ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM II

4th Electrical

Dr. Giddani Kalcon

1
 Contents
Power System Representation 3

Per Unit System 10

Symmetrical Faults 20

Symmetrical Components 31

Un symmetrical Faults 39

Neutral Grounding 48

Arc Extinction techniques 56

Switchgear and Circuit Breakers 62

Power System Protection (Brief Introduction) 72

References
1- Element of Power System Analysis by William Stevenson
2- ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM BY ASHFAG HUSSIEN
3- ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM BY [Link]
4- Principles of Power System by V K Mehta & Rohit Mehta

2
 Power System Representation
In general the electrical power system include three main components
1- Generation
2- Transmission
3- Distribuation

Form the figure of power system single line diagram the main componenets in
generation, transmission and distribuation are synchronous generator
(alternator), transformer, transmission line and loads.

3
It is very important for power system engineers to find simplified way to
represnet the electrical power system in order to study:
A. Power load flow
B. Fault calculation
C. Stability investigation

Alternators
Alternators are the primary source of all electrical energy we consume. They
convert the mechanical energy into AC electrical energy. The alternator operate
on the same fundemental principle of electromagntical induction as DC
generator. An alternator also has an armature winding and field winding.

When the load on the alternator is increased and the field excitation and speed
kept constant, the terminal voltage of the alternator decreases. This due to:
(i) Voltage drop IaRa where Ra is the armature resistance per phase.
(ii) Voltage drop IaXL where XL is the armature reactance per phase
(iii) Voltage drop due to armature reactance.

4
TRANFORMER

V1  V2'  I1'  R1  R2'   j  X 1  X 2' 

Loads
The loads are represented using series resistance and reactance for
lagging load or series resistance and capacitance for leading load.
R L
I

V
Lagging power factor load
The current in lagging load are calculated as follow
P  jQ
I* 
V
5
 R c
I

V
Leading power factor load
The current in leading load are calculated as follow
P  jQ
I* 
V
Representation of power system
There are three method to represent the power system
1- One line diagram
2- Impedance diagram
3- Reactance diagram

The one line diagram

Since the balanced 3-phase system is always solved as single phase circuit composed
of one of the three lines and neutral return, it seldom necessary to show more than
one phase and the neutral return when drawing a diagram of the circuit.
Often the diagram is simplified further by omitting the completed circuit through the
neutral and by indicating the component parts by standard symbols rather than by
their equivalent circuit. Such a simplified diagram of an electric system is called one
line diagram. It indicates by a single line and standard symbols the transmission lines
and associated apparatus of an electric system.
The purpose of one line diagram is to supply in concise form the significant
information about the system.
The information found on a one line diagram must be expected to vary according to
the problem at hand and according to the practice of the particular company preparing
the diagram. For example the location of circuit breakers and relays in unimportant in
carry-out load flow study.

6
On the other hand determination of the stability of a system under transient
conditions resulting from a fault depends on the speed with which relays and circuit
breakers operate to isolate the faulted part of the system. Therefore, information
about the relays and circuit breakers may be extreme important.
The standard symbol to designate a 3-phase Y with neutral solidly grounded is as
follow:

Figure 2 is the one line diagram of a very simple power system. Two generators, one
grounded through a reactor and one through a resisor are connected to a bus and
through step up transformer to a transmission. Another generator grounded through a
reactor is connected to a bus and through a transformer to the opposite end of the
transmission line. A load is connected to each bus

7
The impedance diagram
In order to calculate the performance of a system under load conditions or upon the
occurrence of short circuit, the one line diagram must be converted into an impedance
diagram showing the equivalent circuit of each components of the system referred to
the same side of one of the transformers.
Figure 3 is the detailed impedance diagram of the system shown in figure 2. The
equivalent circuit of the transmission line is represented with nominal  having total
resistance and inductive reactance of the line in its series arm and total capacitance to
neutral divided between its shunt arms. Resistance, leakage reactance and
magnetizing circuit are shown for each transformer. A generated voltage in series
with resistance and reactance represents each generator. If load study it to be carry-
out loads A and B are represented by resistance and reactance in series.

The reactance diagram

Since the magnetizing current of transformer is usually small compare to the full load
current, the shunt admittance is usually neglected in the equivalent circuit of the
transformer. In transmission line the value of charging current is very small compared
to the load current, therefore it common practice to neglect the charge current and
omit the shunt arms of transmission lines. In general all static loads, all resistances,
the magnetizing currents of transformers and the charging currents of transmission
lines are neglected and the impedance diagram is converted into reactance diagram as
shown below. Of course omission of resistance introduces some error but the results
may be satisfactory since the inductive reactance of the system is much larger than its
resistance

8
9
 PER UNIT SYSTEM
Power system quantities such as current, voltage, impedance and power are often
expressed in per-unit values. For example if base voltage is 220KV than the voltage
of 210KV is 210/220=0.954pu.
Voltage, current and impedance are related that selection of base values for any two
of them determines the base for remaining two. If we specify the base values of
current and voltage, the base impedance and base KVA can be determined.
Usually base MVA and voltage in KV are the quantities selected to specify the base
actual value
Per unit=
base value
kV b2
Zb 
MVAb
actual X actual V
X pu = V pu =
Zb Vb
P  jQ actual
P  jQ  pu =
MVAb
P  jQ  pu
I *pu =
V pu
MVAb
Ib 
3kVb
I actual  I pu  I b

Advantages
1- The equivalent circuit of transformer is simplified. When expressed in per-unit
values, the equivalent impedance of transformer whether to refer to primary or
secondary is the same.
2- The calculation is simple in per-unit value
3- The comparison of various electrical apparatus of different types and rating is
facilitated by expressing the impedances in per-unit based on their rating
4- When all quantities are converted in per-unit values, the different voltage levels
disappear and power network involving synchronous generators, transformer and
lines reduces to a system of simple impedances.
10
5- Manufacturers usually specify the impedance of apparatus in percent or per-unit
on the base of the apparatus rating.

Three parts of a single phase electric system are designed A, B and C and are
connected to each other through transformers as shown below. The transformers are
rated as follow:

If the base in circuit B is chosen as 10000 KVA and 138 KV. Find the per-unit
impedance of the 300 load in circuit C referred to circuits C, B and A. Draw the
impedance diagram neglecting magnetizing current, transformer resistance and line
impedance.

Circuit C Circuit B Circuit A

1
R  300 R  300  4  1200 R  300  4   12
100
692 1382 13.82
Zb   476 Zb   1900 Zb   19
10 10 10
300 1200 12
Zpu = =0.63pu Z pu   0.63 pu Z pu   0.63 pu
476 1900 19
The impedance diagram shown below illustrates the advantage of per-unit system
regarding the simplification of the circuit and cancellation of different voltages levels.

11
EX: Synchronous generator is supplies synchronous motors and load as shown
in Fig.1. Using 100MVA and 33KV as base in load side:
a) Draw the reactance diagram.
b) Find the EMF of the synchronous generator.

