INVERSION

I have seldom seen such beautiful work Seldom have I seen such beautiful work.
She had never seen such a beautiful sight before Never had she seen such a beautiful sight before
You will rarely hear such beautiful music  Rarely will you hear such beautiful music.
As soon as I got to school, I started classes No sooner had I got to school than I started classes
As soon as I arrived home, I had dinner Barely had I arrived home when I had dinner
As soon as I got off the bus, it crashed into the back of a car Scarcely had I got off the bus when it crashed into the back of
the car
I had hardly got into the bed when the telephone rang  Hardly had I got into the bed when the telephone rang
He speaks English. He speaks German Not only does he speak English but he also speaks German
I finally understood inversion when Mr. Zaplana explained it to me  Only when Mr. Zaplana explained inversion did I
understand it
It was only at that moment that I realized why the tragedy had occurred Only then did I understand why the tragedy had
happened
I have never had such bad service anywhere  Nowhere have I ever had such bad service
He knew little about what was going to happen Little did he know what was going to happen!
John could earn enough money to survive only in this way Only in this way could John earn enough money to survive
I don’t agree with what you’re saying in any way In no way do I agree with what you’re saying
You should never share your phone password with anyone On no account should you share your phone password with
anyone
You must not leave the room unescorted under any circumstance Under no circumstance must you leave the room
unescorted
I didn’t really believe he was safe until I saw John with my own eyes Not until I saw John with my own eyes did I really believe
he was safe
Lucy hasn’t had such a wonderful time since she left college Not since Lucy left college has she had such a wonderful time
I only understood why she wanted to live there after I’d seen her flat Only after I’d seen her flat did I understand why she
wanted to live there
We could afford to eat only by working extremely hard Only by working extremely hard could we afford to eat
Argentina won the world cup because Dibu played brilliantly But for Dibu’s brilliance, Argentina wouldn’t have won the
world cup
“How about going to the cinema tonight?” said Anne  Anne suggested going to the cinema
I’m sure it will snow tomorrow It is bound to snow tomorrow
It was polite of you to give me a hand when I most needed it  I would appreciate you giving me a hand when…
Would you like to go out with him? Do you fancy going out with him?
They made a great effort to save their relationship. They broke...  Despite their effort to save their relationship…
The resourcefulness of Miss Oñativia is fantastic, if you ask me I find it fantastic how resourceful is Miss Oñativia
Drive my car in the same way that you would drive your car Drive my car as though it was yours
 CONDITIONALS
Words that replace “if”: Unless (if not), in case (sth. will happen), as long as, even if (regardless of whether), only if, otherwise,
so long as, on condition that, provided/providing that, in the event of/that
Things that are generally true: If + pr. Simp. + pr. simple
Zero
If you drink too much coffee, you can’t sleep at night
Future situations that are possible: If + pre. Simp. + will + inf
First
If you study hard, you will pass the exam
Hypothetical situations: if + past Simp. + would + inf
Second If Julia loved me, I would marry me
If I were intelligent, I would teach phonetics
Unreal past: If + past Perf. + would have + past participle
Third
If my phone hadn’t run out of battery, we wouldn´t have got lost
Past situation with present result: If + past perfect + would + inf
I drank too much last night. I’m in hospital now
If I hadn’t drank too much last night, I wouldn’t be in hospital now.
Present condition with past result: If + past simple/were SC/-ing + would have + past participle
I am shy. I didn’t ask Mary out
If I weren’t shy, I would have asked Mary out.
Past condition with future result: If + past perfect + would + inf/be+-ing + future time marker
Peter killed his wife and he will go to prison tomorrow
If Peter hadn’t killed his wife, he wouldn’t be going to prison tomorrow
Mixed If his grandfather hadn’t died, John would come on the trip with us next week
Present condition with future result: If + past simple/were SC/-ing + would + inf/be+-ing + future time marker
I am excited because I am travelling to Paris next week
If I weren’t be travelling to Paris next week, I wouldn’t be being excited
Future condition with past result: If + would + inf/be+-ing + future time marker + would have + past participle
Peter’s wife is coming back tomorrow. Peter spent the night with his lover
If Peter´s wife wouldn’t coming back tomorrow, he wouldn’t have spent the night with his lover
Future condition with present result: If + would + inf/be+-ing + future time marker + would + inf/be+-ing
You are sitting for the exam tomorrow and this is the reason why you are so nervous
If you would be sitting for the exam tomorrow, you wouldn’t be being so nervous
INVERSION CONDITIONAL
Zero and First Conditional: Should + subj + inf + will/may/can/should + inf/imperative
Should you drink too much coffee, you can’t sleep at night
Should you study hard, you will pass the exam
Second Conditional: Were + subj + (to inf) + would/might/could + inf
Were Julia to love me, I would marry me
Were I intelligent, I would teach phonetics
Third Conditional: Had + subj + past participle + would/might/could + have + past participle
Had my phone not run out of battery we wouldn’t have got lost
WISH/IF ONLY CLAUSES
A- Wish (es)/If Only + Simple Past: Regrets about the present
I wish/if only I had enough money
B- Wish (es)/If only + Past Perfect: Regrets about the past
I wish/if only I had studied more
C- Wish (es)/If Only + Would: Wishes about the future or to express annoyance about usual present situation
I wish you would pass your exam tomorrow
I wish/If only my sister wouldn’t wear my clothes without my permission
 IMPERSONAL PASSIVE

