University of Anbar

College of Engineering
Civil Engineering Department

LECTURE NOTE
COURSE CODE- CE 1202
CALCULUS II

Chapter Three
Chapter 3: Infinite Series

2 CHAPTER THREE

3 INFINITE SERIES

3.1 SEQUENCES

3.1.1 Definition of a Sequence

Stated informally, an infinite sequence, or more simply a sequence, is an unending

succession of numbers, called terms. It is understood that the terms have a definite order; that
is, there is a first term a1, a second term a2, a third term a3, a fourth term a4, and so forth.
Such a sequence would typically be written as
a1, a2, a3, a4, . . .
1, 2, 3, 4, . . . , 1, 1/2 , 1/3, 1/4 , . . . ,
2, 4, 6, 8, . . . , 1,−1, 1,−1, . . .
Example 1 In each part, find the general term of the sequence.

Solution (a).

Solution (b).

Solution (c).

Solution (d).

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

Definition A sequence is a function whose domain is a set of integers.

3.1.2 Graphs of Sequences

For example, the graph of the sequence {1⁄𝑛}+∞

𝑛=1 is the graph of the equation

1
𝑦= 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, … ..
𝑛
1
𝑦= 𝑥≥1
𝑥

Figure 1

3.1.3 Limit of a Sequence

Figure 2

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

Figure 3

Example 2 The first two sequences in Figure 2 diverge, and the second two converge to 1;
that is,

Example 3 In each part, determine whether the sequence converges or diverges by examining
the limit as n→+∞.

Solution (a). Dividing numerator and denominator by n and using Theorem yields

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

Thus, the sequence converges to 1/2.

Solution (b). This sequence is the same as that in part (a), except for the factor of (−1)n+1,
which oscillates between +1 and −1. Thus, the terms in this sequence oscillate between
positive and negative values, with the odd-numbered terms being identical to those in part (a)
and the even-numbered terms being the negatives of those in part (a). Since the sequence in
part (a) has a limit of 1/2, it follows that the odd-numbered terms in this sequence approach
1/2, and the even-numbered terms approach −1/2. Therefore, this sequence has no limit—it
diverges.
Solution (c). Since (1/n)→0, the product (−1)n+1 (1/n) oscillates between positive and
negative values, with the odd-numbered terms approaching 0 through positive values and the
even-numbered terms approaching 0 through negative values. Thus,

so the sequence converges to 0.

Solution (d).

Example 4 In each part, determine whether the sequence converges, and if so, find its limit.

Solution. Replacing n by x in the first sequence produces the power function (1/2)x , and
replacing n by x in the second sequence produces the power function 2x . Now recall that if 0
< b < 1, then bx→0 as x→+∞, and if b > 1, then bx→+∞ as x→+∞ (Figure 1).
Thus,

So, the sequence {1/2n} converges to 0, but the sequence {2n} diverges.

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

Example 5 Find the limit of the sequence

Solution. The expression

is an indeterminate form of type ∞/∞, so L’Hôpital’s rule is indicated. However, we cannot

apply this rule directly to n/en because the functions n and en have been defined here only at
the positive integers, and hence are not differentiable functions. To circumvent this problem
we extend the domains of these functions to all real numbers, here implied by replacing n by
x, and apply L’Hôpital’s rule to the limit of the quotient x/ex. This yields

from which we can conclude that

Example 6 Show that

Solution.

By L’Hôpital’s rule applied to (1/x) ln x

Theorem A sequence converges to a limit L if and only if the sequences of even-numbered

terms and odd-numbered terms both converge to L.

Example 7 The sequence

converges to 0, since the even-numbered terms and the odd-numbered terms both converge to
0, and the sequence

diverges, since the odd-numbered terms converge to 1 and the even-numbered terms
converge to 0.

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

3.1.4 The Squeezing Theorem for Sequences

Example 8 Use numerical evidence to make a conjecture about the limit of the sequence

and then confirm that your conjecture is correct.

Solution. The following table, which was obtained with a calculating
utility, suggests that the limit of the sequence may be 0. To confirm this
we need to examine the limit of

As n→+∞. Although this is an indeterminate form of type ∞/∞,

L’Hôpital’s rule is not helpful because we have no definition of x! for values of x that are not
integers. However, let us write out some of the initial terms and the general term in the
sequence:

If n > 1, the general term of the sequence can be rewritten as

from which it follows that an ≤ 1/n (why?). It is now evident that

However, the two outside expressions have a limit of 0 as n→+∞; thus, the Squeezing
Theorem for Sequences implies that an→0 as n→+∞, which confirms our conjecture.