G T1 T2
TL

j34.48 ohm
Load data
100MVA 100MVA 100MVA
80+j30 MVA, 30kV
11kV, 10% 11/132kV 132/33kV
12% 8%
Load side
30 80  j 30
V pu   0.91 (P+jQ) pu =  0.8  j 0.3
33 100
P  jQ 0.8  j 0.3
I*    0.879  j 0.33 I  0.879  j 0.33
V 0.91
1322 34.48
Zb   174.24 X pu TL   0.2
100 174.24

j0.1 j0.12 j0.2 j0.08

L
Xt=j0.5 O
V=0.91 A
D

E pu  V  jX t .I  0.91  j 0.5  0.879  j 0.33  0.91  j 0.439  0.165

E pu  1.075  j 0.439  1.1622.2
E pu  11  1.1622.2  12.7622.2
100  106
Ib   5248 Amp I  0.879  j 0.33  0.93920.5
3  11  103
I actual  0.939  5248  4927 Amp

Changing of old reactance for new bases

2
 MVA b-new   kVbold 
X pu new  X pu old    
 MVA b-old   kVbnew 
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For the transformer below the new reactance based on 10MVA and 125Kv is
2
150  132 
X pu  new  0.08     0.134
100  125 
T2
Vb= 125kV Vb= 31.25kV

150MVA
132/33kV
8%
EX: Synchronous generator is supplies synchronous motors and load as shown
in Fig.1. Using 100MVA and 33KV as base in load side:
a) Draw the reactance diagram. b) Find the EMF of the generator.
30MVA
30kV, 10%
M1
0.8 pf lag
G T1 T2
TL

j30 ohm
100MVA 120MVA 150MVA
22kV, 15% 22/132kV 132/33kV Load data
10% 9% 40+j10 MVA, 30kV

Load side
30 24  j18
V pu   0.91 (P+jQ) pu 1 =  0.24  j 0.18
33 100
0.24  j 0.18
I *pu 1   0.264  j 0.198 I pu 1  0.264  j 0.198
0.91
40  j10 0.4  j 0.1
(P+jQ) pu 2 =  0.4  j 0.1 I *pu 2   0.44  j 0.11
100 0.91
I pu 2  0.44  j 0.11 I pu t  0.704  j 0.308
1322 30
Zb   174.24 X pu TL   0.172
100 174.24
2 2
100  22  100  22 
X G  0.15    0.15 X T 1  0.1    0.083
100  22  120  22 
2
100 132 
XT 2  0.09    0.06
150 132 

13
 j0.15 j0.083 j0.172 j0.06

L
Xt=j0.465 O
V=0.91 A
D

E pu  V  jX t .I  0.91  j 0.465  0.704  j 0.308  0.91  j 0.327  0.143

E pu  1.053  j 0.327  1.10317.25
E pu  22  1.10317.25  24.2617.25
100  106
Ib   2624 Amp I  0.704  j 0.308  0.76823.5
3  22  103
I actual  0.768  2624  2015 Amp

Bus Admittance Matrix

In order to obtain the bus voltage equations, consider the sample 4-bus power system
as shown below.

The admittance diagram of the mentioned system is shown below. The voltage
sources are transformed to current sources as shown

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15
Example

E=1.5<0° 1
1- Find bus addmitance

J0.2 2- Find bus voltages

J1.15 J0.1
2 J0.25 4
E=1.5<-36.9°
J0.125

J1.15 J0.1
J0.4
E=1.5<0° 3
J0.2

J1.15 J0.1

16
 1.50 1.5  36.9
I1  I3   0  j1.2 pu I2   0.72  j 0.96 pu
j1.25 j1.25
 0  j1.2    j9.8 0 j4 j5  V1  V1  1.441  j 0.2668  1.436  10.71 
0.72  j 0.96  0  j8.3 j 2.5 j 5  V  V  1.383  j 0.3508  1.427  14.27 
   2 & 2   
 0  j1.2   j 4 j 2.5  j18.3 j8  V3  V3  1.406  j 0.2824  1.434  11.36
        
 0   j5 j5 j8  j18 V4  V4  1.400  j 0.2971  1.432  11.97 

-j0.8
1

0-j1.2 -j5
-j0.8 -j4 4
2
-j8

0.72-j0.96
-j2.5 -j5
-j0.8
3

0-j1.2

17
 Tutorial (1)
Q1: Two generators are connected in parallel to the same bus and have sub-transient
reactance of 10%. Generator 1 is rated 2500 KVA and 2.4 KV and generator 2 is
rated 5000 KVA and 2.4KV. Find the per-unit reactance of each transformer on
15000KVA and 2.4KV. What is the per-unit reactance of a single generator
equivalent to the two generators in parallel on 15000 KVA and 2.4 KV?
Q2: Synchronous generator is supplies synchronous motors and load as shown in
Fig.1. Using 100MVA and 33KV as base in load side:
a) Draw the reactance diagram.
b) Find the EMF of the synchronous generator.
30 MVA
30 kV
M1
0.8 pf lag
G T1 T2
60 MVA
TL
30 kV
M1
0.85 pf lead
j60 ohm
100MVA 120MVA 150MVA
11kV, 15% 13.8/132kV 132/33kV Load data
10% 33kV, 8% 80+j20 MVA, 30kV
Q3: Synchronous generator (15Kv, 20%, 75MVA) supplies tow induction motor
through step up transformer (11/33Kv, 20%, 80MVA) and transmission line (25+ j75
ohms). The first motor consume 16MW and the second motor consume 24MW
Using 100MVA and 33KV as base in load side:
a) Draw the reactance diagram.
b) Find the EMF of the synchronous generator.
Q4: Find the voltages at Buses (E1=1.20º and E2=1.2-36.9º)

18
Q5: draw the reactance diagram for the power system shown below. Use a base of
50000 KVA and 138 KV. The rating of the generators, motors and transformers are:

19
 Symmetrical Faults

Under normal conditions, a power system operates under balanced conditions

with all equipments carrying normal load currents and the bus voltage within
the nominal value. The condition can be disrupted due to a fault in the system.
A fault in a circuit is a failure that interferes with the normal flow of current.
The cause of electric power system faults is insulation breakdown. This
breakdown can be due to a variety of different factors such as: Lightning,
animals or plants coming in contact with the wires. The excessive value of fault
currents causes equipment damage due to both thermal and mechanical
processes.
The information gained from fault studies are used for proper relay setting and
coordination. The 3-phase balanced fault information is used to select and set
the phase relay, while the line to ground fault is used to for ground relays. Fault
studies are also used to obtain the rating of the protective switchgears.
The short circuit faults are classified to:
 Symmetrical faults
 unsymmetrical faults
The symmetrical faults occur when all the three conductors of the 3-phase line
are brought together simultaneously in short circuit condition as shown below.

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Most of the faults occur on power systems are unsymmetrical faults which may
consist of unsymmetrical short circuits, unsymmetrical faults through
impedance or open conductors. The types of unsymmetrical faults are: line to
ground fault (L-G), line to line fault (L-L) and double line to ground faults (L-
L-G).

