@lly,0654577999

FUNCTION.
 @lly,0654577999

MASTER SIGNS OF AFUNCTION.

 implies

= equals to
≠ not equals’
Ɇ Not belongs
ϵ Belongs to/ element

[ ] square brackets
( ) parentheses
{ } curly bracket
< Greater than

> less than

≤ Greater than or equal
≥ Less than or equal
Ɐ For all, for every
± plus or minus
|| absolutely
XϵX (X belongs to X, X is member of X)

YϵY (Y belongs to Y, Y is member of Y)

f(x) function of X

⌈ ⌉ Succeeding to whole number

⌊ ⌋ Preceding to the whole number

Ǝ There exists

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Prepared and analysed by

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2023/2024

Contact: 0654577999

Mail: mesutally3@[Link]

Please for any errors or mistakes which will occur please do not hesitate to inform me for
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 Hope you will master well the function.

 Brightness your future

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PRINCIPLE OF CALCULUSS

FUNCTIONS

Is the relation between a set of inputs having one output each.

Types of functions

1. Linear function

A function that forms straight line when graphed.

E.g. f(x) = 2x

2. Quadratic functions; A function involve a squared term, often creating U-shaped graph.

E.g. f(x) =2x²

3. Polynomial function; General form with multiple terms involving variables raised to non-

negative integers

4. Exponential function; this involve a constant raised to a variable exponent.

Eg. F(x) = 2𝑥

5. Logarithmic function; the inverse of an exponential function, often written as log base of

x, (log x), e.g. f(x)= log x

6. Trigonometric function; involves trigonometric ratios like sine, cosine, and tangent. E.g.

f(x)= sin(x), f(x)= sin (2x)

7. Rational functions; ratio of two polynomials.

e.g. f(x)= 2x² + 1

2x

8. Absolutely value function; involves the absolutely value of a variable. E.g. f(x)= |x|

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FUNCTIONS.

Definition: let X and Y be sets

A function f: x → Y is an object that every YϵY we donate a function f:x →Y or f(x)= y

Example

X Y

a x
b y
c z

We call the element in X domains and elements in Y c-domain- or range

Example;

Given f(x) = 2x defining a function f: ℕ→ ℕ, Represent pictorially the first five element of
the function.

Solution.

f(x) = 2x ~ function

f: ℕ→ ℕ ~ Condition

f(x) = 2x
X Y
1 2
2 4
3 6
4 8
5 10

Definition; an assignment of values y to element xϵX is said to be well defined functions

f:x → y if it satisfies the following properties

a) Totality ⱯxϵX fy: f(x)=y

b) Existence ⱯxϵX, f(x)ϵy
c) Uniqueness: ⱯxϵX, there is only one y€y such that f(x)= y

Note: A function is totality if it is defined for all inputs of its corresponding type.

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Example; using a property of totality of a function8 discuss for, f(x)= x²

f(x)= x²

Let x= {1, 2, 3, 4}

f(x)= 1² 1

f(x)= 2² => 4

f(x)= 3² => 9

f(x)= 4² => 16

…f(x) = x² is totality since ⱯxϵX, f(x)= y

Try this: f(x) = sin X, f(x) = x² + 3, f(x) = , f(x) = 2x+3.

 Uniqueness of a function

Refer to the property that there is only one output (value) for each input on the function is
domain. If two different inputs produce the same output, the function is not considered
unique for those inputs.

Example.

f(x) =x2, for any given values of (x), there is a unique corresponding values of (f(x)).

Let.

X=1,2,3

f(1) =12 =>1

f(2) =22=>2

f(3) =32=>3

.‘.This function is unique since there is a unique corresponding values of (f(x)).

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 Existence of a function

A function is said to exist if and only if there exists one value in the range for every domain
value. That is to say ⱯxϵX, f(x)ϵY.

Example 1.

0n using properties of a well defined function, discuss the following functions.

