PE Thermodynamics Introduction, Basic, & Supportive Knowledge

Notes

Basic Engineering Practice and Supportive Knowledge

Brian Haygood, P.E.

Introduction to the PE Mechanical Thermal and Fluids Exam

The NCEES Examinee Guide: [Link] covers:

• Rescheduling
• ADA, Military, religious, and other accommodations
• What to bring
• Exam day procedures and schedules

Pearson Vue’s Test-Taker information [Link] and their Test Accommodations pages:

• Instructions for requesting accommodations due to a disability

• Nursing mother and other requested accommodations
• The approved Comfort Aid list: [Link]
takers/Accommodations/[Link]

What to bring: (examples)

See guidelines on what you can bring, what you can have on your desk, and “comfort items”

No pens or pencils

No straight-edges (There is a line drawing tool in the exam software)

Glasses, but not a case for glasses

Glucose tablets, but not hard candy

Ibuprofen, but not in a container

Cough drops, but not individually wrapped, and not in a bottle or container

Ear plugs? Are those a special accommodation or an allowed item?

(Answer: Pearson provides them on request)

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 PE Thermodynamics Introduction, Basic, & Supportive Knowledge
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Do your research at [Link] and Pearson-Vue.

NCEES/Pearson will provide dry erase marker and blank laminated pages, or an
erasable whiteboard.

Things you can be sure of:

Leave no questions blank: There is no penalty for answering incorrectly.

An unapproved calculator will get you kicked out of the exam

Ductolators and other forms of slide rules are calculators, too. As of the writing of this sentence
(July of 2023), approved calculators are:

• Casio: All fx-115 and fx-991 models (Any Casio calculator must have “fx-115” or “fx-991” in its name.)
• Hewlett Packard: The HP 33s and HP 35s models, but no others
• Texas Instruments: All TI-30X and TI-36X models (Any Texas Instruments calculator must have “TI-
30X” or “TI-36X” in its model name.)

Failure to prepare will cause you to fail

Time is important, but should not limit your performance. You ensure this by practicing. Take two
timed practice exams and score them before sitting for the actual exam. Practice exams are available from
NCEES, PPI, and others. The NCEES Practice Exam is the most valuable, and should be done last.

Not every question is for you

Examinees come from two main groups:

"Students" - These examinees are typically four to five years out of school. They have a broad base
of engineering knowledge, are proficient with a calculator, and are used to a test environment.

"Elders" - These are industry professionals who know hundreds of details about the industry their
younger colleagues would have to look up.

Some questions are specifically aimed at "Students", while others are aimed specifically at "Elders".
Both should prepare for the course in essentially the same way. It is nearly impossible for a student to learn
every word of the ASHRAE Handbooks, every NFPA resource, etc. However, they have a speed and time
advantage on broader problems. Students should limit the time they spend chasing an obscure fact they
have never heard of. Use the Reference Handbook to see what you can quickly dig up, but be willing to let it
go.

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 PE Thermodynamics Introduction, Basic, & Supportive Knowledge
Notes

There will be excess information in the problems

As in the real world, you will need to determine which facts are relevant and it should not feel
unusual to ignore extra information you do not need in the problem statement.

The multiple choice answer choices are not randomly generated

There is one correct answer and typically three others. Those others are not random numbers. They
are purposefully chosen numbers or solutions based on common misconceptions, common calculator errors,
common units errors, etc. Resolve this when you can by deciding what a practical answer might be before
you begin. For example, if you calculate that you need a to insulate a wall with insulation that is 587 inches
thick, you have done something wrong.

Taking an 9-hour exam is not entertaining

The passing score is 70. That is a scaled score, not a percentage.

The percentage of questions correct needed to achieve a score of 70 varies for each exam. After the
exam, erroneous questions are removed, new questions NCEES is testing are excluded, and the passing
percentage is determined based on everyone's performance on that exam.

Getting problems wrong feels awful

You are probably used to getting 85 to 95% of all questions on an exam correct. Because not every
question is for you on this exam, the passing grade on this exam is some unknown value between 60% and
80%. Missing three out of ten questions feels awful. Get used to it. Getting a traditional “C” on this exam is
complete success, and getting an “A” is rare.

