2

Reviewing
coordinate geometry

Objectives
I To find the midpoint of a line segment.
I To find the distance between two points.
I To calculate the gradient of a straight line.
I To calculate the angle of slope of a straight line given the gradient.
I To interpret and use different forms of an equation of a straight line.
I To establish and use necessary and sufficient conditions for two lines to be
perpendicular or parallel.
I To use a parameter to describe families of straight lines.
I To apply knowledge of linear relations to solving problems.
I To solve and apply simultaneous linear equations.

The number plane (Cartesian plane) is divided into four quadrants by two perpendicular axes.
These axes intersect at a point called the origin. The position of any point in the plane can be
represented by an ordered pair of numbers (x, y), called the coordinates of the point. Given
the coordinates of two points, we can find the equation of the straight line through the two
points, the distance between the two points and the midpoint of the line segment joining the
points. These are the beginning ideas of coordinate geometry. The topic of calculus, which is
introduced later in this book, builds on these ideas.
A relation is defined as a set of ordered pairs in the form (x, y). Sometimes we can give
a rule relating the x-value to the y-value of each ordered pair, such as y = 2x + 1, and this
is a more convenient way of describing the relation. A relation may also be represented
graphically on a set of axes. If the resulting graph is a straight line, then the relation is called
a linear relation.

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 2A Distance and midpoints 33

2A Distance and midpoints

In this first section we look at the method to find the coordinates of the midpoint of a line
segment and we apply Pythagoras’ theorem to find the distance between two points.

Midpoint of a line segment

Finding the midpoint of a line segment parallel to an axis is a simple special case, and it is
useful in obtaining the more general result.

A line segment parallel to an axis

The midpoint of the line segment AB with endpoints A(2, 3) y
and B(2, −4) is the point P with coordinates (2, − 21 ). A(2, 3)
Note that − 12 is the average of 3 and −4. The line through A
and B is parallel to the y-axis. x
0 P(2, – 1 )
2

B(2, –4)

Similarly for the line segment CD with endpoints y

C(−1, 2) and D(3, 2), the midpoint is the point P with
coordinates (1, 2).
Note that 1 is the average of −1 and 3. The line through C(–1, 2) D(3, 2)
C and D is parallel to the x-axis. P(1, 2)
x
0

A line segment not parallel to one of the axes

Let P(x, y) be the midpoint of the line segment y
joining A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ), where the line B(x2, y2)
through A and B is not parallel to either axis.
y2 – y
Let points C and D be chosen so that AC and P(x, y)
PD are parallel to the x-axis, and PC and BD x2 – x D
y – y1
are parallel to the y-axis. A(x1, y1)
x – x1 C
The triangles APC and PBD are congruent
(AAS). Hence
x
0
AC = PD and PC = BD
∴ x − x1 = x2 − x y − y1 = y2 − y
2x = x1 + x2 2y = y1 + y2
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
x= y=
2 2

We have proved the following result.

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 34 Chapter 2: Reviewing coordinate geometry

The coordinates of the midpoint P of the line segment AB joining A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 )
are
x + x y + y 
1 2 1 2
,
2 2
That is, we take the average of the x-coordinates and the average of the y-coordinates.

Example 1
Find the midpoint of the line segment joining A(2, 6) with B(−3, −4).
Solution Explanation
The midpoint of line segment AB has The coordinates of the midpoint of the line
coordinates segment joining A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ) are
 2 + (−3) 6 + (−4)   1  x + x y + y 
1 2 1 2
, = − ,1 ,
2 2 2 2 2

The distance between two points

The distance between given points A(x1 , y1 ) and y
B(x2 , y2 ) can be found by applying Pythagoras’ B(x2, y2)
theorem to the triangle ABC:
y2 – y1
AB2 = AC 2 + BC 2
A(x1, y1)
= (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 x2 – x1 C

Therefore, the distance between the two points x

A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ) is 0
q
AB = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2

Example 2
Calculate the distance EF if E is (−3, 2) and F is (4, −2).
Solution Explanation
q
y
EF = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
p E
= (4 − (−3))2 + (−2 − 2)2 2
p 1
= 72 + (−4)2
√ x
= 65 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
–1
= 8.06 (to two decimal places) –2
F

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 2A 2A Distance and midpoints 35

Summary 2A
 The coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment joining A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ) are
x + x y + y 
1 2 1 2
,
2 2
 The distance between points A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ) is
q
(x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2

Skill-
sheet Exercise 2A

Example 1 1 Find the coordinates of M, the midpoint of AB, where A and B have the following
coordinates:
a A(2, 12), B(8, 4) b A(−3, 5), B(4, −4)
c A(−1.6, 3.4), B(4.8, −2) d A(3.6, −2.8), B(−5, 4.5)

2 Find the midpoints of each of the sides of a triangle ABC, where A is (1, 1), B is (5, 5)
and C is (11, 2).

3 The secretary of a motocross club wants to km N

organise two meetings on the same weekend. 14
W E
One is a hill climb starting from point A(3.1, 7.1)
12
and the other is a circuit event with the start at 1cm = 2 km
S
B
B(8.9, 10.5), as shown on the map. Only one 10

ambulance can be provided. The ambulance can + C

8
A
be called up by radio, so it is decided to keep it
6
at C, halfway between A and B.
What are the coordinates of C? 4

2 4 6 8 10 km

4 If M is the midpoint of XY, find the coordinates of Y when X and M have the following
coordinates:
a X(−4, 2), M(0, 3) b X(−1, −3), M(0.5, −1.6)
c X(6, −3), M(2, 1) d X(4, −3), M(0, −3)

5 Find the coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment joining (1, 4) and (a, b), in
terms of a and b. If (5, −1) is the midpoint, find the values of a and b.

Example 2 6 Find the distance between each of the following (correct to two decimal places):
a (3, 6) and (−4, 5) b (4, 1) and (5, −3)
c (−2, −3) and (−5, −8) d (6, 4) and (−7, 4)

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 36 Chapter 2: Reviewing coordinate geometry 2A

7 Calculate the perimeter of a triangle with vertices (−3, −4), (1, 5) and (7, −2).

8 The diagram shows the four points y

A(6, 6), B(10, 2), C(−1, 5) and
D(−7, 1). If the midpoint of AB
8
is P and the midpoint of CD is M, A
calculate the distance PM. C
4
B
D
x
–8 –4 0 4 8

9 There is an off-shore oil drilling platform in Bass Strait situated at D(0, 6), where
1 unit = 5 km. Pipes for this oil drill come ashore at M(−6, 1) and N(3, −1). Assuming
the pipelines are straight, which is the shorter DM or DN?

2B The gradient of a straight line

B
Through any two points it is only possible to draw a
single straight line. Therefore a straight line is defined
by any two points on the line. rise
In coordinate geometry the standard way to define the
rise A
gradient of a line segment AB is where: run
run
 rise is the change in the y-values as you move from A to B
 run is the change in the x-values as you move from A to B.

The gradient of a line is defined to be the gradient of any segment within the line. This
definition depends on the fact that any two segments of a line have the same gradient. Hence
given any two points on the line, A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ), the gradient of the line can be found.
The symbol used for gradient is m.
y
rise y2 − y1 B (x2, y2)
Gradient m = =
run x2 − x1
rise = y2 – y1
Note that since A (x1, y1)
y2 − y1 y1 − y2
=
x2 − x1 x1 − x2 run = x2 – x1
it does not matter which point we take x
as the first and which point we take as 0
the second.

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 2B The gradient of a straight line 37

Example 3
Find the gradient of each line: y
a y b

3
2
2
1
1

x x
–2 –1 0 0 1 2

Solution Explanation
2−0
a Gradient m = Let (x1 , y1 ) = (−2, 0)
0 − (−2)
and (x2 , y2 ) = (0, 2).
2
= y2 − y1
2 Gradient m =
x2 − x1
=1
0−3
b Gradient m = Let (x1 , y1 ) = (0, 3)
2−0
and (x2 , y2 ) = (2, 0).
3
=− y2 − y1
2 Gradient m =
x2 − x1

Notes:
 The gradient of a line that slopes upwards from left to right is positive, as illustrated
in Example 3 a.
 The gradient of a line that slopes downwards from left to right is negative, as illustrated
in Example 3 b.
 The gradient of a horizontal line (parallel to the x-axis) is zero, since y2 − y1 = 0.
 The gradient of a vertical line (parallel to the y-axis) is undefined, since x2 − x1 = 0.