1
(i) g:ℝ → ℝ defined by g(x) = 𝑥−1 ⋅

(ii) f:ℕ →ℕ by f(x) = n-1

Solution

g:ℝ → ℝ ~ Condition

1
g(x) = 𝑥−1 ⋅ ~ function

let x= 1, 2, 3 ϵℝ

1 1
g(1) = 1−1 = 0 => undefined

g(2) = 1⁄2 − 1 = 1

1
g(3) = 3−1 = 0.5

1
g:ℝ → ℝ defined by g(x) = 𝑥−1 is not well defined function as it does not satisfy the

properties of x=1

Definition: The identify function on a set x is denoted by ⅈ𝑋 is the function ⅈ𝑋 :x → x, ⱯxϵX,

f(x)= x this is to say the output of an identity function is the same as its input. For example
g(0)= 0 and g(2)= 2, g(x)= 1

Composition function for identity functions:

Definition; let X ,Y ,A, B be sets and let f:x→ y and g:A → B be functions then f is
identically equal to g denoted by f=g if the following conditions are satisfied.

 X=A
Y= B
 VxϵX, f(x) = g(x)

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Image and pre-image of a function

Image of a function: let x, y be sets and let f:x → y be functions

Given a set U≤X we define the range of U in Y denoted by f(v) to be subset of Y, given by

F(u)= {yϵY} fxϵU with f(x): y}

If U=X, the image of u in y is also called the range of f.

Example.

For f:ℝ→ℝ defined by f(x)= x²

Solution
Let; x= {1, 2, 3, 4}
f(1) = 1² => 1
f(2) = 2² => 4
f(3) = 3² => 9
f(4) = 4² => 16
therefore; the image of the function f(x) = x² are {1, 4, 9, 16}

Example 2

given f: 2 → ℕ by f(x) = |x|+1 illustrate the concept image

Solution

let; U= {-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3}

f(u)= {3, 2, 1, 4}

f(u)= (|x|+1) – substitute the values of u in the function

f(u)= {3, 2, 1, 4}

Using U ={-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3} we have (u)= {3, 2, 1, 4} which satisfies that f(u)= {yϵY} fxϵU;
f(x) = y}

pre-image

Definition; let x, y be sets and let f:x→ y be a function

Given a subsets V≤Y, we define the pre-image of V under f denoted by f(v) to be the subset
of x given by f(v) to be the subset of x given by f(v)= {(xϵx)/f(x)ϵv}

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 This is to say the pre-image of v is the set of all elements in X whose image are
number of v.

Example 04.

Let f:ℤ →ℤ with f(z)= |2𝑧 | ∀ℤ𝜖ℤ. Considering the pre-image of a few sets of V to verify the
image.

Solution

Let; V = 4ϵZ

f(z) = |2z|

4= |2z|

f(z) => 4 = |2z|

±4 = 2z

±2 = Z

f(v) = (-2, 2)

=>. If you let V= 6, 8ϵ2

They pre-images will be as follows

f(2) = |2z|

6 = |2z|

±6 = 2Z

Z = ±3

Z = (-3, +3)

8= |2Z|

±8 = 2Z

Z = ±4

Z = (-4, 4)

Therefore; f’(v) = {-4, -3, 3, 4}

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Note: Proposition.

Let x, y be sets and f:x→y be a function

i) U₁, U₂ ≤ X, then f(𝑈1 ∪ 𝑈2) = f(𝑈1 ) ∪ (𝑈2 )

ii) U₁, U₂ ≤ X, then f(𝑈1 ∩ 𝑈2 ) = f(𝑈1 ) ∩(𝑈2 )
iii) V₁, V₂ ≤ Y, then f’(𝑉1 ∪ 𝑉2 ) = f’(𝑉1) ∪ f’(𝑉2)
iv) V₁V₂ ≤ Y then f’(V₁∩V₂) = f’(𝑉1) ∩ f’(𝑉2)

Example 1.

f:ℕ →ℕ where f(n) = n-1 as n ≥ 2

Solution

Let; U₁ ={2, 3, 4, 5}

U₂ = {6, 7, 8}

U₁µU₂ = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}

f(n) = n – 1

if you substitute (U₁∪ U₂) to the function you will get the subsets of U₁ and U₂’

Eg. f(n) = n – 1

f(2) = 2-1 = 1………(i)

f(3) = 3 -1 = 2……..(ii)

f(4) = 4 -1 = 3……..(iii). And so on.