Most reference and practice problems are harder than all but a few exam questions
Exam questions may, at times, be obscure, but most of them are easier than published practice
problems. The NCEES practice exam questions are the closest to real exam questions overall, but practice
problem books can do a great job of preparing you for the hard ones. Their questions will generally take you
ten minutes or so to solve, but they will prepare you to solve the same questions much faster on test day.

Use units effectively

In some cases, a concept you have never heard of can be dealt with just by looking at the units on
what you are given and the answer choices. Units can also help eliminate wrong answer choices.

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 PE Thermodynamics Introduction, Basic, & Supportive Knowledge
Notes

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 PE Thermodynamics Introduction, Basic, & Supportive Knowledge
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Basic equations do not change between US and SI unit systems

Some references give you different equations for US and SI units; especially by adding "g" to US
versions. This is suggested in the NCEES Reference handbook, pages 2 and 3. This is unsound. Physics
doesn't change when units systems change. Some equations combine common units conversions with the
base equation. These are often helpful, but only if you understand what units you have to use and what
limits they impose on the equation.

You are very likely to pass this exam

School of PE live review course takers have a passing rate of 96% for this exam vs. the overall test
taker average of 75%. People who failed the exam the first time have a passing rate of 75% vs. the average
of 43%. (See [Link] for updated numbers based on the most recent exam).

Not everyone will pass. Those who do not pass usually report something interfered with the time
they allotted for studying or they failed to plan adequate time to study.

Many states limit how often you can take the exam. For example, 3 times in four years. NCEES limits
you to one test per quarter and three tests per year.

Terrible exam taking advice: Things not to do:

Bad idea: "If you have spent six minutes on a problem, stop working and come back to it later."

Six minutes is an average. Some questions on the exam will take longer than average. Having spent
six minutes on a problem, if you stop and come back to it, you will have to waste time 1) keeping a list of
problems to come back to, 2) find the problem again, 3) reread the problem, and 4) remember where you
left off and what you needed to do next. You will solve most problems in about two minutes without using
any reference material.

Good idea: Only give up on a problem if you have no idea what the problem is asking for or where in the
Reference Handbook to even look. You may have to reread the problem or be willing to change course to
find a solution.

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 PE Thermodynamics Introduction, Basic, & Supportive Knowledge
Notes

Supplied Reference Handbook:

Do not bring references. Download an electronic copy of the supplied reference from [Link].
After you log in to MyNCEES, see “Useful Documents” on the Right half of the screen.

Per the NCEES exam Specification:

• Topics have not changed since 2017

• Closed book and computer based. The Reference Handbook will be on your screen and
word searchable.
• International System of units (SI) and U.S. Customary System (USCS) units will be used.

9-hours and 80 questions: 8 hours with a 50 minute break, 8 minute tutorial, and 2 minutes to sign the
non-disclosure agreement.

That's an average of six minutes per question. Six minutes is not a deadline.

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 PE Thermodynamics Introduction, Basic, & Supportive Knowledge
Notes

Engineering Terms, Symbols, and Technical Drawings –

Terms and Symbols:

Generally, terms and symbols will be discussed as they are used in each section. Examples are ““
used for Ohms of resistance, or “h” used for specific enthalpy.

ANSI and ISO Orthographic Projection Styles (NCEES, pp 59,60):

ISO uses first-angle projection ANSI uses third-angle projection

ISO/First-angle resembles tumbling the object across a surface

ANSI/Third-angle is described as wrapping the object in a glass box and tracing from each side of the box.

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 PE Thermodynamics Introduction, Basic, & Supportive Knowledge
Notes

Drawing Sizes:

Sizes A through E double the size of the page with each size, rotating it 90 degrees:

Letter Designation Width Length

A 8.5 11
B 11 17
C 17 22
D 22 34
E 34 44
F 28 40
J 34 48 to 144

Drawing Line Styles (NCEES pg 61):

Cutaway Assembly View

Identify centerlines, hidden, phantom, and visible lines
Hatch patterns no longer reliably indicate material type

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 PE Thermodynamics Introduction, Basic, & Supportive Knowledge
Notes

Hydraulic Power Drawings (NCEES pp 62, 63):

In the system shown, if the pump fails or is turned off,

and the shut-off valve is open, which movements of the
cylinder might occur:

a) The cylinder could extend with the electric servo

valve block shifted to the left
b) The cylinder could extend with the servo valve
shifted to the right
c) The cylinder can extend or retract with neither
control actuated
d) The cylinder could not be moved without the
pump turned on

Piping and Instrument Drawings (P&IDs):

P&IDs do not show the physical layout of a system and are not to scale. Instead, they show the
sequence of components and relationships between the working fluid and associated hardware, such
as valves and sensors.