Doctors know that smoking is detrimental for people’s health Smoking is known to be detrimental for people’s health
Fans said that River Plate played well  River Plate was said to have played well
They said Karla has done well  Karla was said to have done well
The principal thinks that Mr. Zaplana will be attending the meeting Mr. Zaplana is thought to be attending the meeting
They believe he has been having an affair He is believed to have been having an affair
She believes the repairs have been finished the repairs are believed to have been finished
CLEFT SENTENCES
It + be (not and/or adverb) + emphasized word/phrase + that (who) clause

Mike took Sally to the party on Saturday

a. Emphasis on the subject: It was Mike who took Sally to the party on Saturday
b. Emphasis on the object: It was Sally that Mike took to the party on Saturday
c. Emphasis on the advbl: It was on Saturday that Mike took sally to the party
d. Emphasis on the prep. Ph.: It was to the party that Mike took Sally on Saturday

Wh-clause + be + emphasized word/phrase

e. Emphasis on the action: What Mike did was (to) take Sally to the party

The thing that I most dislike/like was the color of her dress

The only thing I won’t do is phone her again

All we need is 5 minutes more

USED TO/BE USED TO/GET USED TO

Used to + inf.: past habits.

I used to wear formal clothes / I didn’t use to wear casual clothes

Be used to + -ing: accustomed to.

I am used to working long hours

Get used to + -ing (with any tense): process before you do to do something.

I changed schools. Now, I will have get used to studying in the morning

I am getting used to driving on the left

At first it was difficult, but I got used to living alone

CAUSATIVE HAVE/GET

Have someone do sth/Get someone to do sth: It emphasizes the person who does sth.

I got/had the grass in my garden cut (passive)

I had a gardener cut the grass in my garden (active)

I got a gardener to cut the grass in my garden

Have/get sth done: It emphasizes the process/action (have/get + object + past participle)

I’ve just had/gotten my hair cut

 QUANTIFIERS

Uncountable Nouns Both Countable nouns

 Much  All  Many
 A little/little (-)/very little  Enough  A few/few(-)/very few
 A bti (of)  More/most  A number (of)
 A great deal of  Less/least  Several
 A large amount of  No/none  A large number of
 A large quantity of  Not any  A great number of
 Some  A majority of
 Any
 A lot of
 Lots of
 Plenty of
NOMINALIZATION
The process of turning a verb/adjective into a noun
The police investigated the robbery  the police carried out an investigation of the robbery (VN)
The delegates questioned whether the clothes the speaker was wearing were appropriate  the delegates questioned the
appropriateness of the clothes the speaker was wearing. (AdjN)
Impersonal Passive/nominalization