Therefor; f(𝑈1 ∪ 𝑈2 ) = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7}

Composition of function

Definition: let X, Y, Z be sets and let f:x → y and g:y→ z be function

We define composition

g°f: y → z to be the functions.

g of x by g.f(x) = g(f(x))
𝑥
Example: define f:ℕ → ℤ by f(x) = 2x and define g:z → Q by g(x) = 12 find g°f

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Solution
𝑥
f(x) = 2x, g(x) = 12

g°f = g(f(x))

2𝑥 𝑥
g°f : g(2x) = 12, g°f = 6

Therefore; let w, x, y, z be sets and let w→ x, g: x→ y and let y→ z be function then

hₒ(hₒg)ₒf.

Proof

To prove the theorem we read to show Ɐwϵw we have hₒ(gₒf)w = (hₒg)ₒ(w). Choose an
conditioner wϵW

Then, x= f(x) so xϵX

y= g(x) so yϵY

z= h(y) so zϵZ

hₒg(gₒf) = hₒ(gₒf(w))

= hₒ(g(x))

= zₒf(y)

Therefore, we have hₒ(gₒf)(w) = z = (hₒg) f(w)

Since we used an arbitrary w from w, therefore this equation is true Ɐwϵw hence (hₒg)f =
hₒ(gₒf).

Solution

f(x) = 2x, g(x) = x²

gₒf(x) = f(x) = (2x)

gₒf(x) = 4x²

fₒg(x) = f(x²) = 2(x²)

fₒg(x²) = 2x²

Therefore, fₒg(x²) = 2x². Then try for gₒf.

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INJECTIVITY AND SUBJECTIVITY OF FUNCTION

INJECTIVITY (ONE TO ONE)

Definition: Let x, y be sets and let f:x → y be a function, we say f is injective if Ɐx, x₂,ϵX,
f(x₁) = f(x₂) => x₁ = x₂ or if x₁, x₂ϵX, f(x₁) ≠ f(x₂) => x₁ ≠ x₂.

Where, Contrapositive statement

Ɐx₁, x₂ϵX, f(x₁) ≠ f(x₂) => x₁ = x₂

Contra negative statement

Ɐx₁, x₂ϵX, f(x₁) ≠ f(x₂) => x₁ ≠ x₂

Picture version

X= domain of f y = co-domain of f

X₁ f(x₁) any two distinct elements of x are sent to two distinct

X₂ f(x₂) element of y

How to show f is not injective (one to one).

 The negative of f is one to one 

Ɐx₁, x₂ϵX, if f(x₁) = f(x₂) then x₁ = x₂
F is not injective (one to one)
Ǝx₁, x₂ϵX, f(x₁) = f(x₂) and x₁ ≠ x₂

So to show f is NOT one to one, find an example of two different inputs where the outputs
are the same.

Which of the following is one to one (injective).

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Domain of f co-domain of f domain of G Co-domain of G

X F Y X Y

a v a u
b u b v
w w
c x c x
d y d y
yes! No!
show show
Ɐx₁, x₂ϵX, if (x₁) = f(x₂) then x₁ = x₂ Ǝx₁, x₁ϵX, f(x₁) = f(x₂) and x₁ ≠ x₂

Examples

Show that the function f:ℝ → ℝ defined by f(x) = 2x + 1 is injective.

Solution

Let x₁, x₂ϵℝ then f(x₁) = f(x₂)

Required; to show that x₁ = x₂

f(x₁) = 2x₁ + 1
f(x₂) = 2x₂ + 1
2x₁+1 = 2x₂+1
2x₁ = 2x₂+1-1
2x₁ = 2x₂
x₁ = x₂
Since, f(x₁) = f(x₂) => x₁ = x₂ then f is an injective function.
Example 2.
Prove f is injective (one to one)
Define function f:ℝ → ℝ, by f(x₁) = 2x – 1
Solution
Prove f is one to one.
Ɐx₁, x₂ϵX, if f(x₁) = f(x₂) then x₁ = x₂
Proof.

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Let a, bϵℝ where f(a) = f(b). I will shoe a=b

f(a) = f(b) => 2a – 1 = 2b – 1
 2a = 2b
 a. = b , therefore; is injective.
Example 3
Define the function f:ℤ →ℤ, by f(n) = n²

Prove f is not one to one by citing a counter example

Solution.

Notice that 1, -1ϵℤ

f(1) = (1)² => 1

f(-1) = (-1)² => 1

so f(1) = f(-1) and 1≠ -1

Therefore; f is not equal to one to one function.