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

Example 9 Consider the sequence

If we take the absolute value of each term, we obtain the sequence

which, as shown in Example 4, converges to 0. Thus, from Theorem we have

3.2 MONOTONE SEQUENCES

3.2.1 Terminology

Some examples are given in the below table

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

Figure 4

3.2.2 Testing for Monotonicity

Frequently, one can guess whether a sequence is monotone or strictly monotone by writing
out some of the initial terms.
However, to be certain that the guess is correct, one must give a precise mathematical
argument. The below table provides two ways of doing this, one based on differences of
successive terms and the other on ratios of successive terms.

Example 10 Use differences of successive terms to show that

(Figure 4) is a strictly increasing sequence.

Solution. The pattern of the initial terms suggests that the
sequence is strictly increasing. To prove that this is so, let

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

We can obtain an+1 by replacing n by n + 1 in this formula. This yields

Thus, for n ≥ 1

which proves that the sequence is strictly increasing.

Example 11 Use ratios of successive terms to show that the sequence in Example 10 is
strictly increasing.
Solution. As shown in the solution of Example 10,

Forming the ratio of successive terms we obtain

from which we see that an+1/an > 1 for n ≥ 1. This proves that the sequence is strictly
increasing.
Example 12 In Examples 10 and 11 we proved that the sequence

is strictly increasing by considering the difference and ratio of successive terms.

Alternatively, we can proceed as follows. Let

so that the nth term in the given sequence is an = f(n). The function f is increasing for x ≥ 1
since

Thus, an = f(n) < f(n + 1) = an+1

which proves that the given sequence is strictly increasing.
In general, if f(n) = an is the nth term of a sequence, and if f is differentiable for x ≥ 1, then
the results in Table can be used to investigate the monotonicity of the sequence.

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

3.2.3 Properties That Hold Eventually

Definition If discarding finitely many terms from the beginning of a sequence produces a
sequence with a certain property, then the original sequence is said to have that property
eventually.
10𝑛 +∞
Example 13 Show that the sequence { 𝑛! } is eventually strictly decreasing.
𝑛=1

Solution. We have

(A)
From (A), an+1/an < 1 for all n ≥ 10, so the sequence is eventually strictly decreasing, as
confirmed by the graph in Figure 5.

Figure 5

3.2.4 Convergence of Monotone Sequences

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

10𝑛 +∞
Example 14 Show that the sequence { 𝑛! } converges and find its limit.
𝑛=1
Solution. We showed in Example 13 that the sequence is eventually strictly decreasing. Since
all terms in the sequence are positive, it is bounded below by M = 0, and hence Theorem
guarantees that it converges to a nonnegative limit L. However, the limit is not evident
directly from the formula 10n/n! for the nth term, so we will need some ingenuity to obtain it.
It follows from Formula (A) of Example 13 that successive terms in the given sequence are
related by the recursion formula

where an = 10n/n!. We will take the limit as n→+∞ of both sides and use the fact that

We obtain

so that

In the exercises we will show that the technique illustrated in the last example can be adapted
to obtain

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

3.3 INFINITE SERIES

3.3.1 Sums of Infinite Series

Definition An infinite series is an expression that can be written in the form

The numbers u1, u2, u3, . . . are called the terms of the series.

Example of infinite series

or, equivalently,

The number sn is called the nth partial sum of the series and the sequence {sn}+∞n=1 is called
the sequence of partial sums.
Definition Let {sn} be the sequence of partial sums of the series
u1 + u2 + u3 +· · ·+uk +· · ·
If the sequence {sn} converges to a limit S, then the series is said to converge to S, and S is
called the sum of the series. We denote this by writing
∞

𝑆 = ∑ 𝑢𝑘
𝑘=1

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

If the sequence of partial sums diverges, then the series is said to diverge. A divergent series
has no sum.
Example 15 Determine whether the series
1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + 1 − 1+· · ·
converges or diverges. If it converges, find the sum.
Solution.
s1 = 1
s2 = 1 − 1 = 0
s3 = 1 − 1 + 1 = 1
s4 = 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 = 0
and so forth. Thus, the sequence of partial sums is
1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, . . .
(Figure 6). Since this is a divergent sequence, the given series diverges and consequently has
no sum.