Parameter Device Type

F = Flow R = Recorder
T = Temperature I = Indicator
P = Pressure C = Controller
I = Current T = Transmitter
L = Level M = Modifier
V = Voltage E = Element (sensor)
Z = Position/Height

Signal Types:
I = Current
V = Voltage
P = Pneumatic

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 PE Thermodynamics Introduction, Basic, & Supportive Knowledge
Notes

A device parameter and type can be combined to form an instrument identifier. Signal Types are
optionally used when a signal is modified. Examples include:

FIC = Flow Indicating Controller PE = Pressure Transmitter

FM = Flow Modifier FE = Flow Element
TE = Temperature Element FI = Flow Indicator
TR = Temperature Recorder TI = Temperature Indicator
LIC = Level Indicating Controller FC = Flow Controller

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 PE Thermodynamics Introduction, Basic, & Supportive Knowledge
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Example:

Identify the following by letter or number: • Conductivity cell

• Current-to-pneumatic converter
• Reservoir
• Valve that will fail in the open
• Heat exchanger
position
• Relief valve
• Valve that will fail in the closed
• Motorized valve
position
• Pump
• Valve that will fail without changing
• Solenoid valve
position
• Air line
• Check valve What controls valve 10?
• Rupture disc
What valves must change position for pump
• Venture
B to supply flow only to points G and H

Note: Optionally, a valve symbol’s triangles can be darkened to indicate their present or intended position is
closed, or left white to indicate they are open.

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 PE Thermodynamics Introduction, Basic, & Supportive Knowledge
Notes

Surface texture symbols: (NCEES pg 64)

The angled point on the bottom of the

symbol is placed in contact with the surface
being described by the symbol.

Dimensioning and Tolerancing Terms:

Allowance: Difference between the maximum material limits of mating parts; minimum clearance or
maximum interference between parts.

Deviation: Difference between nominal/basic size and the actual size of a part.

Maximum Material Condition (MMC): Condition in which the feature contains the maximum
amount of material within the tolerance limits; maximum boss diameter; minimum hole
diameter.

Least Material Condition (LMC): Condition in which the feature contains the minimum amount of
material, while staying within the tolerance limits.

Tolerance: Total amount by which a dimension is allowed to vary; the difference between the
maximum and minimum limits.

Standard Tolerances: A drawing or specification may specify standard tolerances for all dimensions in
a drawing, such as those shown in a title block.

Cylindrical Fits (NCEES pg 85 – 102, 140):

ANSI: Example: A hole and shaft are to have a fit described by “60K7h6”.

Hole Basis: The hole is at least the nominal size, uses “H” for the hole
Shaft Basis: The shaft is no bigger than the nominal size, uses “h” for the shaft.
Higher numbers in these ISO descriptions require less accuracy in manufacture.

Per page 102, “60K7h6” is a shaft basis transition fit – a transition between interference and clearance
fits. The nominal size is 60mm. What are the minimum and maximum dimensions for the hole and
shaft? Interference fit stress is given in 2.11.3 (pg 140).

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 PE Thermodynamics Introduction, Basic, & Supportive Knowledge
Notes

Units and Conversions -

Conversion Factors:

We can multiply any quantity by one (1) without changing its meaning.
We can do so as many times as we like.

One can also be written as 1/1, or 24/24, or 5987/5987. As long as the numerator equals the denominator, the
fraction equals one (1) and we can multiply by it at will.

Useful conversion factors are fractions in which the numerator equals the denominator.

Example: Newton’s Second Law (Linear)

𝑭 = 𝑚𝒂 Units Defined:

1[𝑁] ≡ 1[𝑘𝑔] * 1[𝑚/𝑠2] 𝑜𝑟

1[lbf] ≡ 1[𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔] * 1[𝑓𝑡/𝑠2] or
1[lbf] = 32.174 [lbm] * 1[𝑓𝑡/𝑠2] 1g = 32.174 ft/s2

Conversion factors:

kg m N s2 slug ft lbf s2 lbf s2

1= = kg m = = =
N s2 lbf s2 slug ft 32.174 lbm ft

The “Measurement Relationships” table on NCEES pg 2 says:

To get horsepower as units from Btu/hr units, the table is intended to be read,
“multiply Btu/hr by 3.930 x 10-4 to obtain horsepower."