Example 4.

Given g:ℝ →ℝ; g(x) = 𝑥 𝑛 – x, Ɐnϵℕ. discuss if g is an injective function

Solution

From; Vx₁, x₂ϵX, f(x₁) ≠ f(x₂) => x₁≠x₂

Let; x₁=o, x₂=1ϵℝ x₁≠x₂

Required: to show that g(x₁)≠g(x₂)

g(x₁) = g(0) = 0𝑛 − 0 = 0

g(x₂) =g(1) = 1𝑛 − 1 = 0

.´.since x₁≠x₂ but g(x₁) = g(x₂) then g is not injective.

Theorem: let x, y , z be sets, f:x →y, g:y→z be a functions, if g and f are injective functions
then gₒf is injective

Proposition; let x, y, z be sets, f:x→y, g:y→z be functions then gₒf is injective then f in
injective.

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Proof of the theorem above

Let f and g be injective

Required; to prove that gₒf is injective

Let x₁, xₒϵX having gₒf(x₁) = gₒf(x₂)

By definition.

g(f(x₁)) = g(f(x₂))

since g is injective function then f(x₁) = f(x₂), since f is injective then x₁=x₂, therefore
gₒf is injective

Ɐx₁, x₂ϵX, f(x₁) = f(x₂) => x₁=x₂

Example 1.

𝑥
Let f:ℕ →ℕ f(x) = 2x and g: ℕ→ℕ g(x) =⌈ 2 ⌉

i) show that gₒf is an injective function

ii) is fₒg an injective function

Solution

f(x) = 2x
𝑥
g(x) = ⌈ 2 ⌉

𝑥
gₒf = g(f(x)) = ⌈ 2 ⌉

gₒf = ⌈ 𝑥 ⌉ is an injective function.

Let x₁, x₂ϵℕ

g(x₁) = g(x₂) => x₁ = x₂

g(x₁) ≠ g(x₂) => x₁≠x₂

iii) fₒg = f(g(x))

𝑥
=>. 2 ⌈ 2 ⌉

=>. ⌈ 𝑥 ⌉

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.‘. fₒg = ⌈ 𝑥 ⌉ is an injective

Example 2.

Given f:ℕ→ℕ, f(x) = 2x+1 and g:ℝ→ℝ

g(x) = ⌊ 2𝑥 ⌋

a) show that gₒf is not injective function

b) discuss fₒg

Solution

a) gₒf = g(f(x))
= ⌊ 2(2𝑥 + 1) ⌋
gₒf = ⌊ 4𝑥 + 2 ⌋
let x₁=1, x₂=1.2
gₒf(1)= ⌊ 4(1) + 2 ⌋
= ⌊ 4 = 2 ⌋ =6
g(x₂) = ⌊ 4(1.2) + 2 ⌋
g(x₂) = ⌊ 6.8 ⌋ =>6

.‘. This is not injective function.

b) fₒg = f(g(x))
= 2⌊ 2𝑥 ⌋ + 1
fₒg = ⌊ 4𝑥 ⌋ + 1 is an injective function.

SURJECTIVITY. (on to)

Definition: let x, y be sets, f:x→y be functions
We say that f is surjective , if ⱯyϵY ƎxϵX: f(x)=y
Symbolically.
F is on 
ⱯyϵY, there exists a X in X so f(x)=y.
Equivalently, f(x) = y, or “the image of x is y”

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Picture version.
X=domain of f y= co-domain of f
ₒ F ₒ each element y in y equals f(x)
ₒ ₒ for at least one x in x
xₒ ₒ y=f(x)
ₒ ₒ

X=domain of f y= co-domain of f
F At least one element in y
ₒ ₒ does not equal f(x) for any
ₒ ₒ x in x
ₒ ₒ
ₒ

How to show f is not surjective.

 The negation of f is onto 
VxϵY, there exist a x in x so f(x) = y
…is
F is not on to 
ƎyϵY, for every x in x, f(x) ≠ y.
So, to show f is NOT on to,
Find an element y in y that is not in the range of F or show there is not a X whose image is
Y.
Which of the following is on to?

