University of Anbar

College of Engineering
Civil Engineering Department

LECTURE NOTE
COURSE CODE- CE 1202
CALCULUS II
i
Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

1 CHAPTER ONE

EXPONENTIAL, LOGARITHMIC, AND INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC

FUNCTIONS

1.1 EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

1.1.1 Irrational Exponents

- If b is a nonzero real number, then nonzero integer powers of b are defined by

1
𝑏 𝑛 = 𝑏 × 𝑏 × … × 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 −𝑛 =
𝑏𝑛
- If p/q is a positive rational number expressed in lowest terms, then
𝑞 𝑞 𝑝 1
𝑏 𝑝⁄𝑞 = √𝑏 𝑝 = ( √𝑏) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 −𝑝⁄𝑞 =
𝑏 𝑝 ⁄𝑞
- If b is negative, then some fractional powers of b will have imaginary values—the
quantity (−2)1/2 = √−2, for example.
- There are various methods for defining irrational powers such as

2𝜋 , 3√ 2 , 𝜋 − √ 5
Example: 2π

𝑝 𝑞 𝑝+𝑞
𝑏𝑞
𝑏 𝑏 =𝑏 , 𝑞
= 𝑏 𝑝−𝑞 , (𝑏 𝑝 )𝑞 = 𝑏 𝑝𝑞
𝑏

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

1.1.2 The Family of Exponential Functions

- A function of the form f(x) = bx, where b > 0, is called an exponential function with
base b. Some examples are

𝑥
1 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = 2 , 𝑓(𝑥) = ( ) , 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝜋 𝑥
2

Figure 1-1

 The graph passes through (0, 1) because b0 = 1.

 If b > 1, the value of bx increases as x increases. As you traverse the graph of y = bx
from left to right, the values of bx increase indefinitely. If you traverse the graph from
right to left, the values of bx decrease toward zero but never reach zero. Thus, the x-
axis is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of bx.
 If 0 < b < 1, the value of bx decreases as x increases. As you traverse the graph of y =
bx from left to right, the values of bx decrease toward zero but never reach zero. Thus,
the x-axis is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of bx. If you traverse the graph from
right to left, the values of bx increase indefinitely.
 If b = 1, then the value of bx is constant.

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Figure 1-2 the family of bx

- The graph of y = (1/b)x is the reflection of the graph of y = bx about the y-axis. This is
because replacing x by −x in the equation y = bx yields
y = b−x = (1/b)x

Theorem 1-1
If b > 0 and b ≠ 1, then:
(a) The function f(x) = bx is defined for all real values of x, so its natural domain is (−∞, +∞).
(b) The function f(x) = bx is continuous on the interval (−∞, +∞), and its range is (0, +∞).
Example 1.1 Sketch the graph of the function f(x) = 1 − 2x and find its domain and range.
Solution:
1. f(x) = 2x
2. f(x) = -2x
3. f(x) = 1-2x
The domain of f is (−∞, +∞) and the range is (−∞, 1).

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

1.1.3 The Natural Exponential Function

Exponential functions (e), is a certain irrational number whose value to six decimal places is
e ≈ 2.718282
- If b = e and curve y = bx then y = ex.
- The tangent line to the graph of y = ex at (0, 1) has slope 1.

The function f(x) = ex is called the natural exponential function. To simplify typography, the
natural exponential function is sometimes written as exp(x), in which case the relationship
ex1+x2 = ex1ex2 would be expressed as
exp(x1 + x2) = exp(x1) exp(x2)
- The constant e also arises in the context of the graph of the equation
1 𝑥
𝑦 = (1 + )
𝑥
- The below figure and table, y = e is a horizontal asymptote of this graph, and the
limits
1 𝑥 1 𝑥
lim (1 + ) = 𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim (1 + ) = 𝑒
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥
- These limits can be derived from the limit
lim(1 + 𝑥)1⁄𝑥 = 𝑒
𝑥→0

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Figure 1-3

1.1.4 Logarithmic Functions

- If b > 0 and b ≠1, then for a positive value of x the expression

log 𝑏 𝑥 (read “the logarithm to the base b of x”)

- We call the function 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑏 𝑥 the logarithmic function with base b.
Theorem 1.2
If b > 0 and b ≠1, then bx and logb x are inverse functions.