In synchronous machines the flux across the air gap is not the same at the
instant the short circuit occurs as it is a few cycles later. The variations of flux
density effect the machine reactance which is varies significantly if fault
occurs. The maximum value of machine reactance when the machine at steady
state and known as steady state reactance (Xd). When the fault occur the
machine reactance has minimum value known as sub-transient reactance (Xd'')
and last after few cycles. The machine reactance after few cycles fall to lower
value known as transient reactance (Xd') and last for longer time compared to
sub-transient period.

21
Fault Calculation
If fault occur in the system below than the fault current is:
E ( pu )
I F ( pu )  X t equivlant reactance between the fault point and the generator
X t ( pu )

G T1 T2
TL

fault load

MVAb  103
actuaI fault current is F ( actual )  I F ( pu )  I b  I F ( pu )
3kVb
MVAb
Short circuit MVA is MVASC 
X t ( pu )
Example:
Find the fault current if a fault occurs at F1, F2 and F3 based on 15MVA and
11Kv AT generator side

T
10MVA TL
11kV, 10%
F1 F2 5+j20 ohm F3
load
15MVA
11/33kV
5MVA 6%
11kV, 7.5%

22
change reactance to 15MVA
15 11 15 11
X g1 =0.1× × =0.15 X g 2  0.075    0.225
10 11 5 11
0.15  0.225
X g1 / /X g2   0.09
0.15  0.225
15 11 332 5  j 20
XT =0.06× × =0.06=0.06 ZbTL   72.6 ZTL  pu   0.0688  j 0.275
15 11 15 72.6

j 0.09 j 0.06 0.0688+j0.275

IF1 IF2 I F3

1.0 1.0 1.0

IF1 = =-j11.11pu IF 2 = =-j6.66pu IF 3 = =-j2.32pu
j 0.09 j 0.15 j 0.4309
15 103 15 103 15 103
Ib = =787.31A Ib = =262.44A Ib = =262.44A
3 11 3  33 3  33
I F 1actual =-j11.11 787.3=8748A I F 1 actual =-j6.66  262.44=1750A I F 1 actual =-j2.32  262.44=609A
15 15 15
MVASC = =166.67MVA MVA SC   100 MVA MVA SC   34.8MVA
0.09 0.15 0.4309
Using of Thevinen Equivalent for Fault Calculation

Sometime it is necessary to get Thevinen equivalent for fault calculation

Ethevinen ( pu )
I F ( pu ) 
X thevinen ( pu )
X thevinen equivlant thevinen reactance of circuit Ethevinen equivlant thevinen voltage of circuit
B1 T1 T2 B2
TL
M1
j60 ohm F
20MVA 20MVA 20MVA 20MVA
12.66kV, 12.66/66kV 66/12.66kV 12.66kV,
15% 10% 10% 15%
Motor drawing 10MW at 0.8 leading power factor and terminal voltage of 11kV
when a symmetrical fault occur at B2. find fault current

23
Current Limiting Reactors
The short current is large enough to do considerable damage mechanically and
thermally. The interruption capacities of circuit breakers to handle such current
would be very large. To reduce this fault current artificial reactance are
sometime connected between bus sections. The locations of connecting the
limiting reactors are:

24
 1- In series with generator (Generator reactors)
2- In series with feeder (Feeder reactors)
3- Between bus bars (Bus bar reactors)

Example: station has two alternators of 3000KVA and 4500KVA and reactance's
of 7% and 8% respectively. The circuit breaker has capacity of 150MVA. It is
desired to extend the system by a supply from the grid via transformer of
7500MVA and 7.5% reactance. Find the limiting reactor to be connected in bus-
bar section to prevent the circuit breaker being overloaded, if fault occur on the
outgoing feeder connected to it. Assume the bus voltage is 3300V.

25
Fault calculation using [Z] bus matrix

26
27
EXAMPLE: 3-phase symmetrical fault occur with fault impedance of
Zf=0.16pu at but 3 in the network shown below. Using the bud impedance
matrix method compute the fault current, the bus voltage and the currents
during the fault period.

28
29
 Tutorial 2
1- Calculate the symmterical fault if the fault occur at the high voltage side
of the transformer.

2- 3- Phase transmission line operating at 10KV and has resistance of 1

and reactance of 4 is connected to generator through 5MVA step up
transformer of 5% reactance. The generator is 10MVA and
10%reactance. Calculate the fault current and MVA short circuit if the
fault occur at:
a) The end of transmission line
b) The end of high voltage terminal of transformer

3- Find the fault current if the symmetrical fault occurs in the mid of the
line. Use 100MVA and 33KV as base on generator side.
G T1 T2
TL
M2
j60 ohm
100MVA 120MVA 110MVA 40MVA
33kV, 15% 33/132kV 132/33kV 33kV, 12%
33kV, 10% 33kV, 8%

Find fault current if fault occur in the mid of transmission line

30
 Symmetrical Components
The symmetrical system is three phase system with equal magnitude and 120º
phase difference between phases. VA=1200º, VA=120120º and VA=120-
120º are symmetrical system.
The unsymmetrical system is three phase system with unequal magnitude and
phase difference between phases not equal to 120º. VA=1030º, VA=12130º
and VA=39-60º are symmetrical system

The symmetrical components are used to analysis the faults in unsymmetrical

systems
Fortesecue Theory
Any unsymmetrical system can be represented using three set of symmetrical
system known as positive, negative and zero sequence sets.
Positive Sequence Sets: The positive sequence sets are three phase
currents/voltages with equal magnitude, with phase b lagging phase a by 120°,
and phase c lagging phase b by 120°. The sequence is abc.

31
Negative Sequence Sets: The positive sequence sets have three phase
currents/voltages with equal magnitude, with phase b leading phase a by 120°,
and phase c leading phase b by 120°. The sequence is acb.

Zero Sequence Sets: Zero sequence sets have three values with equal
magnitude and angle.

The unsymmetrical system can be represents with symmetrical components as

shown below.

32
The operator (a) indicate the rotation of 120º

Referring to sequences sets

Representing in above matrix

Va  1 1  1  1 1 1  Va 0 
V   V 1  V  a 2   V  a   1 a 2 a  V 
 b  a 0   a1   a 2      a1 
Vc  1 a 
   a  1 a a  V 
2 2
 a2 
Therefore
Va  1 1 1  Va 0  Va 0  1 1 1  Va 
V   1 a 2 a  V  and V   1 1 a a 2  V 
 b    a1   a1 
3  b
Vc  1 a a  Va 2
2     1 a a  Vc 
2
  Va 2   
And

 I a  1 1 1   I a 0   Ia0  1 1 1   I a 
 I   1 a 2 a   I    1 
and  I a1   1 a a 2   I b 
 b    a1   
 I c  1 a a   I a 2   I  3 1 a 2 a   I 
 c 
2
   a2  

33
EXAMPLES

SEQUENCE NETWORKS
The generated voltages are of positive sequence only, since the generator is designed
to supply balanced three phase voltages. Therefore the positive sequence network is
composed of an emf in series with the positive sequence impedance of the generator.

34
The negative sequence networks contain no emf but include the impedances of the
generator negative currents.

The zero sequence networks contain no emf but include the impedances of the
generator zero sequence currents.