Example 4
Find the gradient of the line that passes through the points (1, 6) and (−3, 7).
Solution Explanation
y2 − y1 The gradient can also be found using
m=
x2 − x1 y1 − y2
m=
7−6 x1 − x2
=
−3 − 1 6−7 1
= =−
1 1 − (−3) 4
=−
4

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 38 Chapter 2: Reviewing coordinate geometry

The tangent of the angle of slope

We will look first at the case when the gradient is positive and then when the gradient is
negative.

Positive gradient
From Year 10 you will be familiar with the trigonometric
ratio
opposite opposite
tan θ =
adjacent θ
adjacent

Consider a straight line with positive gradient. The line forms an acute angle, θ, with the
positive direction of the x-axis.
The gradient, m, of the line is given by y
y2 − y1 B(x2, y2)
m= (x1 , x2 )
x2 − x1
y2 – y1
From the diagram, it follows that
A(x1, y1) θ
m = tan θ x2 – x1
where θ is the angle that the line makes with
the positive direction of the x-axis.
θ
x
0

Example 5
Determine the gradient of the line passing through the points (3, 2) and (5, 7) and the
angle θ that the line makes with the positive direction of the x-axis.
Solution Explanation
7−2 The gradient is given by
m=
5−3 y2 − y1
m=
5 x2 − x1
=
2 The gradient is positive and so the angle θ
5 is acute.
tan θ =
2

∴ θ = 68.1986 . . .◦ The angle can be found with a calculator

= 68.20 ◦ using inverse tan.

correct to two decimal places.

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 2B The gradient of a straight line 39

Negative gradient
Now consider a line with negative gradient. y
The line forms an acute angle α with the
negative direction of the x-axis, and an obtuse x2 – x1
angle θ with the positive direction of the x-axis.
We have θ = 180◦ − α. A(x1, y1) α
y2 – y1
From the diagram, we see that the gradient
satisfies B(x2, y2)
θ
y2 − y1 −(y1 − y2 )
m= = = − tan α α
x2 − x1 x2 − x1 x
0

From your work on circular functions in Year 10 you may recall that
tan θ = tan(180◦ − α) = − tan α
Thus the gradient satisfies

m = − tan α = tan θ

Example 6
Determine the gradient of the line passing through the points (5, −3) and (−1, 5) and the
angle θ that the line makes with the positive direction of the x-axis.
Solution Explanation
5 − (−3) The gradient is negative and so the angle θ
m=
−1 − 5 between the line and the positive direction
4 of the x-axis is obtuse.
=−
3 You first use your calculator to find the
4 adjacent supplementary angle α, which is
tan θ = − acute. You do this by finding the inverse
3
tangent of 43 . The magnitude of this angle
∴ θ = 180◦ − (53.130 . . .◦ )
is 53.130 . . .◦ .
= 126.87◦
You subtract this from 180◦ to obtain θ.
correct to two decimal places.

Summary 2B
 The gradient of a line segment AB joining two points A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ) is
y2 − y1
provided x1 , x2
x2 − x1
 The gradient of a line is defined as the gradient of any line segment of that line.
 A horizontal line has gradient zero.
 A vertical line does not have a gradient.

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 40 Chapter 2: Reviewing coordinate geometry 2B

 Let θ be the angle that a line makes with the positive direction of the x-axis.
• The gradient m is positive if and only if θ is acute.
• The gradient m is negative if and only if θ is obtuse.
• If θ is acute or obtuse, then m = tan θ.
• If θ = 0◦ , then m = tan 0◦ = 0.
• If θ = 90◦ , then the gradient is not defined.

Exercise 2B

Example 3 1 Calculate the gradient of each of the following lines:

a y b y c y

6 2
4
4 1
3 x
2 2 0 1 2 3 4
x –1
1 0 1 2 3
x
–2 –1 0 1

d y e y f y

4
3 3
3
2 2
2 1
1
1 x x
x 0 1 2 3 –3 –2 –1 0 1
–1 0 1 2
g y h y i y
(6, 10)
(0, 8) 5

(3, 2)
(–2, 0)
x x x
0 0 0 4
j y k y

3
4

x
0
x
–3 0

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 2B 2B The gradient of a straight line 41

2 Sketch a graph of a line with gradient 1.

3 Sketch a graph of a line with gradient 0 which passes through the point (1, 6).

Example 4 4 For each of the following, find the gradient of the line that passes through the two points
with the given coordinates:
a (6, 3), (2, 4) b (−3, 4), (1, −6)
c (6, 7), (11, −3) d (5, 8), (6, 0)
e (6, 0), (−6, 0) f (0, −6), (−6, 0)
g (3, 9), (4, 16) h (5, 25), (6, 36)
i (−5, 25), (−8, 64) j (1, 1), (10, 100)
k (1, 1), (10, 1000) l (5, 125), (4, 64)

5 a Find the gradient of the straight line that passes through the points with coordinates
(5a, 2a) and (3a, 6a).
b Find the gradient of the straight line that passes through the points with coordinates
(5a, 2a) and (5b, 2b).

6 a A line has gradient 6 and passes through the points with coordinates (−1, 6) and
(7, a). Find the value of a.
b A line has gradient −6 and passes through the points with coordinates (1, 6) and
(b, 7). Find the value of b.

7 Find the angle, correct to two decimal places, that the lines joining the given points
make with the positive direction of the x-axis:
a (0, 3), (−3, 0) b (0, −4), (4, 0)
c (0, 2), (−4, 0) d (0, −5), (−5, 0)

Example 5 8 Find the angle, correct to two decimal places, that the lines joining the given points
Example 6 make with the positive direction of the x-axis:
a (−4, −2), (6, 8) b (2, 6), (−2, 4)
c (−3, 4), (6, 1) d (−4, −3), (2, 4)
e (3b, a), (3a, b) f (c, b), (b, c)

9 Find the gradient of a straight line which is:

a inclined at an angle of 45◦ to the positive direction of the x-axis
b inclined at an angle of 135◦ to the positive direction of the x-axis
c inclined at an angle of 60◦ to the positive direction of the x-axis
d inclined at an angle of 120◦ to the positive direction of the x-axis.

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 42 Chapter 2: Reviewing coordinate geometry

2C The equation of a straight line

In this section we discuss different ways of determining the equation of a straight line.
In general two ‘independent pieces of information’ are required. The following given
information is considered:
 gradient and y-axis intercept
 gradient and a point
 two points.
Sketching straight lines given the equation is discussed in Section 2D.

Gradient–intercept form of the equation of a straight line

We first consider an example before stating the general result. The argument in the general
case is exactly the same.

The line y = 2x + 4
Consider the line with gradient 2 and y-axis intercept 4. y
This line passes through the point A(0, 4). Let B(x, y) be
any other point on the line. B(x, y)
y−4 y−4
Gradient of line segment AB = =
x−0 x
We know that the gradient of the line is 2. Therefore A(0, 4)
y−4
=2
x x
0
y − 4 = 2x
y = 2x + 4
So the coordinates (x, y) satisfy the equation y = 2x + 4.
Conversely, if a point B(x, y) in the plane satisfies y = 2x + 4, then
y−4
=2
x
Thus we know that the gradient of the line segment joining point B to the point A(0, 4) is 2.
Therefore the line through A(0, 4) and B(x, y) has gradient 2 and y-axis intercept 4.

The line y = mx + c
In the same way as for the line y = 2x + 4, we can show that:

 The line with gradient m and y-axis intercept c has equation y = mx + c.

 Conversely, the line with equation y = mx + c has gradient m and y-axis intercept c.

This is called the gradient–intercept form.

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 2C The equation of a straight line 43

Example 7
Find the gradient and y-axis intercept of the line y = 3x − 4.
Solution Explanation
The gradient is 3 and the y-axis intercept m = 3 and c = −4
is −4.

Example 8
Find the equation of the line with gradient −3 and y-axis intercept 5.
Solution Explanation
y = −3x + 5 y = mx + c

Example 9
State the gradient and y-axis intercept of the line 3y + 6x = 9.
Solution Explanation
3y + 6x = 9 Rearrange the equation 3y + 6x = 9 into
3y = 9 − 6x gradient–intercept form.
9 − 6x
y=
3
y = 3 − 2x
i.e. y = −2x + 3 Now the gradient and y-axis intercept can
Therefore m = −2 and c = 3. be read directly from the equation.

Point–gradient form of the equation of a straight line

If A(x1 , y1 ) is a point on a line with gradient m and P(x, y) is y
any other point on the line, then
P(x, y)
y − y1
=m
x − x1
A(x1, y1)
and so we have
x
y − y1 = m(x − x1 ) 0

The point–gradient form of the equation of a straight line is

y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
where (x1 , y1 ) is a point on the line and m is the gradient.

