12:09 @ BE e Fae all 2 ll 41% S < SLD 0 @e WIND ENERGY 129 6.2.1 Global Winds © With the helps of a diagram, indicate the circulation of global winds. What are forces responsible for determining the speed and direction of global winds? The primary force for global winds is produced due to differential heating of the earth surface at equator (0° longitudes) and polar regions (about + 90° longitude). More heating takes place near the regions of equator and less heating occurs at polar regions, and so cold winds move from polar to equatorial regions. The air in touch with ocean water is much colder than air in the plain areas, and so cold winds generated from ocean areas move towards plain areas. The rotation of the earth on its axis produces Coriolis force and this force is responsible for forcing the global winds towards westernly direction. These air currents are also called trade winds as sailing ships in the past used these air currents for ship movement and trading. The global winds and circulations are shown in Figure 6.1 Trade winds Equator Figure 6.1 Global winds and their circulations. 6.2.2 Local Winds e Explain the mechanism of production of local winds. Local winds are generated due to uneven heating. Uneven heating occurs on land surface and water bodies due to solar radiation. As a result, cool and heavy air currents move from water bodies to land surface. At night, the direction of wind is reversed as land surface cools more rapidly than water bodies. The same conditions also prevail in hilly areas where hill slope heats up during the day and cools down during the night more rapidly than the low land, This temperature difference causes air currents to move to the hill slope during the day and to the low-lying land during night. 6.2.3 Distribution of Wind Energy © What are the factors responsible for distribution of wind energy on the surface of earth? The factors affecting the distribution of wind energy are as follows: (i) The chain of mountains channelise the air currents (ii) The hills. trees and building act as obstructions and change the direction of airflow Il O <12108 @@- MB all WB all 41% S < SLD 0 @e 130 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES (iii) The frictional effect of the surface determines the wind speed, This is the reason why wind speed is quite high at seashore as frictional effect is less on smooth surface or sea surface. (iv) Climatic disturbances resulting from rains affect wind speed. (x) Topography of an area also affects wind speed, for example, wind can speed up when passing through narrow gap such as mountains gaps. 6.2.4 Nature of Wind © What do you understand by the behaviour and structure of wind? or ¢ What are Beaufort numbers? Before installation of a wind turbine, it is essential to have full knowledge of the behaviour and structure of wind. The winds vary from place to place. The nature of wind at a site depends upon general climate of the region, physical geometry of the locality and terrain around the site. The wind intensity can be described by Beaufort number as per wind speed as given in Table 6.1 TABLE 6.1 Wind description and Beaufort number cS Beaufort Wind Characteristics Wind speed ~ umber __ description (ms) I More light Smoke drifts 04-18 2 Less light Slight movement of leaves 1.6-3.6 3 Light Flag starts fluttering 3.6-5 4 Moderate Moving of small branches of tree 5.8-6.5 6 Strong Large branches sway 11-14 8 Gale Twigs breaking off from trees 17-21 10 Strong gale Trees are uprooted 25-29 12 Hurmcane Extensive damage to all structures > 34 6.2.5 Meterological Data about Wind Speed © What do you understand by meteorological data on wind speed? © What principles are used for mesercinest oC era speed? © What is the standard height for the dcarenent ef wied speed? © What are the advantages of prereni wind data in the form of a wind rose? Every country has its meteorological department to record and publish weather data along, with wind speed and direction prevalent at all places in the country. The wind speeds are recorded at three heights which are 10, 50 and 150 m during strong winds. These records are used to specify the nature of winds in these regions. The wind speed are measured using an instrument called anemometer and wind direction is measured using a wind vane or cock. Il O <12108 @@- eB all 2 all 41% S < SLD 0 @e WIND ENERGY 131 Atypical anemograph consisting of wind speeds