Transformer zero sequence connection

35
Generator zero sequence depend on the connection as follow:

36
Example: draw the positive, negative and zero sequences networks of the system
below.

37
 TUTORIAL 3
1- Find the symmetrical components of the following voltages

2- Obtain the original unbalanced phase currents of the following symmetrical

components.

3- Draw the positive, negative and zero sequences networks of the system below
if the fault occur in B2.

4- Draw the zero sequences networks of the system below.

5- Draw the zero sequences networks of the system below.

38
 Unsymmetrical Faults
Single line to ground fault (L-G Fault)
The circuit diagram for single to ground fault in unload star connected
generator with it neutral grounded through reactance is shown below.

If fault occur in line a then, the conditions at the fault are expressed by the
following equations:

39
The connection of the sequence networks is shown below. the diagram is convenient
means of remembering the equations for the solution of single line to ground fault. If
the neutral of the generator is not grounded the zero sequence networks is open
circuit and Z0 is infinite. The positive sequence current will be zero

Example: 20MVA, 13.8KV generator has positive impedance of 0.25 per unit. The
negative and zero sequence reactance are 0.1 and 0.35 per units. The generator is
solid grounded. Determine the fault current and line voltages when single line to
ground fault occurs at the generator terminals with generator operating unloaded at
rated voltage. Use a base of 20MVA and 13.8V
E 1.0  j 0.0
I a1     j1.43 pu
Z 0  Z1  Z 2 j 0.25  j 0.35  j 0.1

I f  3* I a 0  3*  j1.43  4.29 pu
20000
Ib   836 Amp
3  13.8
I f actual  836  4.29  3585 Amp

40
LINE TO LINE FAULT (L-LFAULT)
The circuit for line to line fault on an unloaded star connected generator is shown
with fault on phases b and c.

41
The zero sequence network is not enter in the equation, while the positive and
negative sequence networks must be in parallel since Va1=Va2. The parallel
connection of the positive and negative sequence networks without the zero sequence
network makes Ia1=-[Link] connection of sequence networks for line to line fault is
shown below.

42
Example: 20MVA, 13.8KV generator has positive impedance of 0.25 per unit. The
negative and zero sequence reactance are 0.1 and 0.35 per units. The generator is
solid grounded. Determine the fault current and line voltages when line to line fault
occurs at the generator terminals with generator operating unloaded at rated voltage.
Use a base of 20MVA and 13.8V

43
Double line to ground fault (L-L-G)
Circuit diagram for double line to ground fault is

The conditions at the faults are

44
The sequence networks are connected in parallel as shown

Example: 20MVA, 13.8KV generator has positive impedance of 0.25 per unit. The
negative and zero sequence reactance are 0.1 and 0.35 per units. The generator is
solid grounded. Determine the fault current and line voltages when double line to
ground fault occurs at the generator terminals with generator operating unloaded at
rated voltage. Use a base of 20MVA and 13.8V

45
 Unsymmetrical fault calculation in power system
Find line to ground fault calculation in system below

M1
5 MVA
600V
G T X1= 20%,X2= 20%,X0=4%
7.5MVA
Xn=2%
4.16kV
X1= 10%,X2= 10%,X0=5%
Xn=2% 5 MVA
10 MVA 600V
4.16KV/600V X1= 20%,X2= 20%,X0=4%
5%
M2

base 7.5MVA, 4.16kV (Generator side)

motor reactances transformer reactances generator reactance
7.5 10 7.5
X1  X 2  0.2  0.3 X1  X 2  X 0  0.05  0.1 X1  X 2  0.1  0.1
5 5 7.5
7.5 7.5
X 0 =0.04 =0.06 X0  0.05  0.05
5 7.55
7.5 7.5
X n  0.02  0.03 Xn  0.02  0.02
5 7.5

46
 X1=0.12
XG1=0.1 XM1=0.3 XM1=0.3
XT1=0.1

XG2=0.1 X2=0.12
XM2=0.3 XM2=0.3
XT2=0.1

Xgo+3Xn=0.05+ X0=0.15
XM0+3Xn=
0.06=0.11 XM1=0.3 0.06+0.09
XTo=0.1 =0.15

If

47
 Nuetral grounding

The grounding may be classified into:

 Equipment grounding
 Nuetral grounding
Equipment grounding deal with grounding of non-current carrying metal parts of the
electrical equipment. On the other hand nuetral grounding mean grounding of some
part of electrical system e.g. nuetral point of star connected system.
Neutral grounding
The process of connecting some electrical part of power system e.g. such as neutral
point to the ground in known as neutral grounding.

Ungrounded neutral system

In ungrounded neutral system the neutral is not connected to the ground as shown in
figure below.

Circuit behaviour under normal condition:

The capacitances of equal value CR=CY=CB=C. Since the phase voltages have the
same value magnitude and displaced by 120.

48
Circuit behaviour under single line to ground fault:
Suppose line to ground fault occur in line B.

When single line to ground fault occurs on ungrounded system the following effects
are produced:
i) The potential of the faulty phase become equal to ground potential. The voltages of
the two remaining healthy phase rise from their normal phase voltage to full line
voltage.
ii) The capacitive current in the two healthy phases increase by 3 times the normal
value.
49
iii) The capacitive fault current (IC) become 3 time the normal per phase capacitive
current.
iv) The capacitive fault current is small in magnitude and cannot operate protection
devices
v) Production of arcing phenomena
The following are advantages of neutral grounding
a) Voltages of the healthy phases do not exceed line to ground voltage
b) The high voltage due to arcing are eliminated
c) Earth protective relay can be used to provide protection against earth fault
d) The lighting overvoltage discharge to earth
e) It provide greater safety to personal and equipment
f) No arcing phenomenon
g) Improve system reliability
Methods of Neutral grounding
The common methods used for Neutral grounding are:
1. Solid grounding 2. Resistance grounding
3. Reactance grounding 4. Arc suppression coil grounding
5. Grounding Transformer
Solid ground
When the neutral point of a 3phase system is directly connected to the ground
through wire of negligible resistance and reactance it is called solid grounding. The
figure below shows solid ground system. Under fault conditions the voltage of any
conductor to earth will not exceed the normal phase voltage of the system.

50
The advantages of solid ground system are
1- The neutral held at earth potential
2- It facilitate protection of system against earth faults
3- The resultant capacitive current IC is in phase opposition to the fault current IF.
The two current completely cancel each other and no arcing ground occur.
Disadvantages
1- Since most of the faults are phase to earth faults, the system has to bear large
number of serve shocks. This causes the system to become unstable.
2- The solid ground result in heavy earth fault current which may burn the circuit
breaker eliminating the fault.
3- The high earth fault current result in interference with neighbouring networks.
Application: uses where ground resistance is so high to keep the earth fault at safe
value. Used for voltages between up to 33KV with power source capacity not to
exceed 5000KVA.
Resistance grounding

Resistance grounding has been used in three-phase industrial applications for many
years and it resolves many of the problems associated with solidly grounded and
ungrounded systems. Resistance Grounding Systems limits the phase-to-ground fault
currents. The main reasons for limiting the phase to ground fault current by resistance
grounding are:
1. To reduce burning and melting effects in faulted electrical equipment like
switchgear, transformers, cables, and rotating machines.
2. To reduce mechanical stresses in circuits/Equipments carrying fault currents.
3. To reduce electrical-shock hazards to personnel caused by stray ground fault.
4. To reduce the momentary line-voltage dip.
5. To secure control of the transient over-voltages while at the same time.
6. To improve the detection of the earth fault in a power system.
Grounding Resistors are generally connected between the ground and the neutral
point.