A- It is said that… [It + passive verb (be + past part) + that clause]
They report the defence minister is to resign
1. It is reported that the defence minister is to resign
2. There is a report that the defence minister is to resign (nominalised)
3. One report is that the defence minister is to resign (nominalised)
B- To infinitive impersonal passives [Subj + passive verb (be + past part) + to infinitive]
They alleged that three hundred people died in the plane crash
1. It was alleged that three hundred people died in the plane crash
2. Three hundred people were alleged to have died in the plane crash
3. There was an allegation that three hundred people died in the plane crash
4. One allegation was that three hundred people died in the plane crash
PAST MODALS: SPECULATION & DEDUCTION
Use Example
Possible that sth happened I think she got a taxi home, but I’m not sure She may/might/could have got a taxi
May/might/could home
(perhaps, possibly,
+ have + past part
probably, maybe, it’s Maybe John has been waiting for you there John may/might/could have been
+ have been + –ing
possible, but I’m not sure) waiting for you there
Sth happened/is the only I’m sure that you knew that we had a test today, the T sent us all a messageYou
Must
realistic possibility (I’m must have known that…
+ have + past part
sure…, I’m certain, I have no
+ have been + –ing I have no doubt that she has been lying to us She must have been lying to us
doubt, I’m positive)
Can’t/Couldn’t Sth wasn’t possible (it’s
It’s not possible that he’s driven there. His car keys are still here He can’t/couldn’t
+ have + past part impossible, it’s not possible,
have driven there...
+ have been + –ing I know… because…)
PAST MODALS
A- Must have + past part: almost sure sth happened in the past
I’m sure that he has finished the exercise  He must have finished the exercise
B- Can’t have + past part: almost sure sth didn’t happen in the past
They can’t have gone to bed late. They were very tired
C- May/might/could have + past part: possible sth happened but we aren’t sure
Mary hasn’t arrived yet. Perhaps she got lost  Mary might have got lost
D- Could have + past part: we had the ability to do sth in the past but didn’t do it
She could have called me when she got lost but she forgot.
 E- Should/Ought to have + past part: (s) it was the right thing to do but we didn’t do it / (o) we expected sth to happen but
it didn’t
You should have told him the truth / they ought to have received the cheque by now
F- Would have + past part: we wanted to do sth but we didn’t do it in the end
I would have bought some flowers for my girlfriend but she broke up with me
G- Needn’t have + past part: it wasn’t necessary to do sth but we did it
You needn’t have gone to the supermarket. I’ve already done the shopping
WOULD RATHER & HAD BETTER
Had better (not + bare infinitive): non-modal phrase to express advice
I think we had better not see each other for some time. People are commenting on our affair
Would rather/sooner: to express preference
Would rather Would sooner
👤 + bare infinitive (👤& doer are the same)
I’d rather go to the casino instead of that boring art gallery I’d sooner die than go out with her
👤 + clause + past subjunctive (👤 & doer are different)
I’d rather you didn’t smoke in here I’d sooner you came on your own
👤 + clause + part perfect subjunctive (👤 & doer are not the same) preferences/wishes about the past
I’d rather this whole thing had never happened I’d sooner have drank tea instead of coffee
EXPRESSIONS WITH STATISCTICS
A- Nouns describing quantity/number: Countable: A number of, a majority of, a minority of, a handful of…/ Uncountable: An
amount of, a quantity of, a good deal of…
B- Words describing part of a whole: A proportion, a percentage, a fraction
C- Phrases: One in four, six out of ten
D- Collocations (adj + noun + collocation): A significant number of, a substantial number, the vast majority, a large/enormous
quantity, a good/small/sizable/significant proportion, a negligible/significant/small amount