Figure 6

3.3.2 Geometric Series

Example 16 In each part, determine whether the series converges, and if so find its sum.

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

Solution (a). This is a geometric series with a = 5 and r = 1/4.

Since |r| = 1/4 < 1, the series converges and the sum is

Solution (b). This is a geometric series in concealed form, since we can rewrite it as

Since r = 9/5> 1, the series diverges.

Example 17 Find the rational number represented by the repeating decimal
0.784784784 . . .
Solution. We can write
0.784784784 . . . = 0.784 + 0.000784 + 0.000000784+· · ·
so the given decimal is the sum of a geometric series with a = 0.784 and r = 0.001. Thus,

Example 18 In each part, find all values of x for which the series converges, and find the sum
of the series for those values of x.

Solution (a). The expanded form of the series is

The series is a geometric series with a = 1 and r = x, so it converges if |x| < 1 and diverges
otherwise. When the series converges its sum is

Solution (b). This is a geometric series with a = 3 and r = −x/2. It converges if | −x/2| < 1, or
equivalently, when |x| < 2. When the series converges its sum is

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

3.3.3 Telescoping Sums

Example 19 Determine whether the series

converges or diverges. If it converges, find the sum.

Solution. The nth partial sum of the series is

We will begin by rewriting sn in closed form. This can be accomplished by using the method
of partial fractions to obtain (verify).

from which we obtain the sum

3.3.4 Harmonic Series

One of the most important of all diverging series is the harmonic series,

which arises in connection with the overtones produced by a vibrating musical string. It is not
immediately evident that this series diverges. However, the divergence will become apparent
when we examine the partial sums in detail. Because the terms in the series are all positive,
the partial sums

form a strictly increasing sequence

s1 < s2 < s3 < · · · < s n < · · ·

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

3.4 CONVERGENCE TESTS

3.4.1 The Divergence Test

Example 20 The series

diverges since

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

3.4.2 Algebraic Properties of Infinite Series

Example 21 Find the sum of the series

Solution. The series

is a convergent geometric series (a = 3/4, r = 1/4), and the series

is also a convergent geometric series (a = 2, r = 1/5). Thus,

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

3.4.3 The Integral Test

Example 22 Show that the integral test applies, and use the integral test to determine whether
the following series converge or diverge.

Solution (a). We already know that this is the divergent harmonic series, so the integral test
will simply illustrate another way of establishing the divergence. Note first that the series has
positive terms, so the integral test is applicable. If we replace k by x in the general term 1/k,
we obtain the function f(x) = 1/x, which is decreasing and continuous for x ≥ 1 (as required to
apply the integral test with a = 1). Since

the integral diverges and consequently so does the series.

Solution (b). Note first that the series has positive terms, so the integral test is applicable. If
we replace k by x in the general term 1/k2, we obtain the function f(x) = 1/x2, which is
decreasing and continuous for x ≥ 1. Since

the integral converges and consequently the series converges by the integral test with a = 1.

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

3.4.4 p-Series

The special cases of a class of series called p-series or hyperharmonic series. A p-series is an
infinite series of the form

Where p > 0. Examples of p-series are

Example 23

diverges since it is a p-series with p = 1/3< 1.

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

3.5 THE COMPARISON, RATIO, AND ROOT TESTS

3.5.1 The Comparison Test

There are two steps required for using the comparison test to determine whether a series Ʃuk
with positive terms converges:
Step 1. Guess at whether the series Ʃuk converges or diverges.
Step 2. Find a series that proves the guess to be correct. That is, if we guess that Ʃuk diverges,
we must find a divergent series whose terms are “smaller” than the corresponding terms of
Ʃuk, and if we guess that Ʃuk converges, we must find a convergent series whose terms are
“bigger” than the corresponding terms of Ʃuk.
Informal principle (1) Constant terms in the denominator of uk can usually be deleted
without affecting the convergence or divergence of the series.
Informal principle (2) If a polynomial in k appears as a factor in the numerator or
denominator of uk, all but the leading term in the polynomial can usually be discarded
without affecting the convergence or divergence of the series.
Example 24 Use the comparison test to determine whether the following series converge or
diverge.