51
Advantages
1) By adjusting the value of R the arcing grounds can be minimised. The fault
current IF leg behind the phase voltage be angle  and can be resolved into:

If the value of resistance R is adjusted that IF2=IC, the arcing ground is

eliminated and the operation of the system becomes that of solidly grounded
system.

2) The earth fault current is small due to the presence of earthing resistance.
Therefore the interface with communication circuits is reduced.
3) Improve the stability of the system.
Application: used on system operating at voltages between 2.2KV and 33KV with
power source capacity more than 50000KVA.

Reactance grounding
In this system, a reactance is inserted between the neutral and ground as shown in
figure below. The purpose of the reactance is to limit the earth fault current.
Changing of reactance value will change the fault current. This method is not used
these days because of

52
 a) The fault current required to operate the protection system is higher than that
required for resistance grounding for the same fault conditions
b) High transient voltage appear under voltage conditions

Arc suppression coil grounding

The capacitive currents are responsible for producing grounds. These capacitance
currents flow because capacitance exists between each line and earth. If inductance L
of appropriate value is connected in parallel with the capacitance of the system, the
fault current flowing through L will be in phase opposition to capacitive current IC of
the system. If L is adjusted that IL=IC, than the resultant current will be zero. This
condition is known as resonant grounding. The Peterson coil has the advantage of
preventing any damage by an arcing ground. The disadvantages of suppression coil
are:
1) The Peterson coil need adjustment due to the variation of system capacitance
2) The line should be transposed

53
Consider a Petersen coil connected between the star point of the transformer and
earth with inductive reactance L. Then the current flowing through it is given by:

To obtain an effective cancellation of the capacitive charging currents, the current

flowing in the coil (IL) should equalize the capacitance current (IC).

Example: 33 KV, 3-phase, 50Hz, over head line 50km long has a capacitance to earth
line of 0.019µF per km. Determine the inductance and KVA rating of the arc
suppression coil.

Creating an artificial neutral in an ungrounded system

In some cases it is required to create a neutral reference for an ungrounded system.
Most instances involve existing ungrounded systems which are being upgraded to
high-resistance grounding. The existence of multiple transformers and/or delta-
wound generators may make the replacement of this equipment economically
unfeasible.

54
The solution is a grounding transformer. Although several different configurations
exist, by far the most popular in commercial and industrial system is the zig-zag
transformer arrangement.
The zig-zag transformer will only pass ground current, its typical implementation on
an ungrounded system, in order to convert the system to a high-resistance grounded
system, is shown.

55
 Arc Extinction and Transient Recovery Voltag

If short circuit occurs in the system the CB opened its contacts to eliminate the fault.
Whenever the contacts separated from each other the circuit is not breaked
immediately as excessive arc is drawn between the contacts which will continue for
some time.
Formation of the an arc
Under faulty conditions heavy currrent flows throught the contacts of the CB before
they are opened. As soon as the contacts start separating, the area of contact decrease
which will increase the currrent density and rise in the temperture. The meduim
beteewn the contacts of CB may be air or oil. The heat which produced in the
medium is sufficienr enough to innoise air or oil which will act as conductor and an
arc is established between the contacts. The voltage between the cotacts is sufficient
to miantain the arc. As long as the arc remians between the contacts the circuit is said
to be uninterrupted.

Arc Extinction
There are two methods of extinguishing the arc in CB which are:
a) High resistance method
b) Low resistance or current zero method

High reistance method

In High reistance method the arc resistance increase with the time. This will reduce
the current to such value will be insufficient to maintain the arc. Thus the current is
interrupted and the arc is extiguished. This method is used in DC circuit breakers.
The resistance of the arc is increased by.

a) Arc lengthening using arc runners

b) Spilliting of the arc in arc spilliters
c) Cooling of the arc using CB insulation medium
d) Reduce the cross section of the arc

56
Low resistance or current zero interruption
This method uses with AC circuit breakers. At every current zero point the arc the arc
vanishes for brief moment. The arc appears again with the rising current wave. At
current zero the space between the contacts is deionized quickly by introducing fresh
unionized medium such as oil, air or SF6 between the contacts. The dielectric
strength of the contacts space increases to such an extent that the arc does not
continue after current zero. High voltage may appear across the contact. Thee voltage
may re-strike the arc again if the dielectric strength of the gap is less than re-striking
voltage.
Arc Interruption Theories
Slepian Theory: Slepian describe the arc extinction as race between dielectric
strength and re-striking voltage. After CB contact separate if the dielectric strength is
builds up rapidly so that it is always greater than the re-striking voltage the arc will be
extinguished. If dielectric strength is less the arc re-strike.
The theory assumes that build up of dielectric strength and re-striking voltage are
comparable quantities and this assumption is true. Secondly the theory neglects the
energy relation in the arc extinction.

Energy Balance Theory: Cassie made the following assumptions in his energy
balance theory:
1) Arc consists of cylindrical column at constant temperature with uniform
distribution of energy in this column.
2) The temperature remains constant
3) The cross section of the arc adjusts itself to accommodates the arc current
4) Power dissipation is proportional to arc cross section of the arc column

57
The energy equation is

The breakdown occurs if power feed in the arc is more than power loss.
Transient recovery voltage
The transient recovery voltage appears after the final interruption of the arc. This
causes high dielectric stress between the contacts. If dielectric strength of the
medium between the contacts does not build up faster than the rate of rise of the
transient recovery voltage than the breakdown takes place which will causes re-
striking of the arc. Thus it is very important that the dielectric strength of the
contact space must build up very rapidly that the rate of rise of transient recovery
voltage so that the interruption of current occurs successfully.

Transient recovery voltage has power frequency component and oscillatory transient
component. The oscillatory transient component appears due to the inductance and
capacitance of the circuit. The oscillatory transient frequency is defined as:

58
Derivation of Transient Recovery Voltage
Consider the simple circuit shown below where fault current is occurs in the end of
the circuit and the CB opens its contacts to clear the fault. L is the total inductance
between CB and the source while C is the capacitance to earth of the circuit.

59
Rate of Rise of Re-striking Voltage (RRRV)
It is defined as the ratio of peak value of re-striking voltage to time taken to reach to
peak value.

Example: 3 generator has line voltage of 11Kv. The generator is connected to CB.
The inductive reactance up to the CB is 5 ohm/phase. The distributed capacitance up
to CB between phase and neutral is 0.01µF. determine the following:
A) Peak re-striking voltage across the CB
B) Frequency of re-striking voltage transient
C) Average rate of re-striking voltage up to re-striking voltage.
D) Maximum R.R.R.V

60
EXAMPLE: 50Hz, 3phase generator has rated voltage of 13.5Kv connected to
circuit breaker. The inductive up to CB is 4ohm/phase and the capacitance is 2µF.
Determine maximum RRRV, peak re-striking voltage and frequency of oscillations.