What we are really doing is using the conversion factor that can be read
3.2𝑥10−4 ℎ𝑝
1 BTU/hr = 3.93𝑥10−4ℎ𝑝 or ( )
1 𝐵𝑇𝑈⁄ℎ𝑟

The table also includes

3.2𝑥10−4 ℎ𝑝 ℎ𝑟
1 𝐵𝑡𝑢 = 3.93𝑥10−4ℎ𝑝 ℎ𝑟 or ( )
1 𝐵𝑇𝑈

So, in the NCEES Handbook Units table (NCEES pg 2), visualize a "1" before the first column, and equal
sign between the first two columns.

0.1337 𝑐𝑢𝑓𝑡 1 𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑛

e.g. 1 gallons = 0.1337 cubic feet or ( 1 𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑛
) or (0.1337 𝑓𝑡 3)

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 PE Thermodynamics Introduction, Basic, & Supportive Knowledge
Notes

EXAMPLE - Unit Conversion - Energy

A car weighing 3000 lb traveling at 70 mph has what kinetic energy?

1
EKinetic = mv 2
2
1 2 6
mi2
EKinetic = (3000 lbm) ∗ (70MPH) = 7.35x10 lbm 2
2 hr

mi2 5280 ft 2 1 hr 2
6 7
ft 2
7.35x10 lbm 2 ( ) ( ) = 1.58x10 lbm 2
hr 1 mi 3600 s s

ft2 1lbf
or 1.58x107 lbm ( ) = 491𝑥103 𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏𝑓
s2 1lbm 32.2 ft/s2

1.285𝑥10−3 𝐵𝑇𝑈
or 491𝑥103 𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏𝑓 ( ) = 631 𝐵𝑇𝑈
1 𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏𝑓

________________________________________________________________

A 35kg mass is suspended from a spring with a constant of 100N/m. What is the natural frequency of the
system in Hz?

m = 35kg
k = 100N/m

100𝑁/𝑚 100𝑘𝑔𝑚2 /𝑠2 2.86

𝜔 = √𝑘⁄𝑚 = √ =√ =√ = 1.7 ?
35𝑘𝑔 35𝑘𝑔 𝑠2

1.7rad/s * (1cycles/2rad) = 0.27 Hz (cycles/sec)

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 PE Thermodynamics Introduction, Basic, & Supportive Knowledge
Notes

Pipe System Analysis:

Pipe Stress / Hoop Stress (NCEES pp 209, 210):

They state that, for shear stress, “Maximum occurs at inner interface surface.” I’m reasonably sure
that statement is only true when internal pressure is higher than external (i.e. pressure tank, not
vacuum tank). All of these equations are a bit clumsy in that they can’t account for non-zero
pressures on both inside and outside, while the equations on page 210 can.

On page 209, the last statement is “For vessels with end caps…”. That limitation is not necessary.
The same equations would work for pipe of any length, or pipe with an elbow, or a u-shaped pipe.
A cap is not necessary for a pipe or vessel to have pressure in it.

The thin-walled vessel definition “D/t > 10” is an error. It should read “r/t > 10” The FE Reference
handbook uses radius and “10”. Mechanics of Materials by Gere & Timoshenko also uses radius.

Which is greater? Hoop stress or axial stress?

What is another name for “hoop stress”? Is it tangential or radial?
What is the difference between the equations for tangential stress and radial stress?

Also, see Relief Valve Accumulation/Overpressure, and Relief Valve Blowdown on pg 210.

Pipe supports (NCEES pp 494-497, 136):

These pages describe the thermal expansion of pipe and the dimensions of L-bends, Z-bends, or
U-bends used to accommodate that expansion.

Deformation caused by a temperature change is given in 2.10.6, on page 136. Note Section 9.5.1’s
(pg 494, 5) table on thermal expansion is in units of “in./100ft”, so these values are ~1200x as large
as the coefficients of thermal expansion (alpha – pg 28) we normally use, which are found in the
material properties table on page 31.