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 44 Chapter 2: Reviewing coordinate geometry

Example 10
Find the equation of the line which passes through the point (−1, 3) and has gradient 4.
Solution Explanation
Method 1
(x1 , y1 ) = (−1, 3) and m = 4. We use the equation y − y1 = m(x − x1 ).
The equation is (It is not necessary to work from first
principles every time.)
y − 3 = 4(x − (−1))
Rearrange to make y the subject and write
y = 4(x + 1) + 3
the equation in the form y = mx + c.
= 4x + 4 + 3
= 4x + 7

Method 2
Since m = 4, the equation is of the form We can also use the equation y = mx + c
y = 4x + c. and find the value of c. The gradient is 4.
When x = −1, y = 3. The point (−1, 3) lies on the line.
Therefore
3 = 4 × (−1) + c
7=c Solve for c.
The equation is y = 4x + 7.

Example 11
Find the equation of the line that passes through the point (3, 2) and has a gradient of −2.
Solution Explanation
y − 2 = −2(x − 3) y
y − 2 = −2x + 6
8
y = −2x + 8
The equation is
y = −2x + 8
which could also be expressed as (3, 2)
2
2x + y − 8 = 0 1
x
0 1 2 3 4

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 2C The equation of a straight line 45

A line through two points

To find the equation of the line through two given y
points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ), first find the gradient
y2 − y1 B(x2, y2)
m= P(x, y)
x2 − x1
and then use the point–gradient form A(x1, y1)
x
y − y1 = m(x − x1 ) 0

We can also find the equation directly by taking the point P(x, y) and noting that
y − y1
=m
x − x1

Example 12
Find the equation of the straight line passing through the points (1, −2) and (3, 2).
Solution Explanation
y2 − y1 First find the gradient m and then use
m=
x2 − x1 y − y1
=m
2 − (−2) x − x1
=
3−1 Choose (x1 , y1 ) = (1, −2).
4
= y
2
=2
2 (3, 2)
y − (−2)
∴ 2= P(x, y)
x−1 x
2x − 2 = y + 2 0 1 2 3 4

∴ y = 2x − 4 –2 (1, –2)

–4

Example 13
Find the equation of the straight line with y-axis intercept −3 which passes through the
point with coordinates (1, 10).
Solution Explanation
The gradient is Find the gradient using (x1 , y1 ) = (0, −3)
10 − (−3) and (x2 , y2 ) = (1, 10).
m= = 13
1−0 The general equation of a line with y-axis
Therefore the equation is y = 13x − 3. intercept −3 is y = mx − 3.

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 46 Chapter 2: Reviewing coordinate geometry

Two intercepts
A special case of finding the equation of a line given the coordinates of two points is when
the intercept with each axis is known, that is, finding the line through (a, 0) and (0, b), where
a, b , 0.
In this case, the gradient is y
b−0 b
m= =−
0−a a
Thus the equation of the line is (0, b)
b
y − 0 = − (x − a)
a
Multiplying both sides of the equation by a gives
ay + bx = ab
x
Dividing both sides of the equation by ab gives the 0 (a, 0)
following:

The intercept form of the equation of a straight line is

x y
+ =1
a b
where a and b are the x-axis intercept and y-axis intercept respectively.

Example 14
y
Find the equation of the line shown in the graph.

4 A

1
B
x
0 1 2

Solution Explanation
The intercept form of the equation is The coordinates of A and B are (0, 4)
x y and (2, 0).
+ =1
2 4
Multiply both sides by 4:
2x + y = 4
The equation of the line is y = −2x + 4.

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 2C The equation of a straight line 47

Vertical and horizontal lines

If a line is horizontal, then its gradient m = 0 and its equation is simply y = c, where c is the
y-axis intercept.
If a line is vertical, then its gradient is undefined and its equation is x = a, where a is the
x-axis intercept.

Equation y = 2 y Equation x = 3 y
x=3
3
2 y=2

1
x
x 0 1 2 3
0

Note that the equation of a vertical line is not of the form y = mx + c.

General form of the equation of a straight line

We have seen that all points on the line through two given points satisfy an equation of
the form mx + ny + p = 0, with m and n not both 0. Conversely, any ‘linear equation’
mx + ny + p = 0 is the equation of a (straight) line. This is called the general form of the
equation of a line.

Summary 2C
 Gradient–intercept form
• The line with gradient m and y-axis intercept c has equation y = mx + c.
• Conversely, the line with equation y = mx + c has gradient m and y-axis intercept c.

 Point–gradient form If (x1 , y1 ) is a point on a line with gradient m and (x, y) is any
other point on the line, then
y − y1
=m
x − x1
which can be written as
y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
 Two points To find the equation of the line through two given points (x1 , y1 ) and
(x2 , y2 ), first find the gradient
y2 − y1
m=
x2 − x1
and then use the point–gradient form
y − y1 = m(x − x1 )

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 48 Chapter 2: Reviewing coordinate geometry 2C

 Intercept form If a line has x-axis intercept a and y-axis intercept b, the equation of
the line is
x y
+ =1
a b
 Horizontal line A line parallel to the x-axis through the point (a, c) has equation y = c.
 Vertical line A line parallel to the y-axis through the point (a, c) has equation x = a.
 General form Every straight line satisfies an equation of the form mx + ny + p = 0,
with m and n not both 0. Conversely, any ‘linear equation’ mx + ny + p = 0 is the
equation of a straight line.

Skill-
sheet Exercise 2C

Example 7 1 State the gradient and y-axis intercept of the graph of each equation:
a y = 3x + 6 b y = −6x + 7 c y = 3x − 6 d y = −x − 4

Example 8 2 a Find the equation of the straight line with gradient 3 and y-axis intercept 5.
b Find the equation of the straight line with gradient −4 and y-axis intercept 6.
c Find the equation of the straight line with gradient 3 and y-axis intercept −4.

Example 9 3 State the gradient and y-axis intercept of the graph of each equation:
a 3x − y = 6 b 4x − 2y = 8 c 5x − 10y = 20 d 2x − 6y = 10

4 Express in gradient–intercept form and hence state the gradient and y-axis intercept of
each of the following linear relations:
a 2x − y = 9 b 3x + 4y = 10 c −x − 3y = 6 d 5x − 2y = 4

Example 10 5 a Find the equation of the straight line that has gradient 3 and passes through the point
with coordinates (6, 7).
Example 11 b Find the equation of the straight line that has gradient −2 and passes through the
point with coordinates (1, 7).

Example 12 6 Find the equations of the straight lines passing through the following pairs of points.
(Express your answer in gradient–intercept form.)
a (−1, 4), (2, 3) b (0, 4), (5, −3) c (3, −2), (4, −4) d (5, −2), (8, 9)

Example 13 7 For the straight line that has y-axis intercept 6 and passes through the point with
coordinates (1, 8), find:
a the gradient b the equation

8 Find the equation of the straight line that passes through the point (1, 6) and has
gradient:
a 2 b −2

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 2C 2C The equation of a straight line 49

9 Write, in the form y = mx + c, the equations of the lines which have the given gradient
and pass through the given point:
a m = 2; (−1, 4) b m = −2; (0, 4) c m = −5; (3, 0)

Example 14 10 Find equations defining the lines which pass through the following pairs of points:
a (0, 4), (6, 0) b (−3, 0), (0, −6)
c (0, 4), (4, 0) d (2, 0), (0, 3)

11 Find the equations, in the form y = mx + c, of the lines which pass through the following
pairs of points:
a (0, 4), (3, 6) b (1, 0), (4, 2)
c (−3, 0), (3, 3) d (−2, 3), (4, 0)
e (−1.5, 2), (4.5, 8) f (−3, 1.75), (4.5, −2)

12 Find the equation of each of the following lines:

a y b y c y

4 3 2
3 2 1
2 1 x
1 x –2 –1–10 1 2
–3 –2 –1 0 1
x –2
–2 –1 0 1 2

d y e y f y

2 4 4
1 3 3
x 2 2
–1 0 1 2 3 1 1
–1
–2 x x
–2 –1 0 1 2 –2 –1 0 1 2

13 Do the points P(1, −3), Q(2, 1) and R(2 12 , 3) lie on the same straight line?

14 For which of the following does the line pass through the origin?
a y+x=1 b y + 2x = 2(x + 1) c x+y=0 d x−y=1

15 a Find the equation of the line that is parallel to the y-axis and passes through the point
with coordinates (4, 7).
b Find the equation of the line that is parallel to the x-axis and passes through the point
with coordinates (−4, 11).
c Find the equation of the line that is parallel to the y-axis and passes through the point
with coordinates (11, −7).
d Find the equation of the line that is parallel to the x-axis and passes through the point
with coordinates (5, −1).