recorded at three heights during strong winds is shown in Figure 6.2. Following are the conclusions which can be drawn from this anemograph: ¢ Wind speeds are more at greater heights * Wind speeds at all heights fluctuate or change with time © The fluctuation of wind speeds can be high. Height 20 150m E415 50m 3 Bl 10 10m 2 & = 5 0 5S 0 15 20 25 30 Time (min) Figure 6.2 Anemograph of wind speeds at three heights, Anemometer It is a device to measure wind speeds. It can work using any of the following princi (i) When a swinging plate hinges along its top edge is hung vertically, the angl@0f deflection of the plate with respect to vertical axis is an indicator of wind speed. (ii) When three or four cups are mounted symmetrically about a vertical axis, the speed of rotation of these cups is an indicator of wind speed (iii) When flat plate stops the wind, the wind pressure at the plate increases. The measured wind pressure is an indicator of wind speed. (iv) When wind passes on a hot wire, the wire gets cooled depending upon the wind speed. By recording the cooling effect of the wind on hot wire, the wind speed can be determined, (v) It is observed that wind with different speeds can create different sonic effects which can be recorded to determine wind speeds. (vi) Use of laser technique with Doppler effect can help in determining wind speed. Wind rose The wind speed is measured and recorded at an effective height of 10 m from the ground Wind rose is drawn showing mean wind speeds based on averaging period which may vary from 10 min to | h. The mean wind speed, its duration and its direction are depicted on a single graph as shown in Figure 6.3. The wind rose shows compass bearing from which the wind arrives (from all 6 directions) along with mean wind speed and duration in a year. The lengths of bars are drawn suitably to represent the percentage of duration of wind. Il O <12118 o@- Bi ll ull 40% B < SLD Oo? : 132 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES. l w=—e ob Legend | es s > 20]15-25]10-15] $10] > 5 Wind speed in m/s Figure 6.3 Wind rose describing mean wind speeds. 6.2.6 Wind Speed Variations with Height © With the help of a diagram, explain the variation of wind speed with height from the ground. or © Explain the terms (i) wind shear, (ii) gradient height, (iii) free atmosphere, (iv) planetary boundary, (v) surface layer and (vi) Ekman layer. Wind speed falls almost to zero at earth’s surface and it increases as its height increases from the ground Wind shear The rate of change of wind speed with height is called wind shear. The lower air layers moving slowly tends to retard air layer above them, resulting in the change in mean wind speed with height. Gradient height The wind speed increases as height increases because shear force reduces with height. At a certain height, the shear force reduces to zero and wind speed does not change above this height, This height is called the gradient height. Free atmosphere The gradient height is generally about 2000 m from the ground. Above this gradient height, any change in the ground conditions does not affect the wind speed: that is, wind speed is uniform above the gradient height. This atmosphere with uniform wind speed is called the free atmosphere. III O <12118@@-°- MB all 22 al] 40% < SLD Oo? : WIND ENERGY 133 Planetary boundary layer The layer of air from ground to the gradient height is called the planetary boundary layer. Surface layer It is the air layer considered from the height of local obstruction to a height of about 100m Ekman layer It is the air layer from surface layer (100 m) that extends up to the gradient height. The variation of shear stress can be neglected in this layer, and the mean wind speed with height can be given by Prandtl logarithmic law u, =Vlog, 24 where w_ is the mean wind speed, V is the characteristic speed, 2, is the roughness height of surface and d is the zero plane displacement. The variation of mean wind speed with height is as shown in Figure 6.4. 