Closed-Loop Transfer Function
• The closed-loop transfer function is the transfer function
relating the output signal C(s) to the reference signal R(s).
C (s)
Closed - loop transfer function =
R( s)
Closed-Loop Transfer Function
•
C (s) = G (s) E (s)
E ( s ) = R( s ) - B( s ) = R( s ) - H ( s )C ( s )
Eliminating E(s):
C ( s ) = G ( s )[R( s ) - H ( s )C ( s )]
Closed-Loop Transfer Function
Manipulating: C (s) G (s)
=
R( s) 1 + G ( s) H ( s)
G (s)
or: C (s) = R( s)
1 + G (s) H (s)
• The output of the closed-loop system is dependent on:
• The closed loop transfer function.
• The nature of the input.
Cascaded, Parallel, & Feedback TF
a) Cascaded
b) Parallel-connected
c) Feedback-connected
Find the transfer function:
C (s)
R( s)
MATLAB
• Given:
• To obtain the transfer functions of the cascaded system,
parallel system, or feedback (closed-loop) system, the
following commands may be used:
[num, den] = series(num1,den1,num2,den2)
[num, den] = parallel(num1,den1,num2,den2)
[num, den] = feedback(num1,den1,num2,den2)
MATLAB
num1 = [10];
den1=[1 2 10];
num2 = [5];
den2 = [1 5];
[num, den] = series(num1,den1,num2,den2);
printsys(num,den)
[num, den] = parallel(num1,den1,num2,den2);
printsys(num,den)
[num, den] = feedback(num1,den1,num2,den2);
printsys(num,den)
tf(num,den)
Automatic Controllers
• An automatic controller:
• Compares the value of the plant output with the reference input,
• Determines the difference,
• Produces a control signal that reduces this difference to 0.
• The manner in which the automatic controller produces the
control signal is called the control action.
Automatic Controllers
• Error signal at very e.g., electric motor,
low power level hydraulic motor,
pneumatic motor
Converts the output variable into a
suitable variable (e.g., displacement,
pressure, voltage)
Classifying Industrial Controllers
• Industrial controllers can be classified based on the kind of
power employed:
• Electric controllers.
• Pneumatic controllers (pressurized air).
• Hydraulic controllers (pressurized oil).
Classifying Industrial Controllers
• Industrial controller can also be classified based on their
control action:
• 2 position (on-off) controllers.
• Proportional controllers (P).
• Integral controllers (I).
• Proportional + Integral controllers (PI).
• Proportional + Derivative controllers (PD).
• Proportional + Integral + Derivative controllers (PID).
2 Position (on-off) Control Action
• The actuating element has 2 fixed positions (on or off).
• With output u(t) and error e(t):
u (t ) = U1 , for e(t) > 0
= U 2 , for e(t) < 0
2 Position (on-off) Control Action
• Two-position controllers are usually electrical devices, where
an electric solenoid operated valve is widely used.
• Pneumatic two-position controllers also exist and are called
pneumatic two-position controllers.
Proportional Control Action
• The value of the controller output u(t) is proportional to the
actuating error signal e(t):
u (t ) = K p e(t )
U (s)
Transfer function: = Kp Proportional gain
E (s)
E(s) U(s)
+ Kp
-
Integral Control Action
• The value of the controller output change (du(t)/dt) is
proportional to the actuating error signal e(t):
du (t ) t
= K i e(t ) Þ u (t ) = K i ò0 e(t )dt
dt
U (s) K i
Transfer function: =
E (s) s
E(s) Ki U(s)
+
- s
Proportional + Integral Control
• The control action is defined by:
Kp t
u (t ) = K p e(t ) +
Ti ò e(t )dt
0
Integral time
U (s) æ 1 ö
Transfer function: = K p çç1 + ÷÷
E (s) è Ti s ø
E(s) K p (1 + Ti s ) U(s)
+
- Ti s
Proportional + Derivative Control
• The control action is defined by:
de(t )
u (t ) = K p e(t ) + K pTd
dt
Derivative time
U (s)
Transfer function: = K p (1 + Td s )
E (s)
E(s) U(s)
+ K p (1 + Td s )
-
Proportional + Integral + Derivative
• This combination has the advantages of each of the three
individual control actions.