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 50 Chapter 2: Reviewing coordinate geometry

2D Graphing straight lines

In the previous section we discussed methods of finding the equation of a straight line given
suitable information. In this section we look at sketching a straight line from an equation. To
sketch the graph we need to derive the coordinates of two points on the line. A convenient
way to sketch graphs of straight lines is to plot the two axis intercepts.

Example 15
Sketch the graph of 2x + 4y = 10.
Solution
y
x-axis intercept (y = 0): 2x + 4(0) = 10
x=5
2.5
y-axis intercept (x = 0): 2(0) + 4y = 10
y = 2.5 5
x
1 2 3 4

Example 16
Sketch the graph of y = 2x − 6 by first finding the intercepts.
Solution
y
x-axis intercept (y = 0): 0 = 2x − 6
x=3

y-axis intercept (x = 0): y = 2(0) − 6

x
y = −6 0 3

Note: You can also obtain the y-axis intercept

directly from the equation.
–6

Using the TI-Nspire

To plot the graph of 6x + 3y = 9:
 Open a Graphs application: press con and
select the Graphs icon, or use ctrl I and
select Add Graphs.
 Equations of the form a · x + b · y = c can
be entered directly using menu > Graph
Entry/Edit > Relation. Enter as 6x + 3y = 9.

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 2D Graphing straight lines 51

Note: The window settings ( menu >

Window/Zoom > Window Settings) will
have to be changed if the axis intercepts
do not appear on the screen.
 The axis intercepts can be found using menu
> Geometry > Points & Lines > Intersection
Point(s). Select the x-axis and the graph to
display the x-axis intercept. Select the y-axis
and the graph to display the y-axis intercept.
 To show the coordinates of these points, use
menu > Actions > Coordinates and Equations
and double click on each of the points.
 Press esc to exit the Coordinates and
Equations tool.

Using the Casio ClassPad

 Type the equation 3y + 6x = 9 in the main screen M. Tap on the graph icon $ to
display the graph window.
 Using your stylus, highlight the equation and drag it down into the graph window.
Lift the stylus off the screen for the graph to appear.

 The graph window setting can be adjusted using the window setting icon 6.
 Ensure the graph window is selected and the intercepts are visible on the graph.

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 52 Chapter 2: Reviewing coordinate geometry

 To find the intercepts, go to Analysis > G-Solve. Select y-Intercept for the y-axis
intercept and select Root for the x-axis intercept.

Note: The equation is displayed in gradient–intercept form in the top-left corner of the
graph window.

From Section 2B we know that the gradient of a line is the tangent of the angle of slope (that
is, the angle formed by the line with the positive direction of the x-axis).

Example 17
For each of the following lines, find the magnitude of the angle θ (correct to two decimal
places) that the line makes with the positive direction of the x-axis:
a y = 2x + 3 b 3y = 3x − 6
c y = −0.3x + 1.5

Solution
a y = 2x + 3 b 3y = 3x − 6
Gradient = 2 y= x−2
Hence tan θ = 2 Gradient = 1
Therefore θ = 63.43◦ Hence tan θ = 1
correct to two decimal places Therefore θ = 45◦

c y = −0.3x + 1.5
Gradient = −0.3
Hence tan θ = −0.3
Therefore θ = (180 − 16.699 . . . )◦
= 163.30◦ correct to two decimal places

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 2D 2D Graphing straight lines 53

Summary 2D
 The most practical way to sketch a straight line is to plot two points known to be on the
required line and draw the line through them.
• Two important points are the intercept with the x-axis and the intercept with the
y-axis. These are the best two points to use in order to sketch a line that does not
pass through the origin and is not parallel to one of the axes.
• To sketch a line with equation of the form y = mx, plot one other point on the line
besides the origin.
 The gradient m of a line y = mx + c is equal to tan θ, where θ is the angle of slope
measured between the line and the positive direction of the x-axis.

Exercise 2D

1 For each of the following, give the coordinates of the axis intercepts:
a x+y=4 b x−y=4 c −x − y = 6 d y−x=8

Example 15 2 Sketch the graphs of each of the following linear relations:

a 2x − 3y = 12 b x − 4y = 8 c −3x + 4y = 24
d −5x + 2y = 20 e 4x − 3y = 15 f 7x − 2y = 15

Example 16 3 For each of the following, sketch the graph by first finding the axis intercepts:
a y= x−1 b y= x+2 c y = 2x − 4

4 Sketch the graphs of each of the following by first determining the axis intercepts:
a y = 2x − 10 b y = 3x − 9 c y = 5x + 10 d y = −2x + 10

5 Sketch the graphs of each of the following:

a y= x+2 b y = −x + 2 c y = 2x + 1 d y = −2x + 1

6 Sketch the graphs of each of the following:

a x+y=1 b x−y=1 c y−x=1 d −x − y = 1

7 Sketch the graphs of each of the following:

a y= x+3 b y = 3x + 1 c y = 4 − 12 x d y = 3x − 2
e 4y + 2x = 12 f 3x + 6y = 12 g 4y − 6x = 24 h 8x − 3y = 24

8 Sketch the graphs of each of the following:

a y=3 b x = −2 c y = −2 d x=5

Example 17 9 Find the magnitude of the angle, correct to two decimal places, made by each of the
following with the positive direction of the x-axis:
a y=x b y = −x c y= x+1
d x+y=1 e y = 2x f y = −2x

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 54 Chapter 2: Reviewing coordinate geometry 2D

10 Find the magnitude of the angle, correct to two decimal places, made by each of the
following with the positive direction of the x-axis:
a y = 3x + 2 b 2y = −2x + 1 c 2y − 2x = 6 d 3y + x = 7

11 A straight line has equation y = 3x − 4. The points with coordinates (0, a), (b, 0), (1, d)
and (e, 10) lie on the line. Find the values of a, b, d and e.

Sketch the graphs of each of the following using your calculator. Label the axis

CAS
12
intercepts.
a y = 2x − 3 b 2x − 5y = 12 c 5y + 2x = 10 d 5x − 6y = 14

2E Parallel and perpendicular lines

Parallel lines
 Two non-vertical lines are parallel if they have the same gradient.
 Conversely, if two non-vertical lines are parallel, then they have the same gradient.

This is easily proved through considering the angles of inclination of such lines to the
positive direction of the x-axis and using the following two results:
y

θ1 θ2
x
0

1 Two non-vertical lines are parallel if and only if the corresponding angles θ1 and θ2
formed by the lines and the positive direction of the x-axis are equal.
2 If two angles θ1 and θ2 are acute, obtuse or zero, then tan θ1 = tan θ2 implies θ1 = θ2 .
For example, consider the lines y
y = 2x + 3 y = 2x + 3
y = 2x − 4 4
3 y = 2x – 4
Both lines have gradient 2, and so they are parallel. 2
1
x
–2 –1 0 1 2
–2
–3
–4

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 2E Parallel and perpendicular lines 55

Perpendicular lines
We prove that two lines are perpendicular if and only if the product of their gradients is −1
(or if one is horizontal and the other vertical).

Two lines with gradients m1 and m2 (both non-zero) are perpendicular if and only if
m1 m2 = −1.

Proof Initially we consider the case where the two lines intersect at the origin.
Step 1 Draw two lines passing through the origin with one of the lines having
positive gradient, m1 , and the other negative gradient, m2 . Form right-angled triangles
OPQ and OAB with OQ = OB.
y
AB
Gradient m1 = gradient
BO m2 gradient
OQ Q m1
Gradient m2 = − P
PQ A
OQ AB
Product m1 m2 = − ×
PQ BO x
O B
OQ AB
=− ×
PQ OQ
AB
=−
PQ
Step 2 We now prove: If two lines passing through the origin are perpendicular, then
the product of their gradients is −1.
y
If the lines are perpendicular, then ∠POQ =
∠AOB. Therefore triangles OPQ and OAB
are congruent. So PQ = AB and therefore the Q
P
product of the gradients is A
α 90°−α
AB AB
m1 m2 = − =− = −1 α
PQ AB x
O B

Step 3 We next prove the converse: If for two lines passing through the origin the
product of their gradients is −1, then the lines are perpendicular.
If the product m1 m2 = −1, then AB = PQ, which implies that the triangles OAB and
OPQ are congruent. Therefore ∠POQ = ∠AOB and so ∠AOP = 90◦ .
Step 4 If we are given two lines anywhere in the plane, we can draw lines through
the origin parallel to the original two lines. The slopes of the new lines are the same.
So the result holds for lines that do not necessarily pass through the origin.