2000 m |------------22220200++ wpe Gradient ; | height s = ! Planetary 2 if boundary 0 t Wind speed (u,) Figure 6.4 Logarithmic variation of wind speed with height. As the wind speed is measured at a height of 10 m from the ground and also wind turbines are operated at a height of more than 10 m, a simpler empirical relation can be used to determine mean wind velocity at other heights, which is as follows: 7\ iy | 2 (Fr) where uz, is the wind velocity at the reference height H or 10 m, ais the parameter that depends upon roughness and range of height (z) and z is the height of the wind turbine.12118@@-°- Fae all $2) ll 40% S < SLD Oo? : 134 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES 6.3 WIND TURBINE SITING « What are the most favourable sites for installing wind turbines? © Write criteria for site selection for ine up a wind farm. © Describe the main consideration for (electing a site for wind generator. © What are the criteria for site neeetica of a windmill? The main considerations for selecting a site for wind generator are as follows (i) High annual mean wind speed. A basic requirement for a successful use of a windmill or farm is an adequate supply of wind and good wind speeds. The wind power is proportional to the cubic power of wind speed. (ii) No obstruction. There should not be any high structure to obstruct wind for a distance of 3 km to the windmill. (iii) Open plain. The site should be the open plain such as open sea shoreline where strong winds prevail. (iv) Height. The wind speed increases with height, which can be obtained when the windmill is located on a hill or a ridge with gentle slope. (v) Near lake or ocean. Differential heating of water and land generates wind of sufficient speeds. _ (vi) Topography. Topography such as mountain gap helps to channelise and speed winds. (vii) Favourable land cost. It helps in restriction or reducing the cost of project. (viii) Nearness to load centre. It reduces the cost of transmission of the generated power. (ix) ss to road or rail link. It helps in installation of windmill. (x) of wind rose. It helps in designing of windmill as wind data of the site can be determined. 6.4 WIND TURBINE AERODYNAMICS Wind carries with it kinetic energy. This wind energy is extracted when the direction of motion of wind is changed in accordance with the Newton’s second law of motion; that is, the change of momentum of any body is equal to the force acting on it. The amount of energy extracted depends the amount of energy available in the wind on account of its speed. 6.4.1 Energy Available in Wind © Derive an expression for the total power of a wind stream. The wind has kinetic on account of its motion. This kinetic energy can be given by the following equation: III O <12118@@-°- FB all $2) ll 40% S < SLD Oo? : WIND ENERGY 135 KE =P, = 3 x ritug (6.1) where m is the mass of air passing through an area A per unit time and up is the speed of free wind The mass of wind can be given as: m=pAuy (6.2) where p is the density of air. From Eqs. (6.1) and (6.2), we have 1 2 Py = 5 (oA) 3 pAus ni= P. or te 1 oe a 2PM The above relation indicates that the power available in wind per unit area is proportional to the cubic power of its speed. 6.4.2 Terms and Definitions of Fluid Mechanics uss the following parameters used in rotor design: (i) rotor, (ii) solidity and (iii) tip speed ratio. or © With the help of a diagram, explain the terms free and relative wind velocities, drag and lift forces, solidity, pitch angle and chord. Rotor The wind turbine extracts energy from the wind streams by transforming the kinetic energy of the wind into the rotational motion of the rotor of the wind turbine. The wind energy is extracted by the rotor of wind turbine as it has one, two or three blades having aerofoil shape and these blades are attached to hub. The wind moving over the surface of blades (aerofoils) attached to the rotor generates the requisite forces to turn the rotor. Solidity It is defined as the ratio of the projected area of the rotor blades on the rotor plane to the swept area of the rotor. High-solidity rotors use drag force for rotation and these rotors turn slower. Low-solidity rotors have slender acrofoil blades and these rotors use lift force for rotation. They turn faster. III O <12118@@-°- FP all 2 all 40% S < SLD 0 @e 136 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES Chord It is the width of the blade which is across distance from one edge of the blade to the other edge as shown in Figure 6.5 Airfoil cross-section Centre .