Note the temperatures given in the thermal expansion table can be used to compare actual
temperatures or temperature changes. That is subtracting the 60 degree reading from the 260
degree reading gives you the 200 degree reading, nearly. However, the steam column also tells
you what saturated pressure would be if these were actual temperatures rather than deltas. My
issue with all of this is that most people don’t install pipe at zero stress at zero degrees F, but
maybe I’m being picky.

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 PE Thermodynamics Introduction, Basic, & Supportive Knowledge
Notes

Joints:
Welding (NCEES 191 – 195):

Weld symbols:

Weld symbols specify the type of weld, preparation or fit up of the base materials and weld
dimensions. Extra notes can specify the weld process or other details.

Items below the line apply to the side the arrow points to. Items above apply to the other side.

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 PE Thermodynamics Introduction, Basic, & Supportive Knowledge
Notes

Fillet welds size is based on leg size (foot to

toe). Horizontal and vertical legs are
assumed to be equal unless two
measurements are given.

Weld failure stresses may be based on the

width of the weld’s leg, or the weld throat
(0.707*leg), depending on the stress
scenario.

Heat Affected Zone (HAZ): An area of the

weld metal having altered material properties (embrittlement) due to the heat of the welding process.

Mild steel welding rods are given size designations that contain their strength. For example, E6011
rods have an ultimate tensile strength of 60,000psi. However, E316 rods are made of 316 stainless.

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 PE Thermodynamics Introduction, Basic, & Supportive Knowledge
Notes

Example:

A frame is to be made of welded aluminum box

beams cut to length and joined so that beam axes
are perpendicular. The end of one beam mates
with the face of another, and all four mating edges
are completely welded with a fillet weld. Which of
the following depicts a symbol for an acceptable
weld under these conditions?

Solution:

B is correct.

A and C specify welding inside the hollow beam,

which is not generally possible. D does not meet
the requirement for “completely welded”. The
welding methods described are MIG, TIG,
Electron Beam, and Plasma Arc welding. Any of
these processes could be used to join aluminum,
given the right equipment.

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 PE Thermodynamics Introduction, Basic, & Supportive Knowledge
Notes

Welding Methods:

Soldering: joining by melting a filler metal that melts below 840°F (450°C), but below the solidus
temperature of the base material.

Brazing: filler metal above 840°F (450°C), but below the solidus temperature of the base material.

Welding: joining by fusing the materials to be joined, with or without filler material

Fusion of the materials can be accomplished with

Compression

Friction/Kinetic energy

Flame heating

Electric heating

Energy sources include flame, electric arc, induction loops, explosive charges (fusing layers of
different materials), spinning the work piece, spinning a tungsten bit (stir welding), or simply beating
with a hammer (typical for musical instruments and other welded brass parts).

Oxidation:

Very hot metals oxidize easily. Flame/torch cutting works by oxidizing through the metal. Oxidation
needs to be controlled to produce good welds.

Flux: “Flowing” material – typically a substance that melts due to weld heat and floats on top of the
molten metal to provide a shield against oxidation.

Flux can be provided inside the welding rod (flux-cored solder or welding wire), as a coating on the
exterior of welding rods, as a paste, or in powder form under which the weld is submerged
(Submerged Arc Welding, or SAW). Some flux powders or pastes contain acids that help clean the
base metal prior to welding.

Flame/Gas welding: Oxy-Fuel Welding (OFW) or Oxy-Acetylene Welding (OAW)

Flame welding provides less opportunity to prevent oxidation, so they are often rougher welds with
larger Heat Affected Zones (HAZ) due to the spread of the flame and slower progress/conduction.

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) = Arc Welding / Stick welding: The filler material, a welding
rod, conducts the electricity used to make an arc to provide welding heat.

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 PE Thermodynamics Introduction, Basic, & Supportive Knowledge
Notes

Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) = Metal Inert Gas (MIG), “wire welding”:

Inert shielding gas is used to prevent oxidation. Wire is fed through the gas nozzle.

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) = Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG), or Heliarc.

Electricity is passed through a gas shielded tungsten electrode. Tungsten has very high heat
resistance. The electrode will erode slightly, but is not consumed rapidly during the welding process.
Filler material is not required, but may be added separately in wire form, typically fed in by hand.
Similar in technique to flame welding (torch separate from filler), but with gas shielding and faster
and higher heat delivery. The torch is typically cooled by the inert gas, additional air flow, or
circulated water.

Gas shielded processes may not provide good shielding in windy environments.