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 56 Chapter 2: Reviewing coordinate geometry

Example 18
Find the equation of the straight line which passes through (1, 2) and is:
a parallel to the line with equation 2x − y = 4
b perpendicular to the line with equation 2x − y = 4.

Solution Explanation
The equation 2x − y = 4 is equivalent
to y = 2x − 4. The line y = 2x − 4 has
gradient 2.
a The required line passes through (1, 2) A line parallel to y = 2x − 4 has gradient 2.
and has gradient 2. Hence We use y − y1 = m(x − x1 ) where
y − 2 = 2(x − 1) (x1 , y1 ) = (1, 2) and m = 2.
Therefore the line has equation y = 2x.
b The required line passes through (1, 2) A line perpendicular to a line with
and has gradient − 21 . Hence gradient m has gradient − m1 (provided
1 m , 0).
y − 2 = − (x − 1)
2 We use y − y1 = m(x − x1 ) where
Therefore 2y − 4 = −x + 1 and (x1 , y1 ) = (1, 2) and m = − 21 .
equivalently 2y + x = 5.
The line has equation 2y + x = 5.

Example 19
The coordinates of the vertices of a triangle ABC are A(0, −1), B(2, 3) and C(3, −2 12 ).
Show that the side AB is perpendicular to the side AC.
Solution Explanation
Let m1 be the gradient of the line AB and We use the fact that two lines with
let m2 be the gradient of the line AC. gradients m1 and m2 (both non-zero) are
3 − (−1) perpendicular if and only if m1 m2 = −1.
m1 =
2−0 We show the product of the gradients is −1.
=2 Hence the lines are perpendicular.

−2 21 − (−1)
m2 =
3−0
−1 12
=
3
1
=−
2
Since m1 × m2 = 2 × (− 21 ) = −1, the lines
AB and AC are perpendicular to each other.

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 2E 2E Parallel and perpendicular lines 57

Summary 2E
 Two non-vertical lines are parallel if they have the same gradient. Conversely, if two
non-vertical lines are parallel, then they have the same gradient.
 Two lines are perpendicular if the product of their gradients is −1 (or if one is
horizontal and the other vertical). Conversely, if two lines are perpendicular, then the
product of their gradients is −1 (or one is horizontal and the other vertical).

Skill-
sheet Exercise 2E

Example 18 1 Find the equation of the straight line which passes through (4, −2) and is:
a parallel to the line with equation y = 2x + 1
b perpendicular to the line with equation y = 2x + 1
c parallel to the line with equation y = −2x + 1
d perpendicular to the line with equation y = −2x + 1
e parallel to the line with equation 2x − 3y = 4
f perpendicular to the line with equation 2x − 3y = 4
g parallel to the line with equation x + 3y = 5
h perpendicular to the line with equation x + 3y = −4.

2 For which of the following pairs of equations are the corresponding lines parallel to
each other? Sketch graphs to show the pairs of non-parallel lines.
a 2y = 6x + 4; y = 3x + 4 b x = 4 − y; 2x + 2y = 6
c 3y − 2x = 12; y + 13 = 23 x d 4y − 3x = 4; 3y = 4x − 3

3 Find the equation of the line:

a perpendicular to the line x = 3 and which passes through the point (3, 4)
b perpendicular to the line y = 3 and which passes through the point (2, 3)
c perpendicular to the line x = −2 and which passes through the point (−2, 4)
d perpendicular to the line y = −4 and which passes through the point (3, −4).

4 Find the equation of the straight line which passes through the point (1, 4) and is
perpendicular to the line with equation y = − 12 x + 6.

5 Points A and B have coordinates (1, 5) and (−3, 7) respectively. Find the coordinates of
the midpoint M of the line segment AB and find the equation of the line which passes
through the point M and is perpendicular to the line AB.

Example 19 6 If the points A, B and C have the coordinates A(5, 2), B(2, −3) and C(−8, 3), show that
the triangle ABC is a right-angled triangle.

7 Given the points A(3, 7), B(6, 1) and C(20, 8), prove that AB is perpendicular to BC.

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 58 Chapter 2: Reviewing coordinate geometry 2E

8 Show that RS T U is a rectangle if the coordinates of the vertices are respectively R(2, 6),
S (6, 4), T (2, −4) and U(−2, −2).

9 Given that the lines 4x − 3y = 10 and 4x − `y = m are perpendicular and intersect at the
point (4, 2), find the values of ` and m.

10 The line y = 2x + 3 intersects the y-axis at A. The points B and C on this line are
such that AB = BC. The line through B perpendicular to AC passes through the point
D(−1, 6). Find:
a the equation of BD
b the coordinates of B
c the coordinates of C.

2F Families of straight lines

Here are three families of straight lines:
 y = mx, where the gradient m of the lines varies – the graphs are the straight lines through
the origin.
 y = 3x + c, where the y-axis intercept c of the lines varies – the graphs are the straight lines
with gradient 3.
 y = mx + 2, where the gradient m of the lines varies – the graphs are the straight lines with
y-axis intercept 2. Some graphs in this family are illustrated below.

y = −3x + 2 y
y = 3x + 2
y = −x + 2
y=x+2

1 1
y=− x+2 y= x+2
2 2
(0, 2)

x
0

The variable m is called a parameter. We will consider other families of graphs in later
chapters of this book.

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 2F Families of straight lines 59

Example 20
Find the value of m if the line y = mx + 2 passes through the point (3, 11).
Solution
We can write
11 = 3m + 2
Therefore 3m = 9 and hence m = 3. It is the line y = 3x + 2.

Example 21
A family of lines have equations of the form y = mx + 2, where m is a negative number.
a Find the x-axis intercept of a line in this family in terms of m.
b For which values of m is the x-axis intercept greater than 3?
c Find the equation of the line perpendicular to the line y = mx + 2 at the point (0, 2).

Solution Explanation
a When y = 0: mx + 2 = 0 To find the x-axis intercept put y = 0.
mx = −2
2
x=−
m
The x-axis intercept is − m2 .
2
b − >3 Multiply both sides of the inequality by m.
m
Since m is negative, the inequality sign is
−2 < 3m reversed. Then divide both sides by 3.
2
− <m
3
Therefore the x-axis intercept is greater
than 3 for − 23 < m < 0.
c The equation is y − 2 = − m1 x and the The perpendicular line has gradient − m1 and
gradient–intercept form is y = − m1 x + 2. passes through (0, 2).

Summary 2F
Families of straight lines can be described through the use of a parameter. For example:
 All the non-vertical lines passing through (0, 2) have equation of the form y = mx + 2,
where m is a real number. (If m = 0, the line is horizontal.)
 All the lines with gradient 3 have equation of the form y = 3x + c, where c is a real
number.
x y
 All the lines with x-axis intercept 4 have equation of the form + = 1, where b is a
4 b
non-zero real number.

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 60 Chapter 2: Reviewing coordinate geometry 2F

Skill-
sheet Exercise 2F

Example 20 1 The line with equation y = mx − 3, where m is a positive number, passes through the
point (2, 7). Find the value of m.

2 The line with equation y = 2x + c, where c is a number, passes through the point (3, 11).
Find the value of c.

3 A line has equation y = mx + 3, where m , 0. A second line is perpendicular to this line

and passes through the point (0, 3).
a Find the equation of the second line in terms of m.
b Find the value of m if the second line passes through the point (1, −4).

4 The line with equation y = mx + 2, where m is a positive number, passes through the
point (3, 8). Find the value of m.

Example 21 5 A family of lines have equations of the form y = mx − 3, where m is a positive number.
a Find the x-axis intercept of a line in this family in terms of m.
b Find the value of m if the line passes through the point (5, 6).
c For which values of m is the x-axis intercept less than or equal to 1?
d Find the equation of the line perpendicular to the line y = mx − 3 at the point (0, −3).

6 A family of lines have equations of the form y = 2x + c, where c is a number.

a Find the x-axis intercept of a line in this family in terms of c.
b Find the value of c if the line passes through the point (5, 6).
c For which values of c is the x-axis intercept less than or equal to 1?
d Find the equation of the line perpendicular to the line y = 2x + c at the point (0, c).
x y
7 A family of lines have equations of the form − = 4, where a is a non-zero number.
a 12
a Find the x-axis intercept of a line in this family in terms of a.
b Find the gradient of the line in terms of a.
c Find the value of a if the gradient is
i 2 ii −2

8 A family of lines have equations of the form 3x + by = 12, where b is a non-zero

number.
a Find the y-axis intercept of a line in this family in terms of b.
b Find the gradient of the line in terms of b.
c Find the value of b if the gradient is
i 1 ii −2
d Find the equation of the line that is perpendicular to the line 3x + by = 12 at the
point (4, 0).