Figure 1-4

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

- The most important logarithm function which is the one with base e is called the
natural logarithm function because the function loge x is the inverse of the natural
exponential function ex. It is standard to denote the natural logarithm of x by ln x (read
“ell en of x”), rather than loge x.
-

As shown in below table, the inverse relationship between bx and logb x produces a
correspondence between some basic properties of those functions.

- In special case where b=e, these equations become

- In words, the functions bx and logb x cancel out the effect of one another when
composed in either order; for example,

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

1.1.5 Solving Equations Involving Exponentials and Logarithms

Theorem 1.3 (Algebraic Properties of Logarithms)

If b > 0, b ≠ 1, a > 0, c > 0, and r is any real number, then:
(a) logb (ac) = logb a + logb c Product property
(b) logb (a/c) = logb a − logb c Quotient property
(c) logb (ar) = r logb a Power property
(d) logb (1/c) = −logb c Reciprocal property

Example 1.2 Find x such that

(a) log x =√2 (b) ln(x + 1) = 5 (c) 5x = 7

Solution (a). Converting the equation to exponential form yields

x = 10√2 ≈ 25.95
Solution (b). Converting the equation to exponential form yields
x + 1 = e5 or x = e5 − 1 ≈ 147.41
Solution (c). Converting the equation to logarithmic form yields
x = log5 7 ≈ 1.21
Alternatively,
x ln 5 = ln 7 or x = ln 7/ln 5≈ 1.21
Example 1.3 A satellite that requires 7 watts of power to operate at full capacity is equipped
with a radioisotope power supply whose power output P in watts is given by the equation
P = 75 e−t/125
where t is the time in days that the supply is used. How long can the satellite operate at full
capacity?
Solution. The power P will fall to 7 watts when
7 = 75e−t/125
The solution for t is as follows:
7/75 = e−t/125
ln(7/75) = ln(e−t/125)
ln(7/75) = −t/125
t = −125 ln(7/75) ≈ 296.4
so the satellite can operate at full capacity for about 296 days.

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
Example 1.4 Solve = 1 for x
2
Solution. Multiplying both sides of the given equation by 2 yields
ex − e−x = 2
or equivalently,
ex – (1/ex) = 2
Multiplying through by ex yields
e2x − 1 = 2ex or e2x − 2ex − 1 = 0
This is really a quadratic equation in disguise, as can be seen by rewriting it in the form
(ex)2 − 2ex − 1 = 0
and letting u = ex to obtain
u2 − 2u − 1 = 0
Solving for u by the quadratic formula yields

Since u = ex

But ex cannot be negative

1.1.6 Change of Base Formula for Logarithms

𝑙𝑛 𝑥
log 𝑏 𝑥 =
𝑙𝑛 𝑏
Example 1.5 Use a calculating utility to evaluate log2 5 by expressing this logarithm in terms
of natural logarithms.
Solution.
log2 5 = ln 5 / ln 2 ≈ 2.321928

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

1.1.7 Logarithmic Scales in Science and Engineering

- Logarithms are used in science and engineering to deal with quantities whose units
vary over an excessively wide range of values.
- For example, the “loudness” of a sound can be measured by its intensity I (in watts
per square meter), which is related to the energy transmitted by the sound wave—the
greater the intensity, the greater the transmitted energy, and the louder the sound is
perceived by the human ear.
- Sound level β,
β = 10 log(I / I0)
where I0 = 10−12 W/m2 is a reference intensity close to the threshold of human
hearing, I is intensity.
Example 1.6 A space shuttle taking off generates a sound level of 150 dB near the launch-
pad. A person exposed to this level of sound would experience severe physical injury. By
comparison, a car horn at one meter has a sound level of 110 dB, near the threshold of pain
for many people. What is the ratio of sound intensity of a space shuttle take off to that of a
car horn?
Solution. Let I1 and β1 (= 150 dB) denote the sound intensity and sound level of the space
shuttle taking off, and let I2 and β2 (= 110 dB) denote the sound intensity and sound level of a
car horn. Then
I1 / I2 = (I1 / I0) / (I2 / I0)
log (I1 / I2) = log (I1 / I0) – log (I2 / I0)
10 log (I1 / I2) = 10 log (I1 / I0) − 10 log (I2 / I0) = β1 − β2
10 log (I1 / I2) = 150 − 100 = 40
log (I1 / I2) = 4
Thus, I1 / I2 = 104, which tells us that the sound intensity of the space shuttle taking off is
10,000 times greater than a car horn!