-- line of airfoil (a) ) Figure 6.5 Rotor blade and its cross-section. (a) Rotor blade and (b) Acrofoil shape of blade’s cross-section. Different velocities Various velocities are as follows: (i) Wind velocity (u,). The velocity of free air stream at sufficient distance away from wind turbine where there is no disturbance due to rotation of the wind turbine. (ii) Incident wind velocity (u,). It is the velocity at which the wind strikes the blade. This velocity is always slightly lower than the free air stream velocity (2). (iii) Blade linear velocity (v). It is the tangential velocity of the blade due to the rotation of blade. If wis the angular velocity of the blade and R is the length of the blade, then blade linear velocity v = @ * R. (iv) Relative velocity (v,). It is the relative velocity of wind with respect to the moving blade. It is the vector sum of incident wind velocity (w,) and blade linear velocity (v). Mathematically, it can be given as. Angle of attack or angle of incidence (a) It is the angle between the centreline of the acrofoil (blade cross-section and the relative wind velocity v,) as shown in Figure 6.6. The airflow remains attached to the acrofoil for small angle of attack. The airflow is separated from the aerofoil for large angles of attack. Pitch angle or blade setting angle (7) Tt is the angle between the centreline of the aerofoil and the direction of linear motion of the blade. The output of a turbine is greatly influenced by blade pitch angle. The blade pitch control is a very effective way to control. The output power, speed or torque of the turbine. III O <12128@@-° FP all 2 ul! 40% S < SLD Oo? : WIND ENERGY 137 AF, Figure 6.6 Velocities and forces acting on aerofoil (a) Various velocities and angles of aerofoils, (b) Various forces on aerofoil Drag force (AF,) When a body (acrofoil) is placed in uniform airflow, there are two forces acting on the body, namely, pressure force acting normally to the surface of the body, and shear force acting along the surface of the body. The pressure force and shear force can be combined to give the total force exerted by the wind on the body. This total force can be now resolved in the direction parallel to airflow and perpendicular to the airflow. The component of total force parallel to the direction of airflow is called drag force. The drag force always opposes the relative motion between the body and the air. It is given by the following equation: 1 Drag = AF, = Cy * 5 pup A where C,, is the drag coefficient and A is the projected area of the body acrofoil perpendicular the direction of airflow. Lift foree (AF,) The component of the total force (pressure force and shear force) on the body in the direction perpendicular to airflow is called lift force. As the name suggests, this force tries to lift the body. It is given by the following equation: 1 2. Lift =AF, = C, x > pupa where C, is the lift coefficient Axial force (AF,) ‘The total force (pressure force and shear force) can also be resolved along the axis of rotation of blade and perpendicular to it (tangential force on the blade). The component of total force acting on the blade along the axis of rotation of the blade is called the axial force. The axial force does not contribute to the rotation of the blade. It is also called thrust force and has to be balanced by a suitable reaction force generated by any thrust bearing provided on a rotor. The axial force contributes to waste energy which cannot be extracted from wind energy. Hence, axial force should be as less as possible. The axial force can be given as follows:12128@@-° FB all $2) ll 40% S < SLD Oo? : 138 | NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES AF, = AF, cos + AF, sin where o=ary. Tangential force (AF) It is the component of total force on the blade acting tangential to its circular path of rotation This is the force which contributes mainly to the useful energy extracted from the wind energy. It should be as high as possible. It is given by: AF, ~ AF, sin 6~ AF, cos ¢ Tip speed ratio (A) The tip speed ratio is defined as the ratio of the speed of tip of the rotor blade to the speed of on coming air. Hence, tip speed ratio is: @xR a= uo For a particular wind speed, there exists an optimum turbine tip speed to produce the maximum output. It is important to match the rotation of wind turbine to the corresponding wind speed * Awindmill has rotor of 6 m with 30 blades. Each blade has width of 0.30 m, find the solidity. What is the implication of solidity? Projected area of blades Solidity = ‘Swept area A 3 1.30 Solidity = 22%9-30 . 