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 2F 2G Linear models 61

A family of lines have equations of the form y = −bx + c, where b and c are positive

CAS
9
numbers.
a Find the x-axis intercept of a line in this family in terms of b and c.
b For a line in this family that passes through the point (1, 7):
i find b in terms of c
ii find the values of c for which the x-axis intercept is less than or equal to 2.
c Let O denote the origin, and let A and B be the x-axis and y-axis intercepts of the line
y = −bx + c.
i If the midpoint M of the line segment AB is (3, 6), find the values of b and c.
ii If the triangle AOB has area 4, find c in terms of b.
iii If the midpoint M of AB is such that OM = 5, find c in terms of b. Then use your
calculator to find the value of c when b = 5, 10, 100. Comment.

2G Linear models
There are many practical situations where a linear relation can be used.

Example 22
A historical site charges a tour company for priority entrance to the site. The charge
consists of a monthly fee of $200 plus $3.50 for each tourist brought to the site. Construct
a cost function that describes the monthly charge and sketch the linear graph for this.
Solution
C
Let C = monthly charge ($)
n = number of tourists 1600

Then 1200
800
C = 3.5n + 200
400
The number of tourists is counted in whole
n
numbers including zero. 0 100 200 300 400
Note: The graph should be a series of discrete points rather than a continuous line,
because n is a whole number. With the scale used it is not practical to show it
correctly.

An important linear relation is the relation between distance travelled and time taken when an
object is travelling with constant speed. If a car travels at 40 km/h, the relationship between
distance travelled (s kilometres) and time taken (t hours) is
s = 40t (for t ≥ 0)
The graph of s against t is a straight-line graph through the origin. The gradient of this graph
is 40.

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 62 Chapter 2: Reviewing coordinate geometry 2G

Example 23
A car starts from point A on a highway 10 kilometres past the Wangaratta post office. The
car travels at a constant speed of 90 km/h towards picnic stop B, which is 120 kilometres
further on from A. Let t hours be the time after the car leaves point A.
a Find an expression for the distance d1 of the car from the post office at time t hours.
b Find an expression for the distance d2 of the car from point B at time t hours.
c On separate sets of axes, sketch the graphs of d1 against t and d2 against t and state the
gradient of each graph.

Solution
a At time t the distance of the car from the post office is 10 + 90t kilometres.
b At time t the distance of the car from B is 120 − 90t kilometres.
c
d1 d2

4
, 130 120
3

10
O t O 4 t
3
Gradient = 90 Gradient = −90

Skill-
sheet Exercise 2G

Example 22 1 The weekly wage, $w, of a vacuum cleaner salesperson consists of a fixed sum of $350
plus $20 for each cleaner sold. If n cleaners are sold per week, construct a rule that
describes the weekly wage of the salesperson.

Example 23 2 a A train moves at 50 km/h in a straight line away from a town. Give a rule for the
distance, d1 km, from the town at time t hours after leaving the town.
b A train has stopped at a siding 80 km from the town and then moves at 40 km/h in
a straight line away from the siding towards the town. Give a rule for the distance,
d2 km, from the town at time t hours after leaving the siding.
c On separate sets of axes, sketch the graphs of d1 against t (0 ≤ t ≤ 4) and d2 against t
and state the gradient of each graph.

3 a An initially empty container is being filled with water at a rate of 5 litres per minute.
Give a rule for the volume, V litres, of water in the container at time t minutes after
the filling of the container starts.
b A container contains 10 litres of water. Water is then poured in at a rate of 5 litres
per minute. Give a rule for the volume, V litres, of water in the container at time
t minutes after the pouring starts.

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 2G 2G Linear models 63

4 The reservoir feeding an intravenous drip contains 500 mL of a saline solution. The drip
releases the solution into a patient at the rate of 2.5 mL/minute.
a Construct a rule which relates the amount of solution left in the reservoir, v mL, to
time, t minutes.
b State the possible values of t and v.
c Sketch the graph of the relation.

5 The cost ($C) of hiring a taxi consists of two elements, a fixed flagfall and an amount
that varies with the number (n) of kilometres travelled. If the flagfall is $2.60 and the
cost per kilometre is $1.50, determine a rule which gives C in terms of n.

6 A car rental company charges $85, plus an additional amount of 24c per kilometre.
a Write a rule to determine the total charge $C for hiring a car and travelling
x kilometres.
b What would be the cost to travel 250 kilometres?

7 Two towns A and B are 200 km apart. A man leaves town A and walks at a speed of
5 km/h towards town B. Find the distance of the man from town B at time t hours after
leaving town A.

8 The following table shows the extension of a spring when weights are attached to it.

x, extension (cm) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
w, weight (g) 50 50.2 50.4 50.6 50.8 51.0 51.2

a Sketch a graph to show the relationship between x and w.

b Write a rule that describes the graph.
c What will be the extension if w = 52.5 g?

9 A printing firm charges $35 for printing 600 sheets of headed notepaper and $47 for
printing 800 sheets.
a Find a formula, assuming the relationship is linear, for the charge, $C, in terms of
number of sheets printed, n.
b How much would they charge for printing 1000 sheets?

10 An electronic bank teller registered $775 after it had counted 120 notes and $975 after it
had counted 160 notes.
a Find a formula for the sum registered ($C) in terms of the number of notes (n)
counted.
b Was there a sum already on the register when counting began?
c If so, how much?

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 64 Chapter 2: Reviewing coordinate geometry

2H Simultaneous linear equations

In this section we revisit the geometry of simultaneous equations, first introduced in
Section 1C, and also make use of parameters to explore these properties. Finally we consider
some of the many applications of simultaneous equations.

The geometry of simultaneous equations

There are three possible outcomes when considering a system of two simultaneous linear
equations in two unknowns:
 There is a unique solution. (Lines intersect at a point.)
 There are infinitely many solutions. (Lines coincide.)
 There is no solution. (Lines are parallel.)

Example 24
Explain why the simultaneous equations 2x + 3y = 6 and 4x + 6y = 24 have no solution.
Solution
First write the equations in the form y = mx + c. They become
2 2
y=− x+2 and y=− x+4
3 3
2
Each of the lines has gradient − 3 . The y-axis intercepts are 2 and 4 respectively. The
equations have no solution as they correspond to parallel lines and they are different lines.

Example 25
The simultaneous equations 2x + 3y = 6 and 4x + 6y = 12 have infinitely many solutions.
Describe these solutions through the use of a parameter.
Solution
The two lines coincide, and so the solutions are all points on this line. We make use of a
6 − 3λ
third variable λ as the parameter. If y = λ, then x = . The points on the line are all
 6 − 3λ  2
points of the form ,λ .
2

Using the TI-Nspire

Simultaneous linear equations can be solved in a
Calculator application.

 Use > Algebra > Solve System of

menu
> Solve System of Linear Equations.
Equations
 Complete the pop-up screen.

The solution to this system of linear equations is given by the calculator as shown. The
parameter c1 takes the place of λ.

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 2H Simultaneous linear equations 65

Using the Casio ClassPad

To solve the simultaneous equations 2x + 3y = 6 and
4x + 6y = 12:
 Open the Math1keyboard.
 Select the simultaneous equations icon ~.
 Enter the two equations into the two lines and
type x, y in the bottom-right square to indicate the
variables.
 Select EXE .
6 − 3λ
Choose y = λ to obtain the solution x = , y = λ where λ is any real number.
2

Example 26
The family of lines y = mx + 2 with varying gradient m all pass through the point (0, 2).
a For what values of m does the line y = mx + 2 not intersect the line y = 5x − 3?
b For what values of m does the line y = mx + 2 intersect the line y = 5x − 3?
c If the line y = mx + 2 intersects the line y = 5x − 3 at the point (5, 22), find the value
of m.

Solution
a The y-axis intercept of y = mx + 2 is 2 and the y-axis intercept of y = 5x − 3 is −3.
The lines will not intersect if they are parallel, that is, if they have the same gradient.
So m = 5.
b The lines intersect when m , 5.
c If (5, 22) lies on the line y = mx + 2, then
22 = 5m + 2
20 = 5m
m=4
Thus the lines intersect at (5, 22) when m = 4.

Example 27
The lines y = x + k and y = mx + 4 intersect at (1, 3). Find the values of m and k.
Solution
When x = 1, y = 3.
So 3 = 1 + k and 3 = m + 4.
Hence k = 2 and m = −1.