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

1.2 DERIVATIVES AND INTEGRALS INVOLVING LOGARITHMIC

FUNCTIONS

1.2.1 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions

- f(x) = ln x is differentiable for x > 0 by using the derivative definition to find its
derivative. To obtain this derivative, we need the fact that ln x is continuous for x > 0.
- Since ex is continuous, we know that ln x is continuous for x > 0.

A derivative formula for the general logarithmic function logb x can be obtained:

Example 1.7
(a) Figure 1.5 shows the graph of y = ln x and its tangent lines at the points x = 1/2, 1, 3, and
5. Find the slopes of those tangent lines.
(b) Does the graph of y = ln x have any horizontal tangent lines? Use the derivative of ln x to
justify your answer.
Solution (a). The slopes of the tangent lines at the points x = 1/2, 1, 3, and 5 are 1/x = 2, 1,
1/3, and 1/5, respectively, which is consistent with Figure 1.5.
Solution (b). It does not appear from the graph of y = ln x that there are any horizontal
tangent lines. This is confirmed by the fact that dy/dx = 1/x is not equal to zero for any real
value of x.

Figure 1-5

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

If u is a differentiable function of x, and if u(x) > 0, then applying the chain rule to produce
the following generalized derivative formulas:

Example 1.8: Find

Solution. u = x2 + 1 we obtain

Example 1.9: Find

The derivative of ln |x| for x ≠ 0 can be obtained by considering the cases x > 0 and x < 0
separately:
Case x > 0. In this case |x| = x, so

Case x < 0. In this case |x| = −x, so it follows that

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Example 1.10

1.2.2 Logarithmic Differentiation

Example 1.11 The derivative of

Solution:

1.2.3 Integrals Involving ln x

The function ln x is an antiderivative of 1/x on the interval (0, +∞), whereas the function ln |x|
is an antiderivative of 1/x on each of the intervals (−∞, 0) and (0, + ∞).

Example 1.12 Evaluate

Solution:

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Example 1.13: Evaluate

∫ 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒙 𝒅𝒙

Solution:

Important point: any integral of the form

(where the numerator of the integrand is the derivative of the denominator) can be evaluated
by the u-substitution u = g(x), du = g’(x) dx, since this substitution yields

1.2.4 Derivatives of Real Powers of x

Let y = xr, where r is a real number. The derivative dy/dx can be obtained by logarithmic
differentiation as follows:

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

1.3 DERIVATIVES OF INVERSE FUNCTIONS; DERIVATIVES AND

INTEGRALS INVOLVING EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

1.3.1 Differentiability of Inverse Functions

Example 1.14: Suppose that f is a one-to-one differentiable function such that f(2) = 1 and
f’(2) = 3/4 . Then the tangent line to y = f(x) at the point (2, 1) has equation
3
𝑦−1= (𝑥 − 2)
4
Since the graph of y = f−1(x) is the reflection of the graph of y = f(x) about the line y = x, the
tangent line to y = f−1(x) at the point (1, 2) is the reflection about the line y = x of the tangent
line to y = f(x) at the point (2, 1) (Figure 1-6). Its equation can be obtained from that of the
tangent line to the graph of f by interchanging x and y:

Figure 1-6
x − 1 = 3/4 (y − 2) or y − 2 = 4/3 (x − 1)
Notice that the slope of the tangent line to y = f−1(x) at x = 1 is the reciprocal of the slope of
the tangent line to y = f(x) at x = 2. That is,
(f−1)’(1) = 1/f’(2)= 4/3 (1)
Since 2 = f−1(1) for the function f in this example, it follows that f’(2) = f’(f−1(1)). Thus,
Formula (1) can also be expressed as

In general, if f is a differentiable and one-to-one function, then

(2)

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

provided f’(f−1(x)) ≠ 0.
Formula (2) can be confirmed using implicit differentiation. The equation y = f−1(x) is
equivalent to x = f(y). Differentiating with respect to x we obtain

Also from x = f(y) we have dx/dy = f’(y), which gives the following alternative version of
Formula (2):

(3)

1.3.2 Increasing or Decreasing Functions are One-To-One

Theorem 1.4
Suppose that the domain of a function f is an open interval on which f’(x) > 0 or on which
f’(x) < 0. Then f is one-to-one, f−1(x) is differentiable at all values of x in the range of f, and
the derivative of f−1(x) is given by Formula (2).