Other welding processes:

Induction Welding (IW); Gas/Flame Welding (GW); Thermit Welding (TW); Resistance Welding
(RW) (i.e. spot welding); Electron Beam Welding (EBW); Laser Welding (LW); Diffusion Welding
(DFW).

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 PE Thermodynamics Introduction, Basic, & Supportive Knowledge
Notes

Weld Categories:

Category A: All longitudinal welds in shell and nozzles All welds in heads, Hemispherical-head to
shell weld joint

Category B: All circumferential welds in shell and nozzles. Head to shell joint (other than
Hemispherical heads) (i.e. Seamless heads)

Category C: Flange welds

Category D: Nozzle attachment welds

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 PE Thermodynamics Introduction, Basic, & Supportive Knowledge
Notes

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 PE Thermodynamics Introduction, Basic, & Supportive Knowledge
Notes

Adhesives (NCEES pg 207 – 208):

Adhesive joints fail in the following ways:

•Adhesive failure (a.k.a. Interface failure) – failure of the bond between

the adhesive and the adherant

•Cohesive failure – failure within in the adhesive material

•Fracture jumping – a crack line that jumps across the adhesive to the

interface and back

•Fracture of the adherant

•Yielding of the adherant

Failure can be in yield or shear.

Find the stresses on the materials involved and determine which will fail first.

See NCEES page 207 for adhesive strengths, and page 208 for adhesive application advice.

The most popular quantitative question on this is failure of a glue joint in a laminated beam.

Example:

1) Which layer of adhesive in the beam shown would be

most likely to fail if the beam carries a vertically
downward distributed load and is simply supported at its
ends?

2) What is the maximum shear load at interface B if the

beam is made from five two-by-six boards and is twenty
feet long, carrying a load of two hundred pounds per foot?

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 PE Thermodynamics Introduction, Basic, & Supportive Knowledge
Notes

Solution:

Shear and Bending moment diagrams are optional for this relatively simple example. The total load is
200lb*20ft=4,000lb. Half is supported at each end. The max shear is V = 2,000 lb at the ends of the
beams.

Per “Stress in Beams” on NCEES pages 143, 144:

Transverse shear stress:

𝑉𝑄⁄
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝐼𝑏, where
𝑉 = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑄 = 𝐴′𝑦̅′
𝐴′ = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟 (𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒)𝑢𝑝𝑜𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑠
𝑦̅ ′ = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑖𝑑
𝑏 = 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

V = 2,000 lb at the ends of the beams.

A’ is the total area above the joint. Total area of two 2x6’s = 2*1.5”*5.5” = 16.5 in2

𝑦̅ ′ is the distance from the beam’s centroid to the centroid of area A. y= 2.25”

I for the entire laminated beam is bh3/12 = 5.5”*7.5”3/12 = 193.4in4

b is the width of the cross-section = 5.5”

τxy = VQ/Ib = VA’𝑦̅ ′ /Ib

= 2,000lb * 16.5in2 * 2.25” / ( 193.4 in4 * 5.5” )

= 69.8 psi at interface B.

At Interface A:

= 2,000lb * 8.25in2 * 3” / ( 193.4 in4 * 5.5” )

= 46.5 psi at interface A.

At the center of the beam:

= 2,000lb * 20.625in2 * 1.875“ / ( 193.4 in4 * 5.5” )

= 72.7psi at center of the beam

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SK-24
 PE Thermodynamics Introduction, Basic, & Supportive Knowledge
Notes

Pros (of adhesives)

· Reduce production cost (save time and money)
· Lightweight
· Flexible & Noise Reducing
· Absorbs & Re-distributes force evenly across the area.
· Better resistance to fatigue, impact, vibration. (improved fatigue strength / Cycle life)
· Bond any combination of materials
· Better insulation / Corrosion resistant (prevent dielectric coupling / galvanic corrosion)
· Reduced stress risers / concentration (drilled holes, joints)
· Sealant
· Adds stiffness

Cons (of adhesives)

· Temperature range -40F to 400F
· Not all proven yet, no long term data.
· Unable to be quickly and repeatedly disassembled & re-assembled.
· Susceptible to failure/Lesser resistance to out-of-plane loading.
· Unable to be easily inspected / Difficult to inspect joint quality
· Surface may need to be prepped (cleaning, grit blasting, priming, sanding)
· May need to be cured at high temperatures.
· May be affected by service temperature, humidity, and other environment conditions.