Domain of f co-domain of y domain of g co-domain of g

F G
1 a 1 a
2 b 2 b
3 c 3 c
4 d 4 d
5 5
No! yes!
Show show
ƎyϵY, for all xϵX, f(x) ≠ y ⱯyϵY, there exists xϵX so f(x) = y

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Example:

Prove f is surjective (on to)

Statement:

Define the function, f:ℝ→ℝ by f(x) = 2x – 1

Then f is surjective.

Solution

From, Ɐyϵℝ, there exist xϵℝ so f(x) = y

2x-1 = y

Let yϵℝ, 1 want f(x) = y, so what is x?

F(x) = y => 2x-1 = y

 2x = y+1
1
 X=2 (𝑦 + 1)

1
So 𝑥 = 2 (𝑦 + 1) notice xϵℝ. I will show f(x) = y.

1 1
f(x) = f(2 (𝑦 + 1)) = 2(2 (𝑦 + 1)) − 1

= (y+1)-1

f(x)= y

Example 2.

To show f is not on to.

Define the function f:ℤ→ℤ, by f(`n) = n²

Prove f is not on to by citing a counter example.

Solution
Counter example.
Define y=2. Because √2 is irrational, there is no interger n where n² = 2. So there is no nϵz
such that f(n) = 2

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Example 3.
𝑥
Given g:ℕ→ℕ g(x) = ⌈ 2 ⌉ discuss the surjective of a function.

Solution.
𝑥
g:ℕ→ℕ, g(x) = ⌈ 2 ⌉

let x = {1,2,3,4,5}ϵℕ
𝑥
y=⌈2⌉ substitute values of x in to the equation.

X → y

1 1
2
3 2
4
5 3
𝑥
.‘. g(x) = ⌈ 2 ⌉ is surjection since Ɐyϵy there is xϵX, f(x) = y

THEOREM: let x, y, z be sets, f:x→y, g:y→z be a functions. We say that if g and f are
surjective then gₒf is also surjective.
Proposition: let x, y, z be sets and let f:x→y, g:y→z be functions if gₒf is surjective then g is
surjective

BIJECTIVITY. (one to one correspondence)

Definition: let x, y be sets and let f:x→y be a function, we say that f is bijective if it is boyh
injective and surjective .
Proposition: let x, y be sets and let f:x→y be a function, then f is bijective if ⱯyϵyƎxϵx: f(x)=y
Theorem: let x,y,z be sets and let f:x→y, g:y→z be functions if g and f are bijective then gₒf is
bijective.
Example
𝑥
Given f:ℕ→ℕ, f(x)=2x, g:ℕ→ℕ, g(x) = ⌈ 2 ⌉, discuss the bijectivity of gₒf.

Solution.

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Note: the inner function should be injective and the outer function should be surjective for the
gₒf to be bijective.
So, test
f(x) – injective
g(x) – surjective
𝑥
f(x)= 2x, g(x)= ⌈ 2 ⌉

let x₁=2, x₂= 3ϵN

Required to show that x₁≠x₂ => f(x₁) ≠ f(x₂)
f(2) = 2×2 = 4
f(3) = 2×3 = 6
Since x₁≠x₂ => f(x₁) ≠ f(x₂) then f is injective
𝑥
g(x) = ⌈ 2 ⌉ we test for surjectivity

Let x={1,2,3,4,5}ϵℕ
1
X Y g(1)= ⌈ 2 ⌉= 1
2
1 1 g(2)= ⌈ 2 ⌉= 1
3
2 g(3)= ⌈ 2 ⌉ => ⌈ 1.5 ⌉= 2
4
3 2 g(4)= ⌈ 2 ⌉=> ⌈ 2 ⌉= 2
5
4 g(5)= ⌈ 2 ⌉=> ⌈ 2.5 ⌉= 3
5 3

since, ⱯyϵyƎxϵX : g(x) = y then g is a surjective function

gₒf = g(f(x))
2𝑥
=⌈ ⌉
2

= ⌈ 𝑥 ⌉= x.
gₒf is bijective because it is both injective and surjective.