Example 1.15: Consider the function f(x) = x5 + x + 1.

(a) Show that f has a differentiable inverse function.
(b) Use implicit differentiation to find a formula for the derivative of f−1.
(c) Compute (f−1)’(1).
Solution (a). Since f’(x) = 5x4 + 1 > 0 for all real values of x, it follows from Theorem 1.4
that f is one-to-one on the interval (−∞, +∞) and has a differentiable inverse function.
Solution (b). Let y = f−1(x). Differentiating x = f(y) = y5 + y + 1 implicitly with respect to x
yields

(4)

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Solution (c). From Equation (4),

Thus, we need to know the value of y = f−1(x) at x = 1, which we can obtain by solving the
equation f(y) = 1 for y. This equation is y5 + y + 1 = 1, which, by inspection, is satisfied by y
= 0. Thus,

1.3.3 Derivatives of Exponential Functions

(5)

(6)

If u is a differentiable function of x, then it follows from (5) and (6) that

(7 & 8)

Example 1.16: The following computations use Formulas (5), (7) and (8).

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Example 1.16: Use logarithmic differentiation to find d/dx [(x2 + 1)sin x]

2 sin x
Solution. Setting y = (x + 1) we have

ln y = ln[(x2 + 1)sin x] = (sin x) ln(x2 + 1)

Differentiating both sides with respect to x yields

1.3.4 Integrals Involving Exponential Functions

(9 & 10)
Example 1.17:

Example 1.18:

Solution. Let u = 5x so that du = 5 dx or dx = 1/5 du, which yields

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Example 1.19: The following computations use Formula (10).

Solution.

Example 1.19: Evaluate

Solution. Make the u-substitution

u = 1 + ex, du = ex dx
and change the x-limits of integration (x = 0, x = ln 3) to the u-limits
u = 1 + e0 = 2, u= 1 + eln 3 = 1 + 3 = 4
This yields

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

1.4 GRAPHS AND APPLICATIONS INVOLVING LOGARITHMIC

AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

1.4.1 Some Properties of ex and ln x

Figure 1-7

We can verify that y = ex is increasing and its graph is concave up from its first and second
derivatives. For all x in (−∞, +∞) we have

The first of these inequalities demonstrates that ex is increasing on (−∞, +∞), and the second
inequality shows that the graph of y = ex is concave up on (−∞, +∞). Similarly, for all x in (0,
+∞) we have

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

1.4.2 Graphing Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

2 ⁄2
Example 1.20: Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑥 and identify the locations of all relative
extrema and inflection points.
Solution:
• Symmetries: Replacing x by −x does not change the equation, so the graph is symmetric
about the y-axis.
2 ⁄2
• x- and y-intercepts: Setting y = 0 leads to the equation 𝑒 −𝑥 = 0, which has no solutions
since all powers of e have positive values. Thus, there are no x-intercepts.
Setting x = 0 yields the y-intercept y = 1.
2 ⁄2
• Vertical asymptotes: There are no vertical asymptotes since 𝑒 −𝑥 is continuous on (−∞,
+∞).
• End behaviour: The x-axis (y = 0) is a horizontal asymptote since

Conclusions and graph:

2 ⁄2
• The sign analysis of y in Figure 1-8a is based on the fact that 𝑒 −𝑥 > 0 for all x.
This shows that the graph is always above the x-axis.
2 ⁄2
• The sign analysis of dy/dx in Figure 1-8a is based on the fact that dy/dx = −𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 has the
same sign as −x. This analysis and the first derivative test show that there is a stationary point
at x = 0 at which there is a relative maximum. The value of y at the relative maximum is y =
e0 = 1.
• The sign analysis of d2y/dx2 in Figure 1-8a is based on the fact that 𝑑 2 𝑦⁄𝑑𝑥 2 = (𝑥 2 −
2 ⁄2
1)𝑒 −𝑥 has the same sign as x2 − 1. This analysis shows that there are inflection points at x
= −1 and x = 1. The graph changes from concave up to concave down at x = −1 and from