61
 Switchgear
Fuses
A fuse is a short piece of metal inserted in the circuit which melts when excessive
current flows through it and thus breaks the breaks the circuit. The fuse element
should have the following desirable characteristics:
(i) Low melting point e.g., tin, lead
(ii) High conductivity e.g., silver, copper
(iii) Free from deterioration due to oxidation e.g., silver
(iv) Low cost e.g., lead, tin, copper
The most commonly used materials for fuse element are lead, tin, copper, zinc and
silver. For small currents up to 10A, tin or an alloy of lead and tin (lead 37%, tin
63%) is used for making the fuse element. For larger currents, copper or silver is
employed.
Advantages
1- It is the cheapest form of protection available
2- Required no maintenance
3- Its operation is inherently completely automatic unlike circuit breaker which
requires an elaborate equipment for automatic action
4- Operate without noise and smoke
5- The inverse time characteristics of the fuse make it suitable for over current
protection
6- The minimum time of operation can be made shorter than with the circuit
breakers
Disadvantages
1- Considerable time is lost in rewiring or replacing a fuse after operation
2- On heavy short circuits discrimination between fuses in series cannot be
obtained unless there is sufficient difference in the size of the fuses concerned.
3- The current-time characteristics of fuse cannot always be co-related with that
of the protected apparatus.

62
The following terms are much common used in the analysis of fuses
Current rating of fuse element: It is the current which the fuse element can
normally carry without melting.
Fuse current: it is the minimum current which the fuse element melts and thus
disconnects the circuit. The current rating of fuse is greater than the fuse current.
Fuse factor: it the ratio between minimum fuse current to the current rating of the
fuse element.

Semi enclosed rewirable fuse

A rewirable fuse consists of fuse, holder, fuse element and fuse carrier. The holder
and carrier being of made of porcelain.

Disadvantage
1- There is possibility of renewal by fuse wire of wrong size or improper material.
2- This type of fuse has a low breaking capacity and hence cannot be used in circuits
of high fault level.
3- The fuse element is subjected to deterioration due to oxidation through the
continuous heating up of the element
Cartridge fuse
Cartridge fuse consists of a porcelain tube with metal and cops to which the element
is attached. The tube is filled with silica. These fuses are found generally in modern
plug tops used with 13A a socket outlet and in some distribution boards and at mains
intake positions. They have the advantage over rewirable fuse of not deteriorating,
accuracy in breaking at rated values and not arcing where interrupting faults. They
are expensive to replace.

63
H.R.C fuses with tripping device
H.R.C fuse is provided with tripping device. When the fuse blows out under fault
condition, the tripping device cause the circuit breaker to operate. The figure below
shows the essential parts of a H.R.C fuse with tripping device. The body of the fuse is
of ceramic material with a metallic cap rigidly fixed at each end. These are connected
by number of silver fuse elements. At one end is plunger which under fault condition
hits the tripping mechanism of the circuit breaker and cause it to operate. The plunger
is electrically connected through a fusible link, chemical charge and tungsten wire to
the other end of the cap

Current carrying capacity of the fuse

The current carrying capacity of the fuse is calcualte as (fuse law)

Example: a fuse wire of circular cross section has radius of 0.8mm. the wire blows
off at current of 8A. calculate the raduis of wire that will blow off at a current of 1A.

64
Isolators
The isolator switch is used to ensure that an electrical circuit is completely de-
energized for service or maintenance. The moving part of isolator is manually
disconnected from the circuit. The disconnector is usually not intended for normal
control of the circuit, but only for safety isolation. Unlike circuit breakers,
disconnectors lack a mechanism for suppression of electric arc, which occurs when
conductors carrying high currents are electrically interrupted. Thus, they are off-load
devices, intended to be opened only after current has been interrupted by some other
control device. Safety regulations of the utility must prevent any attempt to open the
disconnector while it supplies a circuit.
Reclosers
A recloser is a circuit breaker equipped with a mechanism that can automatically
close the breaker after it has been opened due to a fault. Reclosers are used on
overhead distribution systems to detect and interrupt momentary faults. Since many
faults on overhead lines are temporarily a recloser improves service continuity by
automatically restoring power to the line after a momentary fault.
Air breaker circuit breakers
The air at atmosphere pressure is used as an arc extinguishing medium in air circuit
breakers. The air breakers employ the high resistance interruption technique. The arc
is lengthened by means of arc runners and arc chute, splitting and cooled. Air
breakers are used in dc circuit and ac circuit up to 12KV.

65
Air Blast circuit breaker
These breakers employ a high pressure air blast as an arc an arc quench medium. The
contacts are opened in a flow of air blast established by opening of blast valve. The
air blast cools are and sweeps away the arcing products to the atmosphere. This
rapidly increases the dielectric strength of the medium between contacts and prevents
from re-establishing the arc. Consequently, the arc is extinguished and flow of current
is interrupted.

Oil circuit breakers

These are one of the oldest types of circuit breaker which employs oil as arc
quenching medium. The contacts of the circuit breakers are separated in the oil. The
bubbles of gas are formed which prevent re-striking of the arc after the current
reaches zero point of the cycle. There are two types of oil circuit breakers
 Circuit breakers using large quantity of oil or the bulk oil circuit breakers.
 Circuit breakers using minimum quantity of oil called minimum oil circuit
breakers.
Plain Break Oil Circuit Breaker
It consists of a strong tight earthed tank containing oil up to certain level and air
above the oil level. Both the fixed and moving contacts are immersed in oil.
When the contacts are separated an arc is struck between the contacts with production
of large amount of heat. This will increase the temperature to near about 5000K
which will vaporize the oil unto gases such as hydrogen with small percentage of
methane, ethylene and acetylene. With the withdrawal of moving contacts arc length
increases and gas formation rate decrease as temperature lowers.

66
When distance between the contacts reaches at critical value the arc get extinguished
at some current zero.

The advantages of plain break oil circuit breaker are:

i) The arc energy is easily absorbed by the oil
ii) The gases formed due to oil decomposition have god cooling properties.
iii) The cooling surfaces formed by surrounding oil is close to the arc
iv) After current zero a flow of cool oil flows in the contact space which is having
dielectric strength
v) The oil used acts as an insulator
Disdavantges of plain break oil circuit breaker
1- There is no special control over the arc other than the increase in length by
separating the moving contacts. Hence large arc is required for faithful
interruption.
2- These breakers have long and inconsistent arcing times.
3- These breakers do not permit high speed interruption.
Arc control oil circuit breakers
In case of plain break oil circuit breaker discussed above, there is very little artificial
control over the arc. Therefore, comparatively long arc length is essential in order
that turbulence in the oil caused by the gas may assist in quenching it. However, it is
necessary and desirable that final arc extinction should occur while the contact gap is
still short. For this purpose, some arc control is incorporated and the breakers are than
called arc control circuit breakers.

67
The arc control circuit breaker consists of rigid cylinder made up of a insulation
material. The cylinder contains the fixed and moving contacts. The moving contacts
are a cylindrical rod which can pass through a small opening called throat. The
motion of moving contact is vertical. Whenever fault occurs in the system the
contacts will start separating with the formation of arc in between them. The heat
contained in the arc causes the decomposition of the oil into a gas at very high
pressure in the pot. This high pressure forces the oil and gas around the arc to quench
the arc.