Solution (a). According to Principle 1, we should be able to drop the constant in the
denominator without affecting the convergence or divergence. Thus, the given series is likely
to behave like

(1)
which is a divergent p-series (p = 1/2). Thus, we will guess that the given series diverges and
try to prove this by finding a divergent series that is “smaller” than the given series. However,
series (1) does the trick since

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

Thus, we have proved that the given series diverges.

Solution (b). According to Principle 2, we should be able to discard all but the leading term
in the polynomial without affecting the convergence or divergence. Thus, the given series is
likely to behave like

(2)
which converges since it is a constant times a convergent p-series (p = 2). Thus, we will
guess that the given series converges and try to prove this by finding a convergent series that
is “bigger” than the given series. However, series (2) does the trick since

Thus, we have proved that the given series converges.

3.5.2 The Ratio Test

Example 25 Each of the following series has positive terms, so the ratio test applies. In each
part, use the ratio test to determine whether the following series converge or diverge.

Solution (a). The series converges, since

Solution (b). The series converges, since

Solution (c). The series diverges, since

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

Solution (d). The series diverges, since

Solution (e). The ratio test is of no help since

However, the integral test proves that the series diverges since

Both the comparison test and the limit comparison test would also have worked here (verify).

3.5.3 The Root Test

Example 26 Use the root test to determine whether the following series converge or diverge.

Solution (a). The series diverges, since

Solution (b). The series converges, since

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

3.5.4 ALTERNATING SERIES; ABSOLUTE AND CONDITIONAL

CONVERGENCE

3.5.5 Alternating Series

Example 27 Use the alternating series test to show that the following series converge.

Solution (a). The two conditions in the alternating series test are satisfied since

Solution (b). The two conditions in the alternating series test are satisfied since

so
ak > ak+1
and

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

3.5.6 Absolute Convergence

Example 28 Determine whether the following series converge absolutely.

Solution (a). The series of absolute values is the convergent geometric series

so the given series converges absolutely.

Solution (b). The series of absolute values is the divergent harmonic series

so the given series diverges absolutely.

Example 29 Show that the following series converge.

Solution (a). Observe that this is not an alternating series because the signs alternate in pairs
after the first term. Thus, we have no convergence test that can be applied directly. However,

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

we showed in Example 28(a) that the series converges absolutely, so Theorem implies that it
converges (Figure a).
Solution (b). With the help of a calculating utility, you will be able to verify that the signs of
the terms in this series vary irregularly. Thus, we will test for absolute convergence. The
series of absolute values is

But Ʃ1/k2 is a convergent p-series (p = 2), so the series of absolute values converges by the
comparison test. Thus, the given series converges absolutely and hence converges (Figure b).

3.5.7 Conditional Convergence

Example 30 In Example 27(b) we used the alternating series test to show that the series

converges. Determine whether this series converges absolutely or converges conditionally.

Solution. We test the series for absolute convergence by examining the series of absolute
values:

Principle 2 suggests that the series of absolute values should behave like the divergent p-
series with p = 1. To prove that the series of absolute values diverges, we will apply the limit
comparison test with

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

We obtain

Since ρ is finite and positive, it follows from the limit comparison test that the series of
absolute values diverges. Thus, the original series converges and also diverges absolutely,
and so converges conditionally.

3.5.8 The Ratio Test for Absolute Convergence

Example 31 Use the ratio test for absolute convergence to determine whether the series
converges.

Solution (a). Taking the absolute value of the general term uk we obtain

which implies that the series converges absolutely and therefore converges.
Solution (b). Taking the absolute value of the general term uk we obtain

which implies that the series diverges.

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

3.6 MACLAURIN AND TAYLOR POLYNOMIALS

3.6.1 Local Quadratic Approximations

- The local linear approximation of a function f at x0 is

- to approximate the function f at x0 by a polynomial p of

degree 2 with the property that the value of p and the
values of its first two derivatives match those of f at x0.
- The polynomial p is called the local quadratic approximation of f at x = x0.
- This approximation has the form

(1)
Example 32 Find the local linear and quadratic approximations of ex at x = 0, and graph ex
and the two approximations together.
Solution. If we let f(x) = ex, then f’(x) = f"(x) = ex; and hence
f(0) = f’(0) = f"(0) = e0 = 1
Thus, from (1) the local quadratic approximation of ex at x = 0 is

and the local linear approximation

The graphs of ex and the two approximations are shown in Figure. As expected, the local
quadratic approximation is more accurate than the local linear approximation near x = 0.