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

concave down to concave up at x = 1. The coordinates of the inflection points are (−1, e−1/2) ≈
(−1, 0.61) and (1, e−1/2) ≈ (1, 0.61).
The graph is shown in Figure 1-8b.

Figure 1-8

Example 1.21: Use a graphing utility to generate the graph of f(x) = (ln x)/x, and discuss
what it tells you about relative extrema, inflection points, asymptotes, and end behaviour. Use
calculus to find the locations of all key features of the graph.
Solution. Figure 1-9 shows a graph of f produced by a graphing utility. The graph suggests
that there is an x-intercept near x = 1, a relative maximum somewhere between x = 0 and x =
5, an inflection point near x = 5, a vertical asymptote at x = 0, and possibly a horizontal
asymptote y = 0. For a more precise analysis of this information we need to consider the
derivatives

Figure 1-9

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Relative extrema: Solving f’(x) = 0 yields the stationary point x = e (verify). Since

there is a relative maximum at x = e ≈ 2.7 by the second derivative test.

• Inflection points: Since f(x) = (ln x)/x is only defined for positive values of x, the second
derivative f’’(x) has the same sign as 2 ln x − 3. We leave it for you to use the inequalities (2
ln x − 3) < 0 and (2 ln x − 3) > 0 to show that f’’(x) < 0 if x < e3/2 and f’’(x) > 0 if x > e3/2.
Thus, there is an inflection point at x = e3/2 ≈ 4.5.
• Asymptotes: We will allow us to conclude that

so that y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote. Also, there is a vertical asymptote at x = 0 since

Intercepts: Setting f(x) = 0 yields (ln x)/x = 0. The only real solution of this equation is x = 1,
so there is an x-intercept at this point.

1.4.3 Logistic Curves

- When a population grows in an environment in which space or food is limited, the

graph of population versus time is typically an S-shaped curve of the form shown in
Figure 1-10.
- The scenario described by this curve is a population that grows slowly at first and
then more and more rapidly as the number of individuals producing offspring
increases. However, at a certain point in time (where the inflection point occurs) the
environmental factors begin to show their effect, and the growth rate begins a steady
decline.
- Over an extended period of time the population approaches a limiting value that
represents the upper limit on the number of individuals that the available space or

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

food can sustain. Population growth curves of this type are called logistic growth
curves.

Figure 1-10
Example 1.22 We will see in a later chapter that logistic growth curves arise from equations
of the form

where y is the population at time t (t ≥ 0) and A, k, and L are positive constants. Show that
Figure 1-11 correctly describes the graph of this equation when A > 1.

Figure 1-11

1.4.4 Newton’s Law of Cooling

Example 1.23 A glass of lemonade with a temperature of 40◦F is left to sit in a room whose
temperature is a constant 70◦F. Using a principle of physics called Newton’s Law of Cooling,

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

one can show that if the temperature of the lemonade reaches 52◦F in 1 hour, then the
temperature T of the lemonade as a function of the elapsed time t is modelled by the equation
T = 70 − 30e−0.5t
where T is in degrees Fahrenheit and t is in hours. The graph of this equation, shown in
Figure 1-12, conforms to our everyday experience that the temperature of the lemonade
gradually approaches the temperature of the room. Find the average temperature Tave of the
lemonade over the first 5 hours.

