain
that affects people of all ages.
• Around 50 million people worldwide have epilepsy, making it
one of the most common neurological diseases globally.
• Nearly 80% of people with epilepsy live in low- and middle-
income countries.
• It is estimated that up to 70% of people living with epilepsy
could live seizure- free if properly diagnosed and treated.
Symptoms
• Because epilepsy is caused by abnormal activity in the
brain, seizures can affect any process of brain
coordinates.
Seizure signs and symptoms may include:
• Temporary confusion
• A staring spell
• Uncontrollable jerking movements of the arms and legs
• Loss of consciousness or awareness
• Psychic symptoms such as fear, anxiety or deja vu
Pathophysiology
• Seizure – Clinical event caused by an abnormal
synchronized electrical discharge in the brain.
• Epilepsy – Neurological disorder characterized recurrent
and unprovoked seizures.
• Normal cortex – recurrent and collateral inhibitory circuits
that limit synchronized discharge GABA – inhibitory
neurotransmitter, GABA receptor drugs cause seizures
Acetylcholine, glutamate & aspartate – excitatory
neurotransmitters
• Epileptic cortex – reduced inhibitory signals or increased
excitatory signals
Investigations
• EEG +/- video monitoring
• Performed soon after event or during one.
• Help to characterize the type of seizure.
• Seizure activity is generally shown as either focal cortical
spikes or by generalized spikes and wave activity.
• EEG not a sensitive test for epilepsy an abnormal EEG
doesn't prove epilepsy.
• Imaging investigations by Brain imaging with CT or MRI
Circadian Rhythm
• Circadian rhythm is the natural cycle of physical, mental,
and behavior changes that the body goes through in a 24-
hour cycle.
• Circadian rhythms are mostly affected by external factors
like light and darkness.
• However the master control is Hypothalamas; a small
area in the middle of the brain. A group of neurons called
the suprachiasmatic nucleus, located in hypothalamus
stimulates the production of melatonin when the receptors
in the eyes detect sunlight and pass that signal along to
the suprachiasmatic nucleus. The hormone melatonin that
causes sleepiness.
Circadian Rhythm
• They can affect sleep, body temperature,
hormones, appetite, and other body functions.
• Abnormal circadian rhythms may be linked to
obesity, diabetes, depression, bipolar disorder,
seasonal affective disorder, and sleep disorders
such as insomnia.
• Circadian rhythm is sometimes called the “body’s
clock.”
End