Kp t de(t )
Controller equation: u (t ) = K p e(t ) +
Ti ò
0
e(t )dt + K pTd
dt
U (s) æ 1 ö
Transfer function: ç
= K p ç1 + + Td s ÷÷
E (s) è Ti s ø
+
E(s)
(
K p 1 + Ti s + TiTd s 2 ) U(s)
- Ti s
PID Controller Using Op-amps
Z1
•
Z2
C1
R2 C2
R4
R1
R3
-
-
Ei(s) +
E(s) + Eo(s)
E (s) Z R1 R C s +1
=- 2 where Z1 = ; Z2 = 2 2
Ei ( s ) Z1 R1C1s + 1 C2 s
PID Controller Using Op-amps
E (s) æ R2C2 s + 1 öæ R1C1s + 1 ö
•
= -çç ÷÷çç ÷÷
Ei ( s ) è C2 s øè R1 ø
Eo ( s ) R4
We also have: =-
E (s) R3
Multiplying: Eo ( s ) é T ù
= K p ê1 + i + Td s ú
Ei ( s ) ë s û
Eo ( s ) R4 ( R1C1 + R2C2 ) é 1 R1C1 R2C2 ù
= ê1 + + sú
Ei ( s ) R3 R1C2 ë (R1C1 + R2C2 )s (R1C1 + R2C2 ) û
Disturbance Effect
• The closed- loop system below is subjected to a disturbance
• Since this is a linear system, superposition holds:
• Treat the reference input and the disturbance independently
• Add the outputs to each of these inputs to get the complete output.
Disturbance Alone
• Assume the reference input is zero and find CD
CD (s) G2 ( s )
=
D( s ) 1 + G1 ( s )G2 ( s ) H ( s )
Reference Input Alone
• Assume the disturbance is zero and find CR
CR (s) G1 (s)G2 (s)
=
R(s) 1 + G1 (s)G2 (s)H (s)
Total Response
• Add both response together:
G2 ( s )
C (s) = CR (s) + CD (s) = [G1 ( s) R( s) + D( s)]
1 + G1 ( s )G2 ( s ) H ( s )
Analysis
• What happens when |G1(s)H(s)| >>1 and
|G1(s)G2(s)H(s)| >>1?
• The response becomes independent of the disturbance:
CD (s) G2 ( s ) 0
=
D( s ) 1 + G1 ( s )G2 ( s ) H ( s )
• The closed loop transfer function is independent of the
gains:
CR (s) G1 ( s )G2 ( s ) 1
=
D( s ) 1 + G1 ( s )G2 ( s ) H ( s ) H (s)
Block Diagram Reduction
• Blocks can be connected in series only if the output of one
block is not effected by the next following block.
• If there are any loading effects between the components, they
must be combined into a single block instead of cascading.
• Any number of cascaded blocks representing non-loading
components can be replaced by a single block. In this case the
resulting transfer function is the product of the individual
transfer functions.
Block Diagram Reduction
• We can reduce a complicated block diagram by step-by-step
rearrangement.
• The net effect is to reduce the subsequent mathematical
analysis.
• Unfortunately, the transfer functions in the new blocks become
more complex.
Block Diagram Reduction
• Moving the take-off point after the block
• Moving the take-off point before the block
Block Diagram Reduction
• Moving summing point after the block
• Moving the summing point ahead (before) the block
Example
H2
•
R - C
+- + G1 + G2 G3
+
H1
H2
G1
R - C
+- + + G1 G2 G3
+
H1
H2
G1
R - G1G2 C
+- + G3
1 - G1G2 H1
R G1G2G3 C
+-
1 - G1G2 H 1 + G2G3 H 2
R G1G2G3 C
1 - G1G2 H 1 + G2G3 H 2 + G1G2G3
Linearization
• Although linearity is a nice property to have, the reality is that
most systems are non-linear.
• Indeed, even most of the systems that we consider linear are
actually only linear in a given range.
• Nevertheless, linearity is an approximation, which greatly
simplifies the analysis of systems.
Linearization
• In many control applications, the normal operation of the
system may be around an equilibrium point.
• Furthermore, the signals may be considered to vary very little
around this equilibrium point.
• In such conditions, it is possible to linearize the system, or in
other words to approximate the non-linear system by a linear
system.
Linearization
• This linear approximation is only valid for a limited operating
range.
Linearization
• To linearize a function we perform a Taylor series expansion
about the equilibrium point and only use the linear components
of this expansion.
• Such an approximation is valid if the higher order terms of
Taylor series expansion are relatively small.
Linearization
• Consider a system whose input is x and output is y.
y = f (x)
• Assume the normal operating conditions are "̅ ,#%
and expand the above equation about these points (the
derivatives are evaluated at " = "̅ ):
!" $̅ % !! " $̅
% = ' "̅ + " − "̅ + (" − ")+…..
̅
!$ &! !$!
df 1 d2 f
y = f ( x ) + (x - x ) + 2
(x - x ) + !
dx 2! dx
Linearization
• Therefore: y = f (x )
y = y + K (x - x) df
K=
dx x= x
and: y - y = K (x - x)