Figure 1-12
Solution. From Definition 4.8.1 the average value of T over the time interval [0, 5] is

Definition (4.8.1) If f is continuous on [a, b], then the average value (or mean value) of f on
[a, b] is defined to be

(1)
To evaluate this integral, we make the substitution
u = −0.5t so that du = −0.5dt (or dt = −2 du)
With this substitution, if
t = 0, u= 0
t = 5, u= (−0.5)5 = −2.5
Thus, (1) can be expressed as

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

1.5 L’HÔPITAL’S RULE; INDETERMINATE FORMS

1.5.1 Indeterminate Forms of Type 0/0

𝑓(𝑥)
lim
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥)

in which f(x)→0 and g(x)→0 as x→a is called an indeterminate form of type 0/0. Some
examples encountered earlier in the text are

L’Hôpital’s rule, converts the given indeterminate form into a limit involving derivatives that
is often easier to evaluate.
Theorem 1.5 (L’Hôpital’s Rule for Form 0/0)
Suppose that f and g are differentiable functions on an open interval containing x = a, except
possibly at x = a, and that
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 0
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
́
𝑓(𝑥)
́ exists, or if this limit is +∞or −∞, then
If lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓́ (𝑥)
lim = lim
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑎 𝑔́ (𝑥)

Moreover, this statement is also true in the case of a limit as x→a−, x→a+, x→−∞, or as
x→+∞.
Applying L’Hôpital’s Rule
Step 1. Check that the limit of f(x)/g(x) is an indeterminate form of type 0/0.
Step 2. Differentiate f and g separately.

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Step 3. Find the limit of f(x)/g(x). If this limit is finite, +∞, or −∞, then it is equal to the limit
of f(x)/g(x).
Example 1.24 Find the limit

using L’Hôpital’s rule, and check the result by factoring.

Solution. The numerator and denominator have a limit of 0, so the limit is an indeterminate
form of type 0/0. Applying L’Hôpital’s rule yields

This agrees with the computation

Example 1.25 In each part confirm that the limit is an indeterminate form of type 0/0, and
evaluate it using L’Hôpital’s rule.

Solution (a). The numerator and denominator have a limit of 0, so the limit is an
indeterminate form of type 0/0. Applying L’Hôpital’s rule yields

Solution (b). The numerator and denominator have a limit of 0, so the limit is an
indeterminate form of type 0/0. Applying L’Hôpital’s rule yields

Solution (c). The numerator and denominator have a limit of 0, so the limit is an
indeterminate form of type 0/0. Applying L’Hôpital’s rule yields

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Solution (d). The numerator and denominator have a limit of 0, so the limit is an
indeterminate form of type 0/0. Applying L’Hôpital’s rule yields

Solution (e). The numerator and denominator have a limit of 0, so the limit is an
indeterminate form of type 0/0. Applying L’Hôpital’s rule yields

Since the new limit is another indeterminate form of type 0/0, we apply L’Hôpital’s rule
again:

Solution (f). The numerator and denominator have a limit of 0, so the limit is an
indeterminate form of type 0/0. Applying L’Hôpital’s rule yields

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

1.5.2 Indeterminate Forms of Type ∞/∞

Theorem 1.6 (L’Hôpital’s Rule for Form ∞/∞)

Suppose that f and g are differentiable functions on an open interval containing x = a, except
possibly at x = a, and that
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim 𝑔(𝑥) = ∞
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
́
𝑓(𝑥)
If [lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥)
́ ] exists, or if this limit is +∞or −∞, then

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓́ (𝑥)
lim = lim
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑎 𝑔́ (𝑥)

Moreover, this statement is also true in the case of a limit as x→a−, x→a+, x→−∞, or as
x→+∞.

Example 1.26 In each part confirm that the limit is an indeterminate form of type ∞/∞ and
apply L’Hôpital’s rule.

Solution (a). The numerator and denominator both have a limit of +∞, so we have an
indeterminate form of type ∞/∞. Applying L’Hôpital’s rule yields

Solution (b). The numerator has a limit of −∞ and the denominator has a limit of +∞, so we
have an indeterminate form of type ∞/∞. Applying L’Hôpital’s rule yields

This last limit is again an indeterminate form of type ∞/∞. Moreover, any additional
applications of L’Hôpital’s rule will yield powers of 1/x in the numerator and expressions
involving csc x and cot x in the denominator; thus, repeated application of L’Hôpital’s rule
simply produces new indeterminate forms. We must try something else.

