Methods of Data Collection,
Organization and Presentation
Present by:
Eng Said Ibrahim
Overview
Introduction
Data Collection Methods.
Choosing a Method of Data Collection.
Types of Questions.
Methods of data organization and presentation.
Graphical representation of qualitative data.
Introduction
Data collection is the process of gathering information from various sources
to understand and analyze a specific problem or phenomenon.
Before any statistical work can begin, accurate and relevant data must be
collected.
The quality of the conclusions drawn from a study depends largely on the
quality of the data collected.
Data Collection Methods
Observation Postal or mail method and
Face-to-face and self-
telephone interviews
administered interviews
Using available Focus group discussions Other data collection
information (FGD) techniques
life histories, case studies,
etc.
Observation
Observation is a data collection technique that involves
systematically selecting, watching, and recording the behaviors of
people, events, or other phenomena as they occur in their natural
settings.
The purpose is to gather specific and accurate information related to
the study objectives. Observation can range from simple visual
monitoring — such as noting customer behavior in a store — to the
use of advanced instruments, cameras, or sensors that measure
physical or technical processes.
Interviews and self-administered questionnaires: are
among the most commonly used techniques for collecting
Interviews and research data.
Questionnaires
What exactly do we want to know? Are interviews or
questionnaires the most suitable methods, or should they be
combined with other techniques such as observation or
record analysis?
Who will be asked? Do we understand the topic well enough
to design a structured questionnaire, or should we begin
with loosely structured interviews or focus group discussions
to gain orientation?
Are respondents literate or illiterate? Self-administered
questionnaires are unsuitable for illiterate populations.
How large is the sample? Large samples often require
short, structured questionnaires, while smaller studies
allow for open-ended questions and greater flexibility.
Types of Interviews Structured interviews
Semi-structured interviews
Unstructured interviews
Problems in gathering data
Common problems might include
Language barriers.
Lack of adequate time.
Expense.
inadequately trained and experienced staff.
Invasion of privacy.
Suspicion.
Cultural norms.
Choosing a Method of Data Collection
The statistical data may be classified under two categories, depending upon the sources:
Primary data Secondary data
are those data, which are When an investigator uses
collected by the investigator data, which have already been
himself for the purpose of a collected by others, such data
specific inquiry or study are called "Secondary Data".
Types of Questions
Open-ended questions
Closed Questions
Open-ended questions permit free responses that
Closed questions offer a list of possible options
should be recorded in the respondent’s own words.
or answers from which the respondents must
The respondent is not given any possible answers to
choose. When designing closed questions one
choose from.
should try to:
Such questions are useful to obtain information on: ➢ Offer a list of options that are exhaustive and
➢ Facts with which the researcher is not very mutually exclusive
familiar, ➢ Keep the number of options as few as
➢ Opinions, attitudes, and suggestions of possible.
informants, or
➢ Sensitive issues. What is your marital status?
Methods of data organization and presentation
Array (ordered array) is a serial arrangement of numerical data in an ascending or descending order.
Methods of data organization and presentation
📌Frequency Distribution: is a statistical method used to organize data into categories or classes and
show how often (how many times) each value or group of values occurs
Raw Data (Test Scores):
15, 12, 18, 20, 16, 14, 12, 19, 20, 18
Class Interval
Frequency (f)
11 – 13 2
14 – 16 3
17 – 19 3
20 – 22 2
Methods of data organization and presentation
📌 Discrete (Ungrouped) Frequency Distribution: In this form of distribution, the frequency refers to
discrete value. Here the data are presented in a way that exact measurement of units are clearly
indicated.
THANK YOU!
FOR YOUR ATTENSTION
WILL CONTINUE IN THE NEXT CLASS INSH.
Solutions:
Nature of Class
1) Class Limits: Class limits are the lowest and highest
values that can be included in a given class interval.
Example:
For the class 30–40,
The lower class limit (L) is 30
The upper class limit (U) is 40
2) Class Interval: The class interval is the size or width of each
group of data in a frequency distribution.
It tells us how wide each class is — that is, the difference
between the upper and lower limits of a class.
Example:
Consider the following classes: 30-40,40-50
3) Class Size (or Class Width): Both class size and class width
mean the numerical difference between the upper and lower
limits of a class interval.
It tells us how wide each class is — that is, the difference
between the upper and lower limits of a class.
Formula:
Class Interval (i)=Upper Class Limit−Lower Class Limit
i=U−L For class 30–40, i=U-L , 40-30= 10
4) Range: is the difference between the largest and the
smallest values in a dataset.
Formula:
R=Largest value−Smallest value
R=L−S
R=100−30=70
Meaning:
A large range means the data values are widely spread,
while a small range means the data values are closer together.
5) Mid-value or Mid-point: The mid-value (also called mid-
point) is the central point of a class interval.
Formula:
Mid-value= L+U
2
30+40= 70 =35
2 2
6) Frequency: is the number of observations (or data values) that fall within a particular
class interval.
Total
Frequency=25+53+77+95+80+60+30=420
7) Number of Class Intervals: The number of class intervals (or number of classes) in a
frequency table refers to how many groups the data is divided into.
To find the optimal number of classes, you can use Sturges’ formula:
k=1+3.322log10N
Where:
k = Number of classes.
N = Total number of observations (data values)
8) Size of the Class Interval: The size of the class interval (C) shows how wide each class
is in a frequency distribution.
It is inversely proportional to the number of classes
→ More classes → Smaller class size
→ Fewer classes → Larger class size
Basic formula
C=
Types of Class Intervals
a) b) c)
Graphical Representation of Qualitative Data
1. Bar Graph (or Bar Chart): is a type of chart that uses rectangular bars to represent
data.
Graphical Representation of Qualitative Data
Graphical Representation of Qualitative Data
2. Pie Chart: pie chart is a circular chart used to represent data as parts (or sectors) of a
whole.
Each sector (or slice) of the circle corresponds to a category.
MERITS OF DIAGRAMMATIC PRESENTATION OF DATA
1️⃣ Attractive and Easy to Understand.
2️⃣ No Technical Knowledge Required.
3️⃣ Saves Time and Effort.
4️⃣ Show Data Clearly and Accurately.
5️⃣ Leave a Lasting Impression.
6️⃣ Language is Not a Barrier.
7️⃣ Widely Used Tool.
DEMERITS OF DIAGRAMMATIC PRESENTATION OF DATA
1️⃣ Diagrams are Approximations.
2️⃣ Cannot Show Small Differences Accurately.
3️⃣ Large Differences Spoil Appearance.
4️⃣ Some Diagrams Require Expertise