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SK-25
 PE Thermodynamics Introduction, Basic, & Supportive Knowledge
Notes

Threads:

Thread designations:

Metric: M 10 x 1.5 x 50 – 6g6h

M: Metric thread
10: 10mm basic thread size/diameter
1.5: Pitch is 1.5mm per thread
50: 50mm fastener length
6g6h: Tolerance grade of joint

Unified: ¼-20UNC x 3 – 1A

¼: 0.25” Basic thread size/diameter

20UNC: Threads per inch; also may be given as UNC (coarse) or UNF (Fine)
3: Length of the fastener or hole (not just the length of its threads)
1: Class 1 is the loosest fit. Class 3 is the tightest fit.
A: “A” indicates an external thread. “B” indicates internal threads.

A typical ½” bolt fits in a hole ½” in diameter and requires a ¾” wrench.

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SK-26
 PE Thermodynamics Introduction, Basic, & Supportive Knowledge
Notes

Bolted Connections (NCEES pp 195-206)

There are five basic ways to destroy a single fastener (i.e. a bolt or rivet):

a) Shear the fastener – the members shear the rivet just like scissors would;

b) Tears between fasteners – rip one of the sheets of metal and leave the fasteners hanging
loosely in the other piece (too many fasteners);

c) Crushing – The fastener’s cross-sectional/projected area gets crushed – the weakest material
will crush first (too few fasteners);

d) Slot Tear-out – Shearing the sides of the part to form a slot extending to the end of the part

e) Tension – page 197 – you pull the fastener apart in tension, pull its head off, or pull it through
the material.

See NCEES pages 195 and 196 for the first four failure types

Fastener Groups in Shear (NCEES pages 196, 197):

• The centroid of the group is the average location of fastener cross-section (sum of each
fastener’s size times its location, divided by the sum of all fastener sizes (i.e. areas)).

• The centroid of the group is the group’s center of rotation.

Example:

Find the centroid location relative to the lower left corner of the bracket
shown for the group of ½” bolts shown if the lower right bolt is missing.

Solution:

Let Ai = 1 in2, or 1 unit y1 = y4 = 5”

x1 = x2 = x3 = 1” y2 = y5 = 3”

x4 = x5 = 3” y3 = 1”

Aixi = 9in3; Ai = 5in2 Aiyi = 17in3; Ai = 5in2

x-centroid is at 9/5” or 1.8” y-centroid is at 17/5” or 3.4”

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SK-27
 PE Thermodynamics Introduction, Basic, & Supportive Knowledge
Notes

Tension Connections and Bolt Specifications (NCEES pg 197 – 206):

Torque Requirements section (NCEES pg 197, 198):

Find the tightening torque needed to achieve a given preload

Example:

To what torque must a bright finish (i.e. galvanized) 1/2” diameter Grade 5 coarse thread bolt be
tightened to generate a preload of 90% of its proof load?

Solution:

Starting at the bottom of the section, collect data from the tables in the handbook:

• Torque coefficient K = 0.20 for a galvanized (zinc-plated) bolt.

• Proof stress for a Grade 5 1/2” bolt is 85kpsi
• Tensile stress area for a 1/2”-13UNC
bolt is 0.1419in2.

T = K Fi d = K (0.90 AtSp) 1/2” = 0.20 (0.90 * 0.1419in2 * 85,000 lb/in2) ½” = 1,086 [Link].

1,086 [Link] = 90.5 [Link].

External Loads (NCEES, pg. 197):

P = externally applied load – an axial load, such as an eye

bolt being pulled axially, or the two flanges shown at Right
being pulled apart by pressure or by the weight of attached
pipes.

Everything acts like a spring. Zero preload means the

flanges are touching, but not tightly clamped to each other.
If you apply ANY axial force, the bolt will stretch and the
flanges will separate.

More preload means more compression on the bolted

material. To separate them, you need an axial force (P)
that stretches the bolt enough to decompress the flanges. The flanges are expanding back out while
you do it. The stiffness (i.e. spring constant) for the bolt and bolted members needs to be known.

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SK-28
 PE Thermodynamics Introduction, Basic, & Supportive Knowledge
Notes

In the FE Reference Handbook, equations were given to calculate stiffnesses kb and km depending on
the dimensions of the joint. These are not given in the PE Reference Handbook.
It is safe to assume you won’t need them.