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 66 Chapter 2: Reviewing coordinate geometry

Example 28
The lines (m − 2)x + y = 2 and mx + 2y = k intersect at (2, 8). Find the values of m and k.
Solution
(m − 2)x + y = 2 (1)
mx + 2y = k (2)
When x = 2, y = 8. Substituting these values into equations (1) and (2), we have the
equations
2(m − 2) + 8 = 2 (3)
2m + 16 = k (4)
From (3), we have 2m − 4 + 8 = 2. Therefore m = −1.
From (4), we have 2(−1) + 16 = k. Therefore k = 14.

Example 29
Consider the simultaneous linear equations (m − 2)x + y = 2 and mx + 2y = k. Find the
values of m and k such that the system of equations has:
a no solution b infinitely many solutions c a unique solution.

Solution
(m − 2)x + y = 2 (1)
mx + 2y = k (2)
We know that for no solution or infinitely many solutions, the corresponding lines are
parallel or coincide. If the corresponding lines are parallel or coincide, the gradients are
the same.
Gradient of line (1) = 2 − m
m
Gradient of line (2) = −
2
m
Hence 2−m=−
2
4 − 2m = −m
m=4
Substitute m = 4 in equations (1) and (2). We have
2x + y = 2
4x + 2y = k
a There is no solution if m = 4 and k , 4.
b If m = 4 and k = 4, there are infinitely many solutions as the equations are equivalent.
c The solution is unique if m , 4 and k is any real number.

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 2H Simultaneous linear equations 67

Applications of simultaneous equations

Example 30
There are two possible methods for paying gas bills:
Method A A fixed charge of $25 per quarter + 50c per unit of gas used
Method B A fixed charge of $50 per quarter + 25c per unit of gas used
Determine the number of units which must be used before method B becomes cheaper
than method A.
Solution
C ($)
Let C1 = charge ($) using method A C1 = 0.5x + 25
100
C2 = charge ($) using method B
x = number of units of gas used C2 = 0.25x + 50
Then C1 = 25 + 0.5x 50
C2 = 50 + 0.25x 25
From the graph we see that method B is
cheaper if the number of units exceeds 100. 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 x (units)

The solution can be obtained by solving simultaneous linear equations:

C1 = C2
25 + 0.5x = 50 + 0.25x
0.25x = 25
x = 100

Example 31
Robyn and Cheryl race over 100 metres. Robyn runs so that it takes a seconds to run
1 metre, and Cheryl runs so that it takes b seconds to run 1 metre. Cheryl wins the race by
1 second. The next day they again race over 100 metres but Cheryl gives Robyn a 5-metre
start so that Robyn runs 95 metres. Cheryl wins this race by 0.4 seconds. Find the values
of a and b and the speed at which Robyn runs.
Solution
For the first race: Time for Robyn − time for Cheryl = 1 s.
100a − 100b = 1 (1)
For the second race: Time for Robyn − time for Cheryl = 0.4 s.
95a − 100b = 0.4 (2)
Subtract (2) from (1). This gives 5a = 0.6 and therefore a = 0.12.
Substitute in (1) to find b = 0.11.
1 25
Robyn’s speed = = m/s.
0.12 3

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 68 Chapter 2: Reviewing coordinate geometry 2H

Summary 2H
 There are three cases for a system of two linear equations with two variables:
• unique solution (lines intersect at a point), e.g. y = 2x + 3 and y = 3x + 3
• infinitely many solutions (lines coincide), e.g. y = 2x + 3 and 2y = 4x + 6
• no solution (lines are parallel), e.g. y = 2x + 3 and y = 2x + 4.
 There are many applications of simultaneous linear equations with two variables. The
problems often arise by working with two quantities both changing at a constant but
often different rate.

Skill-
sheet Exercise 2H

Example 24 1 Explain why the simultaneous equations x + y = 6 and 2x + 2y = 13 have no solution.

Example 25 2 The simultaneous equations x + y = 6 and 2x + 2y = 12 have infinitely many solutions.

Describe these solutions through the use of a parameter.

Example 26 3 The family of lines y = mx + 6 with varying gradient m all pass through the point (0, 6).
a For what values of m does the line y = mx + 6 not intersect the line y = 4x − 5?
b For what values of m does the line y = mx + 6 intersect the line y = 4x − 5?
c If the line y = mx + 6 intersects the line y = 4x − 5 at the point (5, 15), find the value
of m.

Example 27 4 The lines y = 2x + k and y = mx − 4 intersect at (2, 6). Find the values of m and k.

Example 28 5 The lines (m − 2)x + y = 4 and mx + 3y = k intersect at (2, 8). Find the values of m
and k.

Example 29 6 Find the value of m for which the simultaneous equations mx − y = 5 and 3x + y = 6
have no solution.

7 Find the value of m for which the pair of simultaneous equations 3x + my = 5 and
(m + 2)x + 5y = m have:
a infinitely many solutions
b no solutions.

Example 30 8 Two bicycle hire companies have different charges. Company A charges $C, according
to the rule C = 10t + 20, where t is the time in hours for which a bicycle is hired.
Company B charges $C, according to the rule C = 8t + 30.
a Sketch each of the graphs on the same set of axes.
b Find the time, t, for which the charge of both companies is the same.

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 2H 2H Simultaneous linear equations 69

Example 31 9 John and Michael race over 50 metres. John runs so that it takes a seconds to run
1 metre and Michael runs so that it takes b seconds to run 1 metre. Michael wins the
race by 1 second. The next day they again race over 50 metres but Michael gives John a
3-metre start so that John runs 47 metres. Michael wins this race by 0.1 seconds. Find
the values of a and b and the speed at which Michael runs.

10 The distances, dA km and dB km, of cyclists A and B travelling along a straight road
from a town hall step are given respectively by dA = 10t + 15 and dB = 20t + 5, where t
is the time in hours after 1 p.m.
a Sketch each of the graphs on the one set of axes.
b Find the time in hours at which the two cyclists are at the same distance from the
town hall step.

A school wishes to take some of its students on an excursion. If they travel by tram it

CAS
11
will cost the school $2.80 per student. Alternatively, the school can hire a bus at a cost
of $54 for the day plus a charge of $1 per student.
a For each mode of transport, write an expression for the cost ($C) of transport in
terms of the number of students (x).
b On one set of axes, draw the graph of cost, $C, versus number of students, x, for each
mode of transport.
c Determine for how many students it will be more economical to hire the bus.

12 Anne and Maureen live in towns that are 57 km apart. Anne sets out at 9 a.m. one day
to ride her bike to Maureen’s town at a constant speed of 20 km/h. At the same time
Maureen sets out to ride to Anne’s town at a constant speed of 18 km/h.
a Write down a rule for the distance, d km, that each of them is from Anne’s place at a
time t minutes after 9 a.m.
b On the same set of axes, draw graphs of the distance, d km, versus time, t minutes
after 9 a.m., for each cyclist.
c Find the time at which they will meet.
d How far has each of them travelled when they meet?

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 70 Chapter 2: Reviewing coordinate geometry
Review

Chapter summary

 The midpoint of the line segment joining (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) is the point with coordinates
x + x y + y 
1 2 1 2
Assign- ,
ment 2 2
 The distance between two points A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ) y
Nrich
is
q
AB = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 B(x2, y2)
x
0
A(x1, y1)
 The gradient of a straight line joining two points: y
y2 − y1
Gradient m = B(x2, y2)
x2 − x1

A(x1, y1)
x
0
 For a line with gradient m, the angle of slope (θ) can be found using
m = tan θ
where θ is the angle the line makes with the positive direction of the x-axis.
 The gradient–intercept form of the equation of a straight line is
y = mx + c
where m is the gradient and c is the y-axis intercept.
 The equation of a line passing through a given point y
(x1 , y1 ) and having gradient m is
P(x, y)
y − y1 = m(x − x1 )

A(x1, y1)
x
0
 The equation of a line passing through two given y
points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) is
y2 − y1 B(x2, y2)
y − y1 = m(x − x1 ) where m= (x, y)
x2 − x1
A(x1, y1)
x
0
 Two straight lines are perpendicular to each other if and only if the product of their
gradients is −1 (or if one is horizontal and the other vertical):
m1 m2 = −1

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 Chapter 2 review 71

Review
Technology-free questions

1 Find the length and the coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment joining each of
the following pairs of points:
a A(1, 2) and B(5, 2) b A(−4, −2) and B(3, −7) c A(3, 4) and B(7, 1)

2 Find the gradients of the lines joining each of the following pairs of points:
a (4, 3) and (8, 12) b (−3, 4) and (8, −6) c (2, 1) and (2, 9)
d (0, a) and (a, 0) e (0, 0) and (a, b) f (0, b) and (a, 0)

3 Find the equation of the straight line of gradient 4 which passes through the point with
coordinates:
a (0, 0) b (0, 5) c (1, 6) d (3, 7)

4 a The point (1, a) lies on the line with equation y = 3x − 5. Find the value of a.
b The point (b, 15) lies on the line with equation y = 3x − 5. Find the value of b.

