UCK 421E Jet Propulsion:
Term Project
12596 Thursday
Prof. Dr. Onur Tunçer
Umurbey Genç 110210069
Q1. Performance Analysis of a N₂O–Paraffin Hybrid Rocket Engine
1.1 Introduction and Problem Description
In this study, a performance analysis of a hybrid rocket motor using an N₂O/paraffin propellant
combination is conducted within the scope of advanced hybrid rocket propulsion systems. The paraffin
fuel is assumed to contain 10% aluminum by mass, and chemical equilibrium of the combustion
products is assumed. The initial temperatures of both the fuel and the oxidizer are taken as 293 K, while
the chamber pressure is set to 40 bar and the nozzle exit-to-throat area ratio is selected as 20. All
analyses are carried out under the assumption of an ideal nozzle using NASA’s Chemical Equilibrium
Analysis (CEA) program. The primary objective of this study is to investigate the effect of the oxidizer-
to-fuel ratio in the range of 0.5 to 4.0 on the characteristic velocity c* and specific impulse Isp, and to
present a comparative evaluation of the results under sea-level and vacuum operating conditions.
Figure 1 Schematic representation of hybrid rocket engine
1.2 Results and Discussion
Figure 2 illustrates the effect of the oxidizer-to-fuel (O/F) ratio on the specific impulse (Isp) of
an N₂O/paraffin hybrid rocket motor with 10% aluminum addition by mass, under sea-level and vacuum
conditions. The figure shows that, as the O/F ratio increases from 0.5 to 4.0, the specific impulse
increases monotonically in both environments. This trend can be attributed to the fact that at low O/F
ratios the mixture is fuel-rich, leading to relatively lower combustion temperatures and reduced
effective exhaust velocity. As the O/F ratio increases, combustion becomes more complete, the chamber
temperature rises, and the potential for acceleration through the nozzle improves. In other words,
increasing O/F enhances the thermochemical properties of the combustion products, resulting in higher
exhaust velocity and therefore higher Isp.
It is also clearly observed in Figure 2 that the specific impulse obtained under vacuum
conditions is consistently higher than that at sea level over the entire O/F range. The primary reason for
this difference is the effect of ambient pressure on thrust. In vacuum, the lower back pressure allows
more efficient expansion of the exhaust flow, increasing the pressure-thrust contribution and improving
overall nozzle performance. At sea level, where the ambient pressure is approximately 1 bar, the exhaust
flow must expand against a higher back pressure, reducing the effective pressure term in the thrust
equation and consequently lowering Isp compared to vacuum conditions. Thus, the systematic offset
between the two curves is mainly related to nozzle expansion and pressure matching rather than
differences in the combustion process itself.
Figure 2
Furthermore, Figure 2 indicates that the rate of increase in Isp gradually diminishes at higher
O/F ratios, as evidenced by the slight flattening of both curves. This behavior is consistent with the
diminishing marginal gains in combustion temperature and exhaust velocity obtained from additional
oxidizer beyond a certain point, as well as the constraints imposed by fixed geometric parameters such
as the nozzle area ratio (Ae/At). Consequently, Figure 2 demonstrates that the O/F ratio has a significant
influence on propulsion performance within the selected range, and that vacuum operation inherently
yields higher specific impulse than sea-level operation due to more favorable nozzle expansion
conditions.
Figure 3
In Figure 3, the effect of the oxidizer-to-fuel ratio (O/F) on the characteristic velocity (c*) is
presented. As observed in the figure, the value of c* increases in a generally monotonic manner as the
O/F ratio is increased from 0.5 to 4.0. At low O/F ratios, the mixture is fuel-rich, which results in
relatively lower combustion temperatures and a limited thermodynamic potential of the combustion
gases. As the O/F ratio increases, the mixture approaches stoichiometric conditions, combustion
becomes more efficient, and the chamber temperature rises. This leads to an increase in the specific
energy content of the flow at the throat, thereby increasing the characteristic velocity. Therefore, the
overall increasing trend observed in Figure 3 is directly associated with the improvement of
thermochemical conditions inside the combustion chamber.
It is also noticeable that, toward higher O/F ratios, the rate of increase in c* slightly decreases
and small irregularities appear in the curve. This behavior can be explained by the diminishing
incremental contribution of additional oxidizer to the combustion temperature and by changes in the
average molecular weight of the combustion products. Furthermore, variations in chemical equilibrium
composition with O/F ratio can cause small fluctuations in parameters such as the ratio of specific heats
(γ) and the effective gas constant, which may manifest as local deviations in the c* curve. Nevertheless,
the overall trend remains clear and physically consistent.