1990 ws aX =7.96% The greater is the solidity of a rotor, the slower it needs to turn to intercept the wind. When windwill has a lesser number of blades, it needs to rotate fast to intercept the wind so that wind should not be lost through the large gap existing between two blades without importing a part of wind power. « Find the tip-speed ratio if a 6 m diameter rotor has rotation of 20 rpm and the wind speed is 4 m/s. What is the implication of tip speed ratio? WR Tip speed ratio = —— uo xRN Tip speed ratio = on mx6x20 = = 60x4 III O <12128@@-° MB all 22 al] 40% < SLD 0 @e WIND ENERGY 139 The windmill rotating fast has tip speed ratio greater than 1. Two or three-bladed rotors rotate faster, thereby having tip speed ratio ranging from 3 to 10. More bladed rotors rotate move slowly, thereby having tip speed ratio between | and 2. 6.4.3 Principle of Power Generation © How energy from wind can be extracted? Explain the process by using suitable diagram, or Explain the principle of wind energy conversion. or ¢ Explain Betz model of expanding airstream tube to determine extraction of wind energy by windmill. Wind turbine is used to extract useful energy from wind, The energy can be extracted by partially decelerating and expanding the airstream (reduction of pressure) using wind turbine. The rotor of the wind turbine collects wind from the whole area swept by the rotor. The area swept can be considered as airstream tube which is continuously expanding as shown in Figure 6.7. This airstream tube model is also called Betz model of expanding air. As air mass flow rate should be the same everywhere within the stream tube according to the Law of Continuity, the wind speed must decrease as air expands, As shown, airstream tube has area of A, at upstream, area of A, while passing through rotor blade (aerofoil) and area A, downstream. Uy. Velocity = Distance —> (c) Figure 6.7 _ Extraction of wind energy and Betz, model of expanding air. (a) Airstream tube, (b) Airstream on aerofoil, (c) Variation of wind velocity. III O <12128@@-° MB all 22 al] 40% < SLD 0 @e 140 _ NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES Consider that u, and «, are wind velocities at upstream and downstream. The velocity reduction from 1, to w, means that there is a reduction in momentum of the wind as it passes through the wind turbine, resulting in a force being exerted on the blade of rotor, which is given by the following equation: Force =F = rit x ny — tit x w= ti (uy — uy) where ji is the air mass flow per unit time through stream tube. The above force is exerted at a uniform rate when airflow moves over the rotor blade with velocity of w,. Therefore, the power extracted is equal to the work done by the airstream in moving for a distance of w, against force of F, which is given by: Power of turbine =Pp=F Xu, or Pp = th (uy — Uy) * uy (6.3) The power extracted by the wind turbine from the wind is also equal to the change or loss of kinetic energy of the wind 1 AKE = Py = 5 mh (uz ~ 13) (64) Now the energy extracted is equal to the energy lost by wind: Py ~ Py im (uy ~ ty) * ty = ; m (u2 Uy + Uy z or The above relation indicates that turbine velocity u, is the average of the entrance and exit velocities of stream tube. Putting the value of 1, in Eq. (6.3), we get Py = tt (uy — ug) Hott) x mi x (ud — uj) (6.5) vie The mass flow (ri) can be given as the product of area, velocity and density. Hence, ra =A, xu, p 4. Mg +) =A a 2 % p (6.6) From Eqs. (6.5) and (6.6), we have 1 2 Py ; x Ay x p * (ud — uZ)(uy + Uy) III O <12138 @@- MB all 22 al] 40% < SLD Oo? : WIND ENERGY 141 Now suppose we have interference factor a, which is given by: Uy — aq = Mon Ug Then um =(1-a) uy Up + Uy Also, a=1-“4 =1-0% My 2Xuy Ug — Ua 2X ty And uy = (1 = 2a) x uy Then we have extracted turbine power as P, a A, * p* (2 * a * wy) [ug + 2a) tol? = 5x Ap» ax ux u2x 4 (1-aP =2x Ap a(l—ayP x us =4xax(l-a? [Foxxx 61 But wind power is given by Pay = 2X p® Ay * a} (68) From Eqs. (6.7) and (6.8), we have P, = 4a (1 a)? * Py _ Cp * Py where C,, is the power coefficient and it is given by C, = 4a (1 - a? The power coefficient Cp indicates the portion or fraction of wind power which can be extracted by the wind turbine. Following conditions may result: (i) When a = 0, then 1, = tg, 1) = uy and no power gencration takes place. up and maximum power generation takes place. . 