5 Find the equation of the straight line joining the points (−5, 2) and (3, −4).

6 Find the equation of the straight line of gradient − 23 which passes through (−4, 1).

7 Write down the equation of the straight line that:

a passes through (5, 11) and is parallel to the x-axis
b passes through (0, −10) and is parallel to the line with equation y = 6x + 3
c passes through the point (0, −1) and is perpendicular to the line with equation
3x − 2y + 5 = 0.

8 Find the equation of the straight line which passes through the point (2, 3) and is
inclined at 30◦ to the positive direction of the x-axis.

9 Find the equation of the straight line which passes through the point (−2, 3) and makes
an angle of 135◦ with the positive direction of the x-axis.

10 Find the equation of the straight line passing through the point (4, 8) and which is
perpendicular to the line with equation y = −3x + 2.

11 A straight line has equation y = 2x + 1. The points with coordinates (0, a), (b, 0), (2, d)
and (e, 7) lie on this line. Find the values of a, b, d and e.

12 Sketch the graph of each of the following by first determining axis intercepts. Clearly
label each axis intercept.
a y = 2x − 8 b 3x + y = 6 c 3x + y + 6 = 0
d y − 2x − 8 = 0 e y = −6x + 6 f 2x + 5y + 10 = 0

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 72 Chapter 2: Reviewing coordinate geometry
Review

13 A family of straight lines satisfy the rule y = ax + 2.

a Find the equation of the straight line in this family for which y = 6 when x = 2.
b i Find the x-axis intercept of the line with equation y = ax + 2.
ii If a < 0, find the values of a for which the x-axis intercept is greater than 1.
c Find the coordinates of the point of intersection of the line with equation y = x + 3
and the line with equation y = ax + 2, given that a , 1.

Multiple-choice questions

1 The coordinates of the midpoint of AB, where A has coordinates (4, 12) and B has
coordinates (6, 2), are
A (4, 8) B (4.5, 8) C (5, 8) D (5, 7) E (1, 5)

2 If (6, 3) is the midpoint of the line segment joining the points (−4, y) and (x, −6), then
the value of x + y is
A 0 B 16 C 20 D −10 E 28

3 The gradient of the line passing through the points (5, −8) and (6, −10) is
1 1 1 3
A −2 B − C D − E
2 2 18 2
4 The gradient of the line passing through points (4a, 2a) and (9a, −3a) is
A a B −5a C 1 D −5 E −1

5 The equation of the straight line with gradient 3 that passes through the point (1, 9) is
A y= x+9 B y = 3x + 9 C y = 3x + 6
D y= − 13 x +1 E y= − 13 x +6

6 A straight line passes through the points (2, −6) and (−2, −14). The equation of the
line is
A y= x−8 B y = 12 x − 7 C y = 21 x − 10
D y = 2x − 10 E y = − 12 x − 8

7 The line with equation y = 2x − 6 passes through the point (a, 2). The value of a is
A 2 B 4 C 5 D −4 E −2

8 The relation with graph as shown has rule y

A y = −3x − 3 B y= − 13 x −3
1 x
C y= 3x −3 D y = 3x + 3 0 1
E y = 3x − 3
–3

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 Chapter 2 review 73

Review
9 If two lines 5x − y + 7 = 0 and ax + 2y − 11 = 0 are parallel, then a equals
A −5 B 5 C −10 D 10 E − 12

10 The cost ($C) of hiring a car is given by the formula C = 2.5x + 65, where x is the
number of kilometres travelled. A person is charged $750 for the hire of the car. The
number of kilometres travelled was
A 65 B 145 C 160 D 200 E 274

The solution of the two simultaneous equations 2ax + 2by = 3 and 3ax − 2by = 7 for x

CAS
11
and y is
3 − 4a2 3 − 4a 2 1
A x = 2a, y = B x = 2, y = C x= , y=−
2b 2b a 2b
D x = 0, y = 0 E x = 3a, y = 7b

Extended-response questions

1 The cost of hiring a motor cruiser consists of a down payment of $500 and a running
charge of $100 per day, or part of a day. The cost of fuel is $27.50 per day. There is also
a charge of $50 for filling the freshwater tanks and charging the batteries. Food for a
cruise of n days costs $62.50 per day.
a Give a formula for C, the total cost in dollars of hiring the cruiser for n days (all
costs to be included).
b For how many days can a cruiser be hired if the cost of a cruise is to be no more
than $3000?
c A rival company has a fixed rate of $300 per day. For how many days would it be
cheaper to hire from this company?

2 The cost of fitting a new plug and cable for an electric drill is $C, when the length of the
cable is x metres and C = 4.5 + 1.8x.
a What meaning could be given for the constant term 4.5?
b What could be the meaning of the coefficient 1.8?
c What would be the gradient of the graph of C against x?
d What length of cable would give a total cost of $24.50?

3 The profit made on a single journey of an Easyride bus tour is $P, when there are x
empty seats and P = 1020 − 24x.
a What do you think is the meaning of the constant term 1020?
b What is the least number of empty seats which would result in a loss on a single
journey?
c Suggest a meaning for the coefficient 24.

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 74 Chapter 2: Reviewing coordinate geometry
Review

4 A quarterly electricity bill shows the following charges:

 For the first 50 kWh (kilowatt hours): 9.10c per kWh
 For the next 150 kWh: 5.80c per kWh
 Thereafter: 3.56c per kWh
a Write down a formula relating cost, $C, to n, the number of kWh of electricity used:
i for the first 50 kWh
ii for the next 150 kWh
iii for more than 200 kWh.
b Draw a graph of C against n. Use the graph, or otherwise, to determine the
charges for:
i 30 kWh
ii 90 kWh
iii 300 kWh
c How much electricity could be used for a cost of $20?

5 O is the position of the air traffic control tower at an airport. y Scale:

An aircraft travelling in a straight line is identified at 1 unit = 1 km

A(2, 10) and again at B(8, −4). 10 A N

W E
a What is the equation that describes the flight path of the
S
aircraft?
b How far south of O is the aircraft when x = 15 km?
x
O 2 8
Sea –4 B

6 A new light beacon is proposed at P(4, −75) for air y

traffic flying into an airport located at O(0, 0). It is
O
intended that the aircraft should follow a course over x
beacons at P and Q(36, −4), turning at Q towards the 20 Q 40
runway at O.
–20
a Would a direct line from P to Q pass directly over
H N
a hospital located at H(20, −36)? –40 W E
b If not, state how far east or west of H the aircraft
would be when the y-coordinate of an aircraft’s S
–60
flight path is −36. Scale:
P 1 unit = 1km
–80

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 Chapter 2 review 75

Review
Wheelrite, a small company that manufactures garden wheelbarrows, has over-

CAS
7
head expenses of $30 000 per year. In addition, it costs $40 to manufacture each
wheelbarrow.
a Write a rule which determines the total cost, $C, of manufacturing x wheelbarrows
per year.
b If the annual production is 6000 wheelbarrows, what is the overall cost per
wheelbarrow?
c How many wheelbarrows must be made so that the overall cost is $46 per
wheelbarrow?
d Wheelrite sells wheelbarrows to retailers for $80 each. Write a rule which
determines the revenue, $R, from the sale of x wheelbarrows to retailers.
e Sketch the graphs for C and R against x on the same axes.
f What is the minimum number of wheelbarrows that must be produced for Wheelrite
to make a profit each year?
g Write a rule which determines the profit, $P, from the manufacture and sale of x
number of wheelbarrows.

8 An electricity supply authority is offering customers a choice of two methods of paying

electricity bills. Method 1 involves payment annually and method 2 involves payment
each quarter (that is, every three months). The charges for each method are as follows:
Method 1 – per year Method 2 – per quarter
Fixed charge $100 Fixed charge $27.50
Price per unit $0.08125 Price per unit $0.075

a Suppose a customer used 1560 units of electricity in a year. Calculate which is the
cheaper method of payment.
b Copy and then complete the following table:

Number of units of electricity

0 1000 2000 3000
Cost ($) calculated by method 1
Cost ($) calculated by method 2

c If C1 is the cost by method 1, C2 is the cost by method 2, and x is the number of units
of electricity used in a year, write down the two formulas which show the cost of
x units calculated by each method.
d Use your calculator to find the number of units of electricity used in a year such that
the cost is the same for both methods.

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