An important observation from Figure 3 is that the characteristic velocity is not dependent on
sea-level or vacuum conditions. By definition, c* represents processes occurring solely within the
combustion chamber and depends on parameters such as chamber pressure, throat area, and mass flow
rate. While ambient pressure influences the expansion process downstream of the throat in the nozzle,
c* is defined by pre-throat conditions and is therefore independent of the surrounding environment. For
this reason, while the specific impulse curves in Figure 2 differ between vacuum and sea-level
conditions, only a single c* curve is obtained in Figure 3. This clearly highlights that c* is a fundamental
engine parameter representing combustion efficiency and the thermochemical quality of the propellant
gases.
Q2. TSFC-Based Performance Analysis of the JT9D Turbofan Engine
2.1 Introduction
In the second part of this study, the performance of the Pratt & Whitney JT9D engine, one of
the first high-bypass-ratio turbofan engines used in wide-body commercial aircraft, is investigated. The
analysis is carried out using the TMATS (Toolbox for the Modeling and Analysis of Thermodynamic
Systems) Simulink library developed by NASA. The main objective of this section is to evaluate the
thrust-specific fuel consumption (TSFC) characteristics of the JT9D engine under varying flight
conditions and to quantify the effects of Mach number and altitude on engine efficiency. Within this
scope, TSFC contour maps are generated over a flight envelope covering Mach numbers between 0 and
0.9 and altitudes from sea level up to 40,000 ft, for both ISA standard-day and hot-day atmospheric
conditions. The results are analyzed to provide insight into the operational efficiency trends of high-
bypass-ratio turbofan engines and to assess the influence of ambient conditions on fuel consumption
behavior.
Figure 4 Pratt & Whitney JT9D turbofan engine.
2.2 Methodology
Figure 5 Block Diagram of Ambient and Inlet
The Ambient block determines the total and static flow properties required for gas-cycle
analysis based on the surrounding atmospheric conditions. It takes altitude, Mach number, and ambient
temperature deviation as inputs. The air mass flow rate is also established within this block as a
parameter that is carried throughout the engine cycle. In addition, the block outputs the engine flight
speed and computes the ram drag [Link] Inlet block processes the ambient flow properties received
from the Ambient block and transmits them to the fan and compressor while accounting for inlet
pressure losses.
Figure 6 Block Diagram of Burner and Nozzle
In the engine core region, the fuel added to the burner is defined by the fuel-to-air ratio (FAR).
The fuel mass flow rate is obtained by multiplying the FAR by the core air mass flow rate. In the nozzle
section, the thrust contributions from the bypass stream and the core stream are combined to obtain the
total engine thrust.
The net thrust is obtained by subtracting the
ram drag force (Fram) from the thrust produced
at the nozzle. The thrust-specific fuel
consumption (TSFC) is then calculated by
dividing the fuel mass flow rate by this net thrust.
Figure 7 Block Diagram of SFC Calculation
2.3 Results and Discussion
2.3.1 Simulation Warnings and Conflicts with Physical Realism
The warnings generated during the simulation originate directly from the internal validation
and limit-checking mechanisms of the TMATS library and indicate that the model exceeds physical or
numerical validity limits at certain Mach–altitude combinations. These warnings are not subjective or
assumption-based; rather, they are produced by the simulation code itself as part of the calculation
process.
The warnings stating “Vector definitions may need to be expanded” indicate that the operating
point lies outside the defined range of the component performance maps for the fan, compressors, and
turbines. Under such conditions, the interpolated values are no longer reliable, and the resulting TSFC
values do not represent a physically meaningful engine operating regime.
The “Noz_core, Backflow warning PtIn ≤ Pamb” warning indicates that the total pressure at
the core nozzle inlet is insufficient to overcome the ambient pressure, and therefore forward thrust
cannot be produced. At these operating points, the definition of net thrust—and consequently TSFC—
loses its physical validity.
For this reason, Mach–altitude points associated with these warnings should be excluded from
the dataset, and performance evaluations should be conducted only over physically valid operating
conditions.
2.3.2 Evaluation of TSFC–Mach–Altitude Results under ISA Standard-Day
Conditions
Figure 8 TSFC Characteristics of the JT9D Turbofan Engine in the Mach–Altitude Plane (ISA Standard-Day)
As shown in Fig. 8, the results obtained under ISA standard-day conditions indicate that the
variation of thrust-specific fuel consumption (TSFC) with Mach number and altitude for the JT9D high-
bypass-ratio turbofan engine is generally consistent with performance trends reported in the literature.