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

3.6.2 Maclaurin Polynomials

It is natural to ask whether one can improve on the accuracy of a local quadratic
approximation by using a polynomial of degree 3.

Problem Given a function f that can be differentiated n times at x = x0, find a polynomial p of
degree n with the property that the value of p and the values of its first n derivatives match
those of f at x0.

We will begin by solving this problem in the case where x0 = 0. Thus, we want a polynomial

Definition If f can be differentiated n times at 0, then we define the nth Maclaurin

polynomial for f to be

Example 33 Find the Maclaurin polynomials p0, p1, p2, p3, and pn for ex .
Solution. Let f(x) = ex. Thus,

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

Example 34 Find the nth Maclaurin polynomials for

(a) sin x (b) cos x
Solution (a). In the Maclaurin polynomials for sin x, only the odd powers of x appear
explicitly. To see this, let f(x) = sin x; thus,

Since f(4)(x) = sin x = f(x), the pattern 0, 1, 0, −1 will repeat as we evaluate successive
derivatives at 0. Therefore, the successive Maclaurin polynomials for sin x are

Because of the zero terms, each even-order Maclaurin polynomial [after p0(x)] is the same as
the preceding odd-order Maclaurin polynomial. That is,

The graphs of sin x, p1(x), p3(x), p5(x), and p7(x) are shown in Figure.

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

Solution (b). In the Maclaurin polynomials for cos x, only the even powers of x appear
explicitly; the computations are similar to that in part (a). The reader should be able to show
that

In general, the Maclaurin polynomials for cos x are given by

The graphs of cos x, p0(x), p2(x), p4(x), and p6(x) are shown in Figure.

3.6.3 Taylor Polynomials

- Up to now we have focused on approximating a function f in the vicinity of x = 0.

- Now we will consider the more general case of approximating f in the vicinity of an
arbitrary domain value x0.
Definition If f can be differentiated n times at x0, then we define the nth Taylor polynomial
for f about x = x0 to be

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

Example 35 Find the first four Taylor polynomials for ln x about x = 2.

Solution. Let f(x) = ln x. Thus,

The graph of ln x (in blue) and its first four Taylor polynomials about x = 2 are shown in
Figure. As expected, these polynomials produce their best approximations of ln x near 2.

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

3.7 MACLAURIN AND TAYLOR SERIES; POWER SERIES

3.7.1 Maclaurin and Taylor Series

Example 36 Find the Maclaurin series for

(a) ex (b) sin x (c) cos x
Solution (a). From previous example, we found that the nth Maclaurin polynomial for ex is

Thus, the Maclaurin series for ex is

Solution (b). From previous example, we found that the Maclaurin polynomials for sin x are
given by

Thus, the Maclaurin series for sin x is

Solution (c). From previous example, we found that the Maclaurin polynomials for cos x are
given by

Thus, the Maclaurin series for cos x is

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

3.7.2 Power Series in x

If c0, c1, c2, . . . are constants and x is a variable, then a series of the form

is called a power series in x. Some examples are

These are the Maclaurin series for the functions 1/(1 − x), ex , and cos x, respectively. Indeed,
every Maclaurin series

is a power series in x.

3.7.3 Radius and Interval of Convergence

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

3.7.4 Finding the Interval of Convergence

Example 37 Find the interval of convergence and radius of convergence of the following
power series.

Solution (1). Applying the ratio test for absolute convergence to the given series, we obtain

Since ρ < 1 for all x, the series converges absolutely for all x. Thus, the interval of
convergence is (−∞, +∞) and the radius of convergence is R = +∞.
Solution (2). If x ≠ 0, then the ratio test for absolute convergence yields

Therefore, the series diverges for all nonzero values of x. Thus, the interval of convergence is
the single value x = 0 and the radius of convergence is R = 0.

3.7.5 Power Series in x – x0

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

Example 38 Find the interval of convergence and radius of convergence of the series

Solution. We apply the ratio test for absolute convergence.

Thus, the series converges absolutely if |x − 5| < 1, or −1 < x − 5 < 1, or 4 < x < 6. The series
diverges if x < 4 or x > 6.
To determine the convergence behaviour at the endpoints x = 4 and x = 6, we substitute these
values in the given series. If x = 6, the series becomes

which is a convergent p-series (p = 2). If x = 4, the series becomes

Since this series converges absolutely, the interval of convergence for the given series is [4,
6]. The radius of convergence is R = 1 (Figure).