They also do not discuss factors of safety against bolt failure or joint separation like they did for the
FE. As such, you can only solve about half of the kind of problem you need to solve in the real
world.

Joint separation occurs when Fm = 0, which occurs when Pb = Fi.

If you pull hard enough that the bolt takes all of the load, the joint decompresses, and you have
removed all of the preload from the members by stretching the bolt.

They did not provide the easiest method for calculating the portion of the external load carried by
(i.e. compressing) the bolted members: Pm = P – Pb = P(1-C).

Member and bolt stiffness act in parallel. The total stiffness is kb + km. C is the portion of total
stiffness carried by the bolt. 1-C is the portion carried by the members.

Example: For bolt stiffness of 5x106 lb/in and member stiffness 10x106 lb/in, find C.

Solution: C = 5 / 15 = 0.33

Example: If the members are four times as stiff as the bolt, find C.

Solution: C = 1 / (1 + 4) = 0.2

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SK-29
 PE Thermodynamics Introduction, Basic, & Supportive Knowledge
Notes

Thermo Basic & Supportive Knowledge Problems:

1) A league is 3 nautical miles. A nautical mile is 1.15078 statute miles. A ship travels 6 leagues in an hour
using an 80% efficient propeller directly driven by a 200hp engine running at full throttle at 2400RPM.
The ship weighs 76 metric tons.

a. How much torque is turning the propeller?

b. How much water does the ship displace in cubic feet?

c. How much drag is the water putting on the hull of the ship in pounds?

2) A hole is two inches by two inches from the lower left corner of a plate. A note on the leader to the hole states
“20H7/u6”. What is the minimum distance between the left edge of the part and the rim of the hole.

3) A 63’ long copper pipe is heated to 200F. How much will the pipe expand?

a. 0.9 ft
b. 1.5 in
c. 1 in
d. 1.1 in

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SK-30
 PE Thermodynamics Introduction, Basic, & Supportive Knowledge
Notes

4) A run of 8” diameter mild steel pipe containing steam will experience 2 inches of expansion over 100’.
An acceptable method of relieving stress within the run of pipe would be

a. A z-bend with a 16” leg length and thrust blocks at all corners
b. A u-bend with a width of 5.5 inches and a height of 11 inches
c. An electric heat trace and insulation along the pipe to keep its temperature stable
d. A nice relaxing massage

5) Five 1/8" thick steel plates are glued to each other by some guy who couldn't find a few bolts or a
welder. The adhesive covers a 2" by 3" area at each interface. The shear strength of the epoxy is 1,200
psi. Epoxy coverage is 90%. What pulling force can the assembly handle?

6) A 2" long Grade 5 1/2-13 bolt with a threaded length of 1-1/4" is used in tension to bolt a bracket to the
3/4" thick wall of the steel beam above it. A fender washer 0.109" thick is used under the nut. The steel
bracket is 1/4" thick. The zinc-plated bolt is tightened to a torque of 76 ft-lb. With a 10,000 lb load
suspended from the bracket, find Fb, P, and Fm.

Note: for the FE exam, we would solve this problem as-is. For the PE, we will also give you the
following: kb = 4.55x106 lb/in; and km = 15.15x106 lb/in

This copy is given to the following student as part of School of PE course. Not allowed to distribute to others.
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SK-31
 PE Thermodynamics Introduction, Basic, & Supportive Knowledge
Notes

7) A flange on an eighteen inch diameter pressure vessel cap is to be secured with twelve Grade 5 1/2-13
bolts in tension. The ratio of stiffness of the bolts to the connected parts is 4:1. Bolt tension creates a
preload of 5,000lbf in each bolt. The tank’s pressure will be held at 175psig.

a. Will the joint separate?

b. What is the axial stress in each bolt?

c. If it does not separate, determine the load factor for the bolts (i.e. the factor of safety against
meeting the proof strength of the bolt)?

d. What is the factor of safety for the bolts (against meeting the yield strength of the bolts)?

8) Which of the following fits likely requires the most precise machining?
a) 25H6u6 b) 50H6k6 c) 24H9k7 d)26H8g6

This copy is given to the following student as part of School of PE course. Not allowed to distribute to others.
Gabriel Ramos de la Cruz (gabrielramosdlc14@[Link])
SK-32