Immediate Inference
In formal logic, immediate inference is a form of deductive reasoning where a
conclusion is drawn from a single premise without any mediating third term.
There are two primary ways to perform immediate inferences: through Logical
Opposition (using the relationships on the Square of Opposition) and Logical Equivalence
(often called Eduction, involving the manipulation of terms).
Logical Opposition: The Square of Opposition
Logical opposition describes the relationship between categorical propositions that
have the same subject and predicate but differ in quantity (universal vs. particular), quality
(affirmative vs. negative), or both.
The Four Relationships of Opposition:
1. Contradictories (A & O, E & I): These propositions have opposite truth values. They
cannot both be true and cannot both be false.
a. Example: If "All humans are mortal" (A) is True, then "Some humans are not
mortal" (O) must be False.
2. Contraries (A & E): These cannot both be true, but they can both be false.
a. Example: "All apples are red" and "No apples are red" cannot both be true
simultaneously, but they could both be false if some apples are green.
3. Subcontraries (I & O): These cannot both be false, but they can both be true.
a. Example: "Some dogs are friendly" and "Some dogs are not friendly" can both
be true at once.
4. Subalternation (A & I, E & O): The truth of the universal (Superaltern) implies the
truth of the particular (Subaltern). However, the falsity of the particular implies the
falsity of the universal.
a. Example: If "All S is P" is true, then "Some S is P" is necessarily true.
Logical Equivalence (Eduction)
Logical equivalence (or Eduction) involves rephrasing a proposition to create a new
one that carries the same truth value. This is done by interchanging terms or using "non-"
(complements).
A. Conversion
Definition: Interchanging the subject and predicate terms.
• Valid for: E and I propositions.
• Invalid for: A and O (unless it is "Conversion by Limitation," which changes
the quantity).
• Example: "No dogs are cats" (E) becomes "No cats are dogs."
B. Obversion
Definition: Changing the quality of the proposition (affirmative to negative) and
replacing the predicate with its contradictory term (e.g., "P" becomes "non-P").
• Valid for: All propositions (A, E, I, O).
• Example: "All men are mortal" (A) becomes "No men are non-mortal."
C. Contraposition
Definition: Interchanging the subject and predicate terms and replacing both with
their contradictory terms.
• Valid for: A and O propositions.
• Invalid for: E and I (unless using "Contraposition by Limitation").
• Example: "All cats are mammals" (A) becomes "All non-mammals are non-
cats."
Summary Table of Valid Inferences
Proposition Type Valid via Valid via Obversion? Valid via
Conversion? Contraposition?
A (All S is P) No (Undetermined) Yes (No S is non-P) Yes (All non-P is non-
S)
E (No S is P) Yes (No P is S) Yes (All S is non-P) No (Undetermined)
I (Some S is P) Yes (Some P is S) Yes (Some S is not No (Undetermined)
non-P)
O (Some S is not P) No (Undetermined) Yes (Some S is non- Yes (Some non-P is
P) not non-S)
References:
Copi, I.M. et al. (2018). Introduction to Logic. Routledge.
Hurley, P.J. (2014). A concise introduction to Logic. Cengage Learning,
Pearsons, T. (2021). The traditional square of opposition”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy.
Smith Scholarworks (2022). Categorical Inferences: Immediate and Mediate. Smith College.
Vance, C.D. (2025). The traditional Square of Opposition. University of Colorado Boulder.