REPORTING VERBS
Verb Structure Example
Agreed She agreed to lend me the money
Claimed She claimed to be innocent.
Offered She offered to carry my bags.
Promised to + infinitive He promised to call me every day.
Refused He refused to comment on the rumors.
Swore I swore to never return to the store.
Threatened The teacher threatened to tell my parents
Advised The school advised me to apply that school
Asked I asked you to help with the shopping.
Begged They begged me not to leave early
Convinced She convinced me to buy chips
Encouraged My teacher encouraged me to do well
Forbade My father forbade me to drive a motorbike
Sb + to +
Invited She invited me to go to his party
infinitive
Ordered She ordered me to stop doing that
Persuaded He persuaded me to go to a party
Recommended The doctor recommended me to do more exercise
Remind My brother reminded me to phone my grandmother
Told She told me to write him a letter
Warned She warned me not to wear her dress
Accused sb of He accused me of cheating in the exam
Admitted He admitted taking the pen
Apologised for He apologized for not doing his homework
+ -ing
Blame for I blamed her for cheating on me
Complained about She complained about being last on the list.
Confessed to She confessed to being guilty
Congratulated sb on He congratulated me on passing the exam
Denied He denied to being drunk.
Insisted on He insisted on being first
Regret I regret saying that out laud
Suggested They suggested bringing a warm jacket.
INFINITIVE & GERUND
Infinitives: after an adjective, after certain verbs, after modal verbs/modal-related
Advice sb, Afford, agree, appear, arrange, Ask sb, beg, choose, decide, expect , expect sb, fail , help sb (to), hesitate, hope, intend,
invite sb, learn, manage, mean, need, offer, persuade sb, plan, prepare, pretend , promise , refuse , remind sb , require sb, seem,
teach sb, tend, threaten, want, want sb & wish
Gerunds: as a noun (Doing/Thinking/Cycling), after prepositions, after some verbs, after certain phrases
Admit, advise, allow, avoid, can’t help/stand, come, consider, deny, discuss, dislike, enjoy, fancy, finish, go, hate, involve, keep,
like, love, mind, miss, permit, practise & suggest
Accuse of, agree with, apologize for, ask about, believe in, be used to, blame for, care for, carry on, complain about, concentrate
on, depend on, dream about/of, feel like, forgive for, give up, insist on, keep on, look forward to, object to, think of, succeed in &
use for
Both: attempt, begin, bother, can’t bear, cease, continue, hate, intend, love, prefer & start + to or –ing
Words with
Infinitive Gerund
different meaning
With regard to the future With regard to the past
Remember
Remember to turn off the lights Do you remember turning off the lights?
The speaker didn’t do sth Used to refer to memories
Forget
I forget to lock the door I’ll never forget going to Coldplay’s concert
Start sth new Continue the same action
Go on
Go on to read Go on reading
With regard to the future (bad news) With regard to the past
Regret
I regret to say that’s wrong I regret saying that
Interrupt an action Finish sth
Stop
I stopped to smoke I stopped smoking
Do sth complicated Do it and see what happens
Try
Try to solve this riddle Try talking to her
PARTICIPLE CLAUSES
A- Present participle clauses (-ing verb form: going, reading, walking, etc.)
 To give a result of an action: The bomb exploded, destroying the building
 To give the reason of an action: Knowing she loved reading, Richard bought her a book
 To talk about an action that happened at the same time as another one: Standing in the queue, I realised I didn’t have
money
 To add information about the subject of the main clause: Starting in the New Year, the new policy bans cars in the city
centre
 It can be used in the same way as an active relative clause: The man driving the car is a friend of mine (= the man who is
driving...)
 It can replace any active tense, not just the present continuous: Lorries coming over the bridge have to be careful (= Lorries
that come)
B- Past participle clauses (past participle verbs: gone, read, walked, etc)
 Similar meaning to an ‘if’ condition: Used in this way, participles can make your writing more concise (=if you use
participles…)
 To give the reason for an action: Worried by the news, she called the hospital
 To add information about the subject of the main cl.: Filled with pride, he walked towards the stage
 It can be used in the same way as a simple passive relative cl.: We read the email sent by the manager (=the email that
had been sent)
 Being + past participle as a continuous passive relative cl.: The poem being read by the actor was written by my brother
(that is being read…)
⚠ We can’t use it if we are talking about one finished action which isn’t repeated: Who was the girl who dropped the
coffee? (NOT: who was the girl dropping the coffee?)
C- Perfect participle clauses (having + past participle)
Show that the action was finished before the action in the main clause. It can be structured to make an active/passive
meaning: Having got dressed, he slowly went downstairs
D- Other uses
To replace words which give reasons, results or indicate time: Having studied so much for the exam, we were excited about
passing the final test (Since we had studied so much for the exam…)
Having ordered/Having finished ordering her room, she decided to have a rest (Once she had finished ordering her room…)
E- Active and passive meaning in reduced relative clauses
Active: The boy who was waiting in the hall expected a phone call the boy waiting in the hall expected a phone call (pres. part)
Passive: The girl who was picked up by her brother was very nice the girl picked up by her brother was very nice (past part)
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
Formal (PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE): Verbs don’t follow the subject-verb agreement pattern
The police are ordering to remove the cars immediately (be) The police are demanding all the cars be removed immediately
We cannot miss the flight (vitalt) It’s vital that we not miss the flight
Formulaic Subjunctive
I will stand by you in good and bad times (may) I will stand by you came what may
SENTENCE TRANSFORMATION
Modal to express unwillingness in the past: The criminal refused to speak if his attorney wasn’t present the criminal wouldn’t
speak if his attorney wasn’t present
Modal as a polite expression of thanks: Thank you so much for buying me chocolates!  You shouldn’t have bought me...
👤 may be…but: Although she is the principal of the school, that doesn’t give her the right to bully Ts She may be the principal
of the school but that doesn’t gave her the right…
Try as 👤 may/might: Despite all the efforts made, he couldn’t get the necessary money...  Try as he might he couldn’t get…
  
Pres Past Past
Modal shall & non-modal expression to express formal rule: Club members are not allowed to debate about politics Club
members shall not debate/are not to debate about politics.
Will keep on: If you insist on gossiping about other people, you cannot expect… if you will keep on gossip about other ppl
So/Such (emphatic structures): People were so silent and awkward that you could cut the atmosphere with a knife So silent
and awkward were the people that you could cut the atmosphere with a knife/Such was the silence and awkwardness of people
that you could cut the atmosphere with a knife
Dawn on sb (sb realized about sth): I have just only realized what he meant by that comment It has just only dawned on me
what he meant by that comment.
High time you…: You really should commit yourself to study It’s high time you committed yourself to study
Twice as much/high as that of: The cost of a suit doubles that of a standard room in Sheraton Hotel The cost of a suite is twice
as much/high as that of the standard room in Sheraton hotel.