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

3.7.6 Estimating the nth Remainder

Rn(x) denote the difference between f(x) and its nth Taylor polynomial; that is,

Example 39 Use an nth Maclaurin polynomial for ex to approximate e to five decimal place
accuracy.
Solution. We note first that the exponential function ex has derivatives of all orders for every
real number x. From previous example, the nth Maclaurin polynomial for ex is

from which we have

Thus, our problem is to determine how many terms to include in a Maclaurin polynomial for
ex to achieve five decimal-place accuracy; that is, we want to choose n so that the absolute
value of the nth remainder at x = 1 satisfies
|Rn(1)| ≤ 0.000005
To determine n we use the Remainder Estimation Theorem with f(x) = ex, x = 1, x0 = 0, and
the interval [0, 1]. In this case it follows that

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

where M is an upper bound on the value of f(n+1)(x) = ex for x in the interval [0, 1]. However,
ex is an increasing function, so its maximum value on the interval [0, 1] occurs at x = 1; that
is, ex ≤ e on this interval. Thus, we can take M = e to obtain

Unfortunately, this inequality is not very useful because it involves e, which is the very
quantity we are trying to approximate. However, if we accept that e < 3, then we can replace
(previous equation) with the following less precise, but more easily applied, inequality:

Thus, we can achieve five decimal-place accuracy by choosing n so that

Since 9! = 362,880 and 10! = 3,628,800, the smallest value of n that meets this criterion is n =
9. Thus, to five decimal-place accuracy

As a check, a calculator’s 12-digit representation of e is e ≈ 2.71828182846, which agrees

with the preceding approximation when rounded to five decimal places.

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

3.8 DIFFERENTIATING AND INTEGRATING POWER SERIES;

MODELING WITH TAYLOR SERIES

3.8.1 Differentiating Power Series

Example 40 we showed that the 4 function J0(x), represented by the power series

(1)
has radius of convergence +∞. Thus, J0(x) has derivatives of all orders on the interval (−∞,
+∞), and these can be obtained by differentiating the series term by term. For example, if we
write (1) as

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

3.8.2 Integrating Power Series

3.8.3 Some Practical Ways to Find Taylor Series

Example 41 Find Taylor series for the given functions about the given x0.

2
Solution (a). The simplest way to find the Maclaurin series for 𝑒 −𝑥 is to substitute −x2 for x
in the Maclaurin Series

2
Since converges for all values of x, so will the series for 𝑒 −𝑥 .
Solution (b). We begin with the Maclaurin series for ln(1 + x),

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

Since the original series converges when −1 < x ≤ 1, the interval of convergence will be −1 <
x − 1 ≤ 1 or, equivalently, 0 < x ≤ 2.
Example 42 Find the Maclaurin series for tan−1 x.
Solution. It would be tedious to find the Maclaurin series directly. A better approach is to
start with the formula

and integrate the Maclaurin series

The constant of integration can be evaluated by substituting x = 0 and using the condition
tan−10 = 0. This gives C = 0, so that

3.8.4 Approximating Definite Integrals Using Taylor Series

Example 43 Approximate the integral

To three decimal-place accuracy by expanding the integrand in a Maclaurin series and

integrating term by term.
2
Solution. We found in Example 41(a) that the Maclaurin series for 𝑒 −𝑥 is

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

-
Since this series clearly satisfies the hypotheses of the alternating series test, it follows from
Theorem that if we approximate the integral by sn (the nth partial sum of the series), then

Thus, for three decimal-place accuracy we must choose n such that

With the help of a calculating utility you can show that the smallest value of n that satisfies
this condition is n = 5. Thus, the value of the integral to three decimal-place accuracy is

3.8.5 Finding Taylor Series by Multiplication and Division

Example 44 Find the first three nonzero terms in the Maclaurin series for the function

Solution. Using the series for e−x2 and tan−1 x obtained in previous examples gives

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Chapter 3: Infinite Series

Example 45 Find the first three nonzero terms in the Maclaurin series for tan x.
Solution. Using the first three terms in the Maclaurin series for sin x and cos x, we can
express tan x as

Dividing, as shown in the margin, we obtain

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