1 2 1 (i) When a= >, then 1, = 3 Mp = 3 III O <1213 ASG: Evo) | von Pt LTEV all Ye al! 40% S < SLD 0 @O : 142 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES 1 (iii) When a = 2 then, = 5 X up, w= 0 and only turbulence occurs at downstream. (iv) When a = 1, then uv, = 0 and it results in the stalling of turbine, e What is the condition of maximum output power from a wind turbine? Fin value. or e Show that a wind turbine cannot extract more than 59.3% wind energy. The power output from wind turbine is given as follows: 1 Py 7° Ax p * (uP — uZ\(uy + ty) (6.9) The power output depends on outlet velocity u,, Hence, for the maximum power output dP duty 2 * uy (uy + uy) + (U2 — 02) x 1 = 0 2 2 2= =2 uny — 2u3 + u2 - u2 = 0 Buz + ugg — ug = 2 2= Buz + (Btigtly — tytty) — ug = 0 Buy (ty + ty) — ty (uy + ty) = 0 (uy + Wg) + (Buy ~ uy) = 0 - which is impossible Hence, putting the value of w, in Eq. (6.9), we have 1 > (ty uM P,-1 pax |e-(% +l me «| (2) Il- 2] irae) 8 PAM1213 Bas Bt ll ull 40% B < SLD Oo? : WIND ENERGY 143 = 59.3% x Py The power output of a wind turbine cannot be more than 59.3% of wind energy © Find the maximum power output of a turbine if wind speed uy = 8 m/s, air density p = 1.2 kg/m? and rotor diameter = 60 m. 16 a7” 108.52 = 64.31 kW 6.4.4 Axial Thrust on Turbine © Derive the expression for maximum axial thrust experienced by a wind turbine and also find the condition for such operation. The Betz model of expanding airstream tube is shown in Figure 6.8. In case of no energy extraction and on applying the Bernoulli equation at upstream and downstream of the tube. we have III O <1213 B@@ MB all 22 al] 40% < SLD Oo? : 144 _NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES Figure 6.8 Betz model of expanding airstream tube. Taking If a, = 0, we have 1 2 AP = 5p * uj The maximum thrust on the blade is: (F)mmax = AP * A max 1 1 2 7 4m When wind turbine is extracting power, the axial thrust is equal to the loss of momentum of the airstream, which is given by: Fog =m % tly = tt * thy = tiny ~ Uy) and th =A, xu, * p A =A, « ae x ¥ A, x px oe * (uy — uy) (6.10) Putting w, = (1 — 2a) u, in Eq. (6.10), we get ", —4a(l - a) (pau * Fymax ‘yp =4a(1 — a) = Coefficient of axial thrust III O <12138 @@- FB all $2) ll 40% S < SLD Oo? : WIND ENERGY 145 When a = 0.5, Cy 1 a 1 and the maximum axial thrust occurs. When a = 3 (condition for maximum power output), the axial thrust coefficient = C,, = 8/9. 6.4.5 Torque Generated by Wind Turbine «¢ What do you understand by torque coefficient? How is it related to power coefficient? The maximum energy of wind is given by P, and it exerts torque at the blade of wind turbine. If T,,,. is the maximum torque exerted on turbine rotor at the tip of the blade having radius R, we have Toyux = Fra * ® But wind maximum energy — Py = Fg. * Uy Try = 2 xR (11) Ug Now tip speed ratio is Aa OR (6.12) Uy where « is the angular velocity of the rotor. From Eqs. (6.8) and (6.9), we have T= TARA (6.13) oO For a wind turbine which is producing torque 7, less than T,,,. we have T=Cy* Tay (6.14) where C;, is the torque coefficient. In case wind turbine is producing power P;, we have Pp =Cp X Py (6.15) From Eqs. (6.13) and (6.14), we have P= Cp x eine. (6.16) From Eqs. (6.14) and (6.16), we have T oxo | T Pr A G III O <12148 @@- FB all $2) ll 40% S < SLD Oo? : 146 _NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES. But P,=@xT ¢ 1 @xT=(@x T)x 2x = CGA ¢ or Gat The above relation indicates that both C; and C, are functions of A. The wind turbines havings high tip speed ratios will require low starting torque. 6.4.6 Tip Speed Ratio for Maximum Output * Explain the variation of output of a wind turbine with tip speed ratio of the rotor. A turbine should be designed in such a way that neither of the following conditions is met: (i) If the blades are provided in excess or blades are rotated fast, this results in a blade moving in the air turbulence created by a proceeding blade. (ii) If the blades are provided in less numbers or blades are rotated slowly, this results in a large amount of wind passing through the space between two blades without interacting with the blades. If a wind turbine has “n” numbers of blades and it is rotating with angular velocity the time (f,) taken for a blade to move into the previously occupied blade’s position is given by 2 nx i= (6.17) Ifx is the length of the wind stream’s disturbance created by a blade, the time (1,) t for this disturbance to move out is given by x =— 6.18 b tp (6.18) The maximum power output by the wind turbine will take place at the blade