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MONOTOMICITY OF A FUNCTION.
Monotomicity of a function refers to the change of value of a function in respect to domain.
=>. x₁, x₂ϵℝ if x₁<x₂ then f(x₁) < f(x₂)
Monotomicity increasing function.
 x₁, x₂ϵℝ; if x₁< x₂ and f(x₁) then, f is monotomicity decreasing function
 x₁, x₂ϵℝ; if x₁< x₂ and f(x₁) = f(x₂) = constant
Example.
f(x) = 0.5𝑥
consider table of value
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
F(x) 1 0.5 0.25 0.125 0.0625 0.0321 0.015
X= 0
f(x)= 1
x= 5, f(x)= 0.0312
.‘.Since f(x) > f(𝑥𝑛 ) then f is monotomic decreasing function

Example 2.
f(x)= 2𝑥
Consider the table of values.
X -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Y 0.25 0.5 1 2 4 8

.‘. Since f (𝑥𝑛 ) > 𝑓(𝑥𝑛 ) then is monotomic increasing.

Example 3
Given f(x) = 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1
X -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y 9 2 1 6 17 34

.‘.this is both monoatomic increase and monatomic decreasing.

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LIMITS OF A FUNCTION.
Consider the sketch below
Small ∆
L+E ……………….
L………… .
L-E …….
x
a-Ꟙ a a+Ꟙ small ∆

Definition: The function f is said to limit at x=a if gives €Ǝ8 depend upon a and ƎL€ℝ.
Where
ϵ- expsilone.
Ꟙ- delta
Limit (x) = L
x→ a
0 < |x-a| < Ꟙ=>|f(x)-L|<ϵ ϵ≠0
Example 1:
f(x) = 4x2 -2x + 1
Find the limit of f as x→ a
Solution
Lim f(x) = L if ƎꟘ such that x→ a
0<|x-a|<Ꟙ→| f(x)-L|<ϵ, ϵ≠0
Consider the table of values
x 1.8 1.9 1.99 2 2.01 2.1 2.2
F(x) 10.36 11.64 12.86 13 13.14 14.44 15.96

Lim f(x) = lim 4x²- 2x +1

x→a x→b
lim f=13
x→2
|12.86-13| = 0.14< E
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|13.14-13| = 0.14< E
.‘.f(x) = 4x² - 2x +1 as x→2 has the limit which is 13
Example 2.
𝑥 2 −1
Given f(x)= find the limit of f when x→0
2𝑥

Solution
𝑥 2 −1
Lim f(x) = 2𝑥
x→a
X -1 -0.99 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
y 0 0.01 2.4 4.9 ꝏ 0.1 -2.4 -1.5

| f(x) –L | < ϵ
| 4.95 – 2| 2.95 < ϵ
| -4.95- 2 | = 6.95 > ϵ
.‘.This function does not have the limit.
Properties of limits of function
if f(x) < g(x) => limit f(x) < lim g(x)
if f and g are defined in the interval which include “a” then
lim ( f(x) ± 𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑋) ± lim 𝑔(𝑥)
x→a x→a x→a
lim f(x). g(x) = lim f(x) . lim g(x)
x→a x→a x→a

Left hand limit.

Definition: a function f is said to tend to a limit L as x tend to c from the left if for each ϵ >
0Ǝ8> 0
| f(x) – L | < ϵ whenever C- Ꟙ < X< C
Symbolically
Lim f(x) = L
x→C−
Right hand limit.
Definition: a function is said to tend to a limit L as X tends to C from the right if for each ϵ >0
Ǝ, ϵ >0
| f(x) - L| < ϵ where never
C < X < C+Ꟙ
Symbolically

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Lim f(x) = L
X →C+
Example
Find the left and right hand limits of the function
|𝑥−4|
f(x) = { , x≠4
𝑥−4

0, x=4
Solution
Left limit
|𝑥−4|
Lim f(x) = 𝑙ⅈ𝑚 x= 3.99
𝑥−4
|3.99−4|
𝑙ⅈ𝑚 3.99−4
| 0.01|
𝑙ⅈ𝑚 𝑥→4− = -1
0.01

left hand limit,

|𝑥−4|
𝑙ⅈ𝑚𝑥→4− = -1
𝑥−4

from, right limit

|𝑥−4|
lim𝑥→4+ f(x) = 𝑙ⅈ𝑚 𝑥−4
𝑥−4
= 𝑙ⅈ𝑚
𝑥−4

= 𝑙ⅈ𝑚𝑥→4 1
=1
.‘.lim 𝑓(𝑥)𝑥→4− ≠ lim 𝑓(𝑥)𝑥→4+

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