Low oil circuit breaker

In the bulk oil circuit breakers the oil has to perform two functions. Firstly it acts as
an arc quenching medium and secondly it insulates the live part from earth. It has
been found that only small percentage of oil is used for arc quenching while the
major part is utilized for insulation purposes. For this reason the quantity of oil in
bulk oil circuit breakers reaches a very high figure as the system voltage increase.
This not only increase the expenses, tank size and weight of the breaker but it also
increase the fire risk and maintenance problems.
Low oil circuit breaker employs solid materials for insulation purposes and uses a
small quantity of oil which is just sufficient for arc extinction. As regards the arc, the
oil behaves identically in bulk as well as low oil circuit breaker. By using suitable arc
control devices, the arc extinction can be further facilitated in a low oil circuit
breaker.

68
Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6) Circuit breakers
SF6 gas is used as the arc quenched medium. The SF6 is an electro-negative gas and
has a strong tendency to absorb free electron. The contacts of the breaker are opened
in high pressure flow of SF6 gas and an arc is struck between them. The conducting
free electrons in the arc are rapidly captured by the SF6 to form relatively immobile
negative ions. These losses of conducting electrons in the arc quickly build up enough
insulation strength to extinguish the arc.
The figure below shows the construction of SF6 circuit breaker. It consists of fixed
and moving contacts enclosed in chamber (known as arc interruption chamber)
containing SF6 gas. When the contacts of breaker are opened, the valve mechanism
permits a high pressure SF6 gas from the reservoir to flow towards the arc
interruption chamber.

69
Advantages
The SF6 has many advantages such as:
1) Due to superior quenching properties of SF6, the breaker has very short arcing
time.
2) Since the dielectric strength of SF6 gas is 2 to 3 times that of air, the breaker can
interrupt much larger currents
3) The SF6 breaker gives noiseless operation and no exhaust to atmosphere unlike
the air blast circuit breaker.
Disadvantage
1) SF6 breakers are costly due to the high cost of SF6
2) Since SF6 gas has to be reconditioned every operation of the breaker, additional
equipment is required for this purpose.
Vacuum circuit breaker
In such breakers vacuum is used as the arc quenching medium. Since vacuum offers
the highest insulating strength, it has far superior arc quenching properties than other
medium. For example, when contacts of a breaker are opened in vacuum, the
interruption occurs at first current zero with dielectric strength between the contacts
building up at rate thousands of times higher than that obtained with other circuit
breaker. The figure below shows parts of vacuum circuit breaker. It consists of fixed
contact, moving contact and arc shield mounted inside a vacuum chamber. The
movable member is connected to the control mechanism by stainless steel bellows.
This enables the permanent sealing of the vacuum chamber so as to eliminate the
possibility of leak. The arc shield prevents the deterioration of the internal dielectric
strength by preventing metallic vapors falling on the inside surface of the outer
insulating cover.

70
The advantages of vacuum circuit breaker are:
1) Compact, reliable and have long life.
2) Have low arc energy
3) No fire hazards
4) No generation of gas during and after operation
5) Has ability to interrupt any fault current
6) Required little maintenance and are quiet in operation

71
 Power System Protection
System protection is the art and science of detecting problems with power system
components and isolating these components. Therefore the objective of power system
protection is to isolate a faulty section of electrical power system from rest of the
healthy system so that the rest portion can function satisfactorily without any severer
damage due to fault current. Actually circuit breaker isolates the faulty system from
rest of the healthy system and this circuit breakers automatically open during fault
condition due to its trip signal comes from protection relay.
Role of protection system
1- Isolate the faulty parts of the system to prevent propagation of the fault to the
rest of the system.
2- Minimize the damage of system equipments
3- Improve system stability
Requirements of Protection System
Reliability: To remain inactive during normal conditions but if a fault occurs the
relays must respond instantly and correctly.
Selectivity: It is the ability of the protective system to select correctly that part of the
system in trouble and disconnect the faulty part without disturbing the rest of the
system
Sensitivity: The relaying equipment must be sensitive so that it can be operated
reliably when level of fault condition just crosses the predefined limit.
Speed: The relay system should disconnect the faulty section as fast as possible for
the following reasons:
(a) Electrical apparatus may be damaged if they are made to carry the fault currents
for a long time.
(b) A failure on the system leads to a great reduction in the system voltage. If the
faulty section is not disconnected quickly, then the low voltage created by the fault
may shut down consumers’ motors and the generators on the system may become
unstable.

72
(c) The high speed relay system decreases the possibility of development of one type
of fault into the other more severe type.
Economic: The most important factor in the choice of a particular protection scheme
is the economic aspect.
Simplicity: The relaying system should be simple so that it can be easily maintained.
Protection system components
When fault occurs in the circuit the relay (2) connected to CT and PT actuates and
closes its contact (6). Current flow from battery (5) in trip circuit (4) to energies the
trip circuit of circuit breaker (3). Therefore the circuit breaker after energazation
isolates the faulty system.

1- Relay: monitoring the system in order to sense abnormal condition. Under

normal conditions a relay remains inactive but when fault occur a relay must
signal the breakers.
2- Current Transformer (CT): A device which transforms the current on the
power system from large primary values to safe secondary values. The secondary
current will be proportional (as per the ratio) to the primary current.
3- Potential Transformer (PT): A device which transforms the voltage on the
power system from primary values to safe secondary values, in a ratio
proportional to the primary value.
4- Circuit breaker: isolate the circuit after receiving trip signal from the relay.
Protection Zones
The circuit breakers must be located at proper points such that any components of
power system can be disconnected during normal and abnormal conditions. Each
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component of power system is covered by protection zone including certain
protective scheme. The entire system must covered by several protective zones and
no part of the system is left unprotected. The figure below shows the meaning of
protective zones. Neighboring zones overlap so that no dead spot are left in the
protected system. The boundaries of protective zones are decided by location of
current transformers.

Primary and Backup Protection

The primary protection is the first line of defense and is responsible to protect all
power system elements from all types of faults. The backup protection comes into
play only if primary protection fails to isolate the fault. The primary protection may
fail to operate for the following reasons:
 Failure of CB
 Failure of relay
 Failure of tripping circuit
 Failure in dc trip voltage
 Loss of supply current and voltage to relay
The important requirement of backup protection is that must operate with sufficient
time delay so that the primary protection is given the chance to operate. Referring to
figure below the tripping time of relays C, B, and A are graded such that for fault
beyond C the breaker at C operate first as primary protection while the relays at B

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and A are provide with enough time delay so that circuit breaker at B operate only if
the circuit breaker C fail to isolate the fault.