when we have 2 x or mk NX@ Up @ 2 or 2 a Uy AXX III O <12148 @@- MB all 22 al] 40% < SLD 0 @e WIND ENERGY 147 Multiply with R, that is length of blade, we obtain @xR _ 2R Ug nxx 2R 40 axe where A, is the tip speed ratio for the maximum output. R In case x = —, we have 2a An n A= The maximum power extraction will occur when tip speed ratios are: i 4: (i) A= 7 = 2m, where n = (ii) A= a. 7, where n= 4 The maximum output is possible when power coefficient C, = 0.59. The relationship between C, and 2 for ideal propeller type rotor and other wind turbines are as shown in the Figure 6.9. ® © ideal propeller type rotor @® three-bladed rotor an © two-bladed rotor @ four-bladed rotor (re © Darrieus vertical rotor © Savonius vertical rotor 123 4 5 6 7 Tip speed ratio (A) —> Figure 6.9 Variation of power coefficient with tip speed ratio. 6.4.7 Aerodynamic Considerations ¢ Discuss the aerodynamic considerations in windmill design. or What parameters should be considered while selecting a windmill? III O <121449@@- BMP all 82 ll 40%S < SLD Oo? : 148 _NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES When wind moves on an aerofoil, it exerts two types of forces (i) lift force and (ii) drag force. The drag force acts in the direction of wind while lift force acts perpendicular to the direction of wind, trying to lift the aerofoil as shown in Figure 6.10. The relative magnitude of lift and drag forces depends upon the shape of the acrofoil. A streamlined acrofoil has a small drag force and a large lifi force. Lift devices are more efficient as they have lower drag forces. The lift forces are created due to higher speed of airstreams moving at the top surface of the airfoils compared to lower speed of airstreams moving at the lower surface of the aerofoils, and so higher static pressure is created at the lower surface of the aerofoils to act upwards. Total force Uy Figure 6.10 Lift and drag forces on an aerofoil The design parameters or acrodynamic considerations while designing a windmill are discussed next. Pitch The blades of a rotor are curved so that they can deflect the wind to create lift. The created lift force causes the rotor to rotate. To generate the maximum amount of lift, the blades are to be set at an appropriate angle to the wind direction, which is called pitch. The tips of the blades move faster than other points near the axis. Hence, pitch angle (7) varies along the length of blade. The pitch angle should be large without taking any risk of stalling the rotor. To make the pitch angle large all the way along the blade, it has to be twisted. For rotor rotating fast as in two- or three-bladed windmills, the blades are to be given smaller pitch. Certain rotors are provided a mechanism to control the pitch depending upon the wind conditions. The effect of blade pitch on performance coefficient and tip speed ratio characteristics is as shown in Figure 6.11. 0.5 0.4 03 y=0 02 L/ “LL » MAZN 4 8 1620 Tip speed ratio (2) —= Figure 6.11 Effect of pitch angle on performance eoetficient12148 @@- MB all 22 al] 40% < SLD 0 @e WIND ENERGY 149. Solidity The greater the solidity of a rotor due to the presence of multiple blades. the slower it needs to intercept the wind with the help of rotation. The windmills with low solidity such as two- or three-bladed rotors have to run rapidly to intercept the wind and to avoid any loss of wind energy through the large gaps cxisting between the blades Tip speed ratio (2) Faster rotating windmills have tip speed ratios of more than 1, while slower rotating windmills have tip speed ratios of less than 1. Rotors rotating with the help of drag force have lesser tip speed ratios (tip speed is less than wind speeds). Savonius and Darricus rotors have low tip speed ratios. On the other hand, two- or three-bladed wind turbines rotate very fast and these have high tip speed ratios ranging from 3 to 10. Multibladed rotors have tip speed ratios between 1 and 2 and these are suitable for only wind pump applications. Each rotor has a certain optimum tip speed ratio at which it can give maximum output Performance coefficient The performance coefficient indicates what fraction of wind energy passing through the rotor is converted into the output power. It depends upon the tip speed ratio and solidity. The range of tip speed ratios for optimum output or performance coefficient with rotors having different soliditics is shown in Figure 