The observed increase in TSFC with increasing Mach number is mainly attributed to the rise in ram
drag (Fram) associated with higher freestream velocities, which leads to a reduction in net thrust.
Because the fuel mass flow rate does not decrease at the same rate, the fuel consumption per unit net
thrust increases, resulting in higher TSFC values, particularly at moderate to high Mach numbers.
The influence of altitude is also clearly evident in the standard-day results shown in Fig. 8. As
altitude increases, the decrease in ambient air density reduces the engine inlet mass flow rate, thereby
lowering the thrust generated by both the core and bypass streams. Consequently, TSFC values increase
with altitude. In the Mach–TSFC contour representation, the minimum TSFC region is concentrated at
low to moderate Mach numbers and low to moderate altitudes, corresponding to the typical and efficient
operating regime of JT9D-class turbofan engines. As Mach number and altitude increase, the upward
displacement of the TSFC contours reflects a deterioration in engine efficiency in these regions.
However, at sea-level conditions, abrupt increases and local discontinuities in TSFC are
observed over certain Mach number ranges in Fig. 8. These features should not be interpreted as
inherent physical characteristics of the engine; instead, they must be assessed in conjunction with the
warnings generated during the simulation.
2.3.3 Evaluation of TSFC–Mach–Altitude Results under ISA Hot-Day
Conditions
Figure 9 TSFC Characteristics of the JT9D Turbofan Engine in the Mach–Altitude Plane (ISA Hot-Day)
As shown in Fig. 9, the results obtained under ISA hot-day conditions indicate that the main
trends identified in the standard-day analysis are largely preserved. TSFC increases with both Mach
number and altitude, which remains consistent with the underlying mechanism of increasing ram drag
and the associated reduction in net thrust.
However, TSFC levels under hot-day conditions are generally higher than those observed under
standard-day conditions, as illustrated in Fig. 9. The elevated ambient temperature reduces air density
and the engine inlet mass flow rate, leading to lower thrust produced by both the core and bypass
streams. Since the fuel mass flow rate does not decrease proportionally, TSFC exhibits an upward shift
over the entire Mach–altitude range.
The Mach–TSFC contour plots in Fig. 9 further show that the low-TSFC region becomes
confined to a narrower Mach–altitude range under hot-day conditions. This behavior indicates that
increased ambient temperatures reduce the extent of the engine’s efficient operating envelope. Similar
to the standard-day case, local discontinuities observed at certain Mach–altitude points should not be
interpreted as inherent physical engine behavior, but rather as indications that the simulation is
approaching its validity limits.
2.4 Conclusion
Figure 10 Thrust-specific fuel consumption of high-bypass-ratio turbofan at maximum thrust
As shown in Fig. 10, the textbook figure demonstrates that for a high-bypass-ratio turbofan
engine operating at maximum thrust, the thrust-specific fuel consumption (TSFC) increases
approximately linearly with both Mach number and altitude. As Mach number increases, the growth of
ram drag effects and the corresponding reduction in net thrust result in higher TSFC values. At a fixed
Mach number, the upward shift of TSFC with increasing altitude is attributed to the reduction in air
density, which decreases the engine mass flow rate and thrust-producing capability. The smooth and
continuous nature of the curves in Fig. 10 indicates that only physically valid operating points are
represented.
The standard-day results obtained using TMATS are qualitatively consistent with these
fundamental trends shown in Fig. 10. The simulated increase in TSFC with Mach number and altitude
agrees well with the behavior presented in the textbook. However, localized discontinuities observed at
certain Mach–altitude combinations in the simulation results do not reflect the physical characteristics
of the engine. Rather, they arise from simulation-related limitations such as operation beyond
component performance map boundaries and nozzle backflow conditions.
Under hot-day conditions, TSFC levels are generally higher than those shown in Fig. 10 as well
as those obtained under standard-day conditions. The elevated ambient temperature reduces air density
and net thrust, leading to increased TSFC values and a reduced extent of the engine’s efficient operating
envelope.
3. References
Mattingly, J. D. (2006). Elements of propulsion: Gas turbines and rockets. American Institute of
Aeronautics and Astronautics.
NASA Glenn Research Center. (n.d.). Toolbox for the modeling and analysis of thermodynamic systems
(TMATS) [Software]. GitHub. [Link]
NASA Glenn Research Center. (n.d.). TMATS block guide [Technical documentation]. GitHub.
[Link]