Actuating Quantities
The discrimination between normal and abnormal condition can be judged by
measuring actuation quantity. The relay respond to current/voltage derived from
secondary of CT or VT connected to protected equipment. During abnormal
condition the actuating quantity varies according the fault. The actuating quantity for
relay can be:
- Magnitude - frequency
- Rate of change - wave shape
- Phase angle - duration
- Direction - ratio
Types of relays
The various types of relays are:
1- Electromagnetic relays
2- Static relays
3- Digital numeric relays
Electromagnetic Attraction Type Relays
The electromagnetic attraction type relays operate on the principles of attraction of an
armature by the magnetic force produced by undesirable current or movement of
plunger in a solenoid. The types of this relays are:
Attracted Armature Type: This relay operates on the current setting. When current in
circuit exceed certain value the armature get attracted by the magnetic force produced
by undesirable current.
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Solenoid Type: In this relay the plunger move into a solenoid and the operation of
the relay depend on the movement of the plunger.

Balance Beam Type: In this relay the plunger move into a solenoid and the armature
is fastened to balance beam. For normal current the beam remain balance but when
current exceed the armature get attracted and the beam get tilted causing the
operation of the relay.

Induction Disc Relay

In this type of relay metal disc is allowed to rotate between two electromagnets. The
electromagnets are energized by AC current. The filed produced by two magnets are
displace in space and phase. The torque is developed by the interaction of the flux of
one of the magnets and the eddy currents induced in the disc by the other. There are
two types:
 Shaded pole induction disc type

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  Watt-hour meter type induction disc type

Static Relay
The Static relays use analogue electronic devices instead of magnetic coils and
mechanical components to create the relay characteristics. The measurement is
carried out by static circuits consisting of comparators, level detectors, filter etc. The
relaying quantity such as voltage/current is rectified and measured. In a solid state
relay, the incoming voltage and current waveforms are monitored by analog circuits.
The analog values are compared to settings made by the user via potentiometers in
the relay, and in some case, taps on transformers.
The components of static relays are shown in figure below. The output of CT and PT
brought down to suitable level by auxiliary CT and PT. Then auxiliary CT output is given to
rectifier. Rectifier rectifies the relaying quantity and the rectified output is supplied to a
measuring unit comprising of comparators, level detectors, filters, logic circuits. The output
is actuated when the dynamic input attains the threshold value. This output of the measuring
unit is amplified by amplifier and fed to the output unit device. The output unit energizes the
trip coil only when relay operates.

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Numeric Relay
In numeric relay the microprocessor performs the timing and control of the system
and carries out all arithmetic and logical operations. The system memory may be
Read Only Memory (ROM) for dedicated applications or Random Access Memory
(RAM) for the storage of data and programs, or a combination of both. System
memory stores the program to be executed and the data relevant to the specific task.
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Numeric relay uses ADC to convert the analogue signal to digital signal before pass it
to the microprocessor.
Relay timing
An important characteristic of a relay is its time of operation. The relay is classified
based on operation time to:
Instantaneous relay
An instantaneous relay is one in which no time delay is provided. In this case, the
relay contacts are closed immediately after current in the relay coil exceeds the
minimum calibrated value.
Inverse-time relay
An inverse-time relay is one in which the operating time is approximately inversely
proportional to the magnitude of the actuating quantity.

Definite time lag relay

In this type of relay, there is a definite time delay between the instant of pickup and
the closing of relay contacts. This particular time setting is independent of the amount
of current through the relay coil.
Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT)
IDMT relay has inverse relation between the time and the fault current but with
minimum definite time for very excessive current

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Important Terms
Pick-up current. It is the minimum current in the relay coil at which the relay starts
to operate.

Current setting. It is often desirable to adjust the pick-up current to any required
value. For example the setting may be 125% of the rated current.
Plug-setting multiplier (P.S.M.). It is the ratio of fault current in relay coil to the
pick-up current

Time-setting multiplier. A relay is generally provided with control to adjust the time
of operation. If the time setting is 0·1 and the time obtained from the time/P.S.M.
curve is 3 seconds, then actual relay operating time = 3 ×0·1 = 0·3 second.
Time/P.S.M. Curve
Figure below shows the curve between time of operation and plug setting multiplier
of a typical relay.

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Calculation of Relay Operating Time
In order to calculate the actual relay operating time, the following things must be
known:
(a) Time/P.S.M. curve
(b) Current setting
(c) Time setting
(d) Fault current
(e) Current transformer ratio.
Example: determine the time of operation of a 5-ampere, 3 second over current relay
has a current setting of 125% and time multiplier setting of 0.6 connected to supply
circuit through a 400/5 CT when the fault current is 4000A. Use the previous time-
current characteristics.

Example: an I.D.M.T over current relay has a current setting of 150% and a time
multiplier setting of 0.6. The primary of the relay is connected to secondary of CT
has ration of 400/5. Calculate the time of operation if the fault current is 5000A. The
time-current characteristics of the relay are shown below.

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Over-current Protection
The over-current protection is that in which the relay pick up when the magnitude of
the current exceed the setting level. The basic element in over-current protection is
the over-current relay. The over-current relay connected to the system via current
transformer. The over-current protection can be used for overload protection.
Overloading means that the machine is taken more current than the rated current.
Also over-current protection includes short circuit protection such as line to ground
fault, line to line and symmetrical faults.
Application of over-current protection
Motor Protection: Over-current protection is basic protection used against overload
and short circuit in stator winding of the motor.

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Transformer Protection: over-current protection is used in transformer as back up
protection beside the differential protection which acts as main protection.
Transmission Line Protection: over-current protection is used to protect the line
beside distance protection and carrier current protection.
Equipments: furnaces, industrial installation, commercial and domestic equipment.
Connection of over-current relay
Over-current protection scheme is achieved using three current transformers and three
over-current relays as shown below

The diagram below shows over-current protection with definite time delay relay and
auxiliary relays. The auxiliary relay is used to close the trip circuit.

Earth Fault Protection

To protect the circuit from earth fault the circuit below is used. The circuit includes
three CTs and earth fault relay. For normal operation the sum of three phases current
is zero. This sum is known as residual current

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If there is ground fault the residual current will flow into earth fault relay causes the
relay to activate the CB.

Earth fault relay connected in neutral to Earth circuit

Another method of connecting an earth relay is shown below. The relay is connected
to secondary of CT whose primary is connected in neutral to earth connection. The
ground fault current find the return path through earth and then flows in neutral to
earth connection. The magnitude of fault current depends on type of grounding
system (resistance, reactance or solid).

Combined earth fault and over-current fault protection

It is common to use combine phase fault and earth fault protection.

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Differential Protection
Differential protection responds to vector difference between two or more similar
quantities. From above definition
1- Differential relay has at least two similar actuating quantities say I1, I2.
2- The relay respond to vector difference between the two actuating quantities
includes magnitude and phase.
The differential protection is unit protection and the protection zone is defined by
location of the CTs.
Application of differential protection
- Protection of generator
- Protection of transformer
- Bus-bar protection
- Protection of feeder
Principle of operation
During the normal condition or external faults input current (I1) and output current
(I2) are equal and the protection system is balance and the CTs ratios are such that the
secondary currents are equal. The vector differential current (I1-I2) which flows
through the relay is zero.

When internal fault is occurs the entering current (I1) is no more equal to the leaving
current (I2) because some current flows to the fault. The vector differential current

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(I1-I2) flows through operating coil and the relay operate if the operating torque is
more than restraining torque.

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