6.12. Performance coefficient (C,) Dep 2 4 6 8 10 Tip speed ratio (2). ——= Figure 6.12 Variation of performance with solidity and tip speed ratios. Torque Torque is generated by tangential or turning force acting on the blades of a rotor. It depends on solidity and tip ratio of the rotor. High-solidity rotors with low tip speed ratios (as in multibladed rotors) produce much more torque compared to low-solidity rotors as shown in Figure 6.13. The high-speed wind turbines has higher performance coefficient (C,,) but has a low starting torque coefficient (C;). On other words, high-solidity rotors produce high starting torque, but these have low performance coefficients. III O <1215B@a@. eB all M22 al] 40% < SLD 0 @e 150 _NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES 06 ~ A A B S 25 0.4: i 22 c 3 0.2 c 8 : > 4 6 8 10 Tip speed ratio (4) —> Figure 6.13 Variance of torque coefficient with solidity and tip speed ratios. Load characteristics The choice of rotor depends on the load characteristics. The loads requiring high torque (such as for piston pumps) have to be provided with rotors with either high solidity or some arrangement to detach the rotors from the load so that low starting torque windmills can be used. However, windmills used to generate electricity need low torque and high speed, which are met with wind rotors of low solidity and high tip speed ratios. In case of wind pumps, these require three times more torques than what are required for normal working. Hence. these windmills require low wind speeds for running but a gust of higher wind speeds to start them initially. High-speed windmills are unsuitable for running directly any reciprocating pump unless these produce electricity by generators 6.5 TYPES OF WINDMILLS ¢ How can windmills be classified? or © How wind energy conversion system is classified? Discuss in brief. The windmills can be mainly classified as horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT) and vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT). When the axis of rotation is parallel to the airstream, the turbine is called HAWT and when it is perpendicular to the airstream, it is called VAWT. Horizontal axis windmills are the most commonly used machines and these have rotors similar to aircraft rotors. Vertical axis windmills have eggbeater type of rotors. 6.5.1 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine © Describe the working of a wind power system with a neat sketch, including its various components. or © Describe the working of wind energy conversion system (WECS) with main components. or © Describe horizontal axis type acrogenerator. III O <1215B@a@. FP all 2 ul! 40% S < SLD 0 @e WIND ENERGY 151 The constructional details of a three-bladed, horizontal axis wind turbine are shown in Figure 6.14. The components or main subsystems include turbine blades, hub, nacelle, yaw control mechanism, generator and tower. Roto Gear train r blade 7) \Nacelle \ Generator Hub Tail vane as Brake yaw control mechanism Tower Foundation Foundation (a) (b) Figure 6.14 Wind turbine (a) Side view of the wind turbine, (b) Front view of the wind turbine, Turbine blades Turbine blades have aerofoil type cross section to extract energy from wind. These blades are made of high-density materials such as wood, glass fibre and epoxy composites. The blades are twisted from tip to root to maintain pitch angle. Most of wind turbines have two- or three- blades similar to the propeller of an old aeroplane, but blades of a wind turbine rotates very slowly compared to that of an aeroplane. A two-bladed rotors give much smoother power output compared to three-bladed rotors. A three-bladed rotor generates little more power output (more than 5%). but additional blade incorporation adds to substantial additional weight to the windmill (about 50% extra). A two-bladed rotor is also simpler to be constructed and erected on the ground Hub The central solid portion of a rotor is called hub. It helps in the attachment of all blades and the incorporation of pitch angle control mechanism. Nacelle The rotor is attached to nacelle which is mounted at the top of a tower. It houses gearbox, generator, controls and brakes. The purpose of gearbox is to regulate the output rotation from the rotor with the speed of the generator. Electromagnetic brakes are provided for automatic application of brakes if the wind speeds exceed the designed speed III O <