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

1.5.3 Indeterminate Forms of Type 0.∞

Example 1.27 Evaluate

Solution (a). The factor x has a limit of 0 and the factor ln x has a limit of −∞, so the stated
problem is an indeterminate form of type 0·∞. There are two possible approaches: we can
rewrite the limit as

the first being an indeterminate form of type ∞/∞ and the second an indeterminate form of
type 0/0. However, the first form is the preferred initial choice because the derivative of 1/x is
less complicated than the derivative of 1/ ln x. That choice yields

Solution (b). The stated problem is an indeterminate form of type 0·∞. We will convert it to
an indeterminate form of type 0/0:

1.5.4 Indeterminate Forms of Type ∞−∞

Example 1.28 Evaluate

Solution. Both terms have a limit of +∞, so the stated problem is an indeterminate form of
type ∞− ∞. Combining the two terms yields

which is an indeterminate form of type 0/0. Applying L’Hôpital’s rule twice yields

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

1.5.5 Indeterminate Forms of Type 00, ∞0, 1∞

Example 1.29 Find

lim(1 + sin 𝑥)1⁄𝑥
𝑥→0

Solution. As discussed above, we begin by introducing a dependent variable

y = (1 + sin x)1/x
and taking the natural logarithm of both sides:

which is an indeterminate form of type 0/0, so by L’Hôpital’s rule

Since we have shown that ln y→1 as x→0, the continuity of the exponential function implies
that eln y→e1 as x→0, and this implies that y→e as x→0. Thus,
lim(1 + sin 𝑥)1⁄𝑥 = 𝑒
𝑥→0

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

1.6 DERIVATIVES AND INTEGRALS INVOLVING INVERSE

TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

1.6.1 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Definitions
1. The inverse sine function, denoted by sin−1, is defined to be the inverse of the restricted
sine function
sin x, −π/2 ≤ x ≤ π/2
2. The inverse cosine function, denoted by cos−1, is defined to be the inverse of the
restricted cosine function
cos x, 0 ≤ x ≤ π
3. The inverse tangent function, denoted by tan−1, is defined to be the inverse of the
restricted tangent function
tan x, −π/2 < x < π/2
4. The inverse secant function, denoted by sec−1, is defined to be the inverse of the
restricted secant function
sec x, 0 ≤ x ≤ π with x ≠ π/2

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

1.6.2 Evaluating Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Example 1 Find exact values of

(a) sin−1(1/√2 ) (b) sin−1(−1)
by inspection, and confirm your results numerically using a calculating utility.
Solution (a). Because sin−1(1/√2) > 0, we can view x = sin−1(1/√2 ) as that angle in the first
quadrant such that sin θ = 1/√2. Thus, sin−1(1/√2 ) = π/4. You can confirm this with your
calculating utility by showing that sin−1(1/√2 ) ≈ 0.785 ≈ π/4.
Solution (b). Because sin−1(−1) < 0, we can view x = sin−1(−1) as an angle in the fourth
quadrant (or an adjacent axis) such that sin x = −1. Thus, sin−1(−1) = −π/2. You can confirm
this with your calculating utility by showing that sin−1(−1) ≈ −1.57 ≈ −π/2.

1.6.3 Identities for Inverse Trigonometric Functions

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Example 2 Figure in the below shows a computer-generated graph of y = sin−1(sin x). One
might think that this graph should be the line y = x, since sin−1(sin x) = x. Why isn’t it?
Solution. The relationship sin−1(sin x) = x is valid on the interval −π/2 ≤ x ≤ π/2, so we can
say with certainty that the graphs of y = sin−1(sin x) and y = x coincide on this interval (which
is confirmed by below Figure). However, outside of this interval the relationship sin−1(sin x)
= x does not hold. For example, if the quantity x lies in the interval π/2 ≤ x ≤ 3π/2, then the
quantity x − π lies in the interval −π/2 ≤ x ≤ π/2, so
sin−1[sin(x − π)] = x − π
Thus, by using the identity sin(x − π) = −sin x and the fact that sin−1 is an odd function, we
can express sin−1(sin x) as
sin−1(sin x) = sin−1[− sin(x − π)] = −sin−1[sin(x − π)] = −(x − π)
This shows that on the interval π/2 ≤ x ≤ 3π/2 the graph of y = sin−1(sin x) coincides with the
line y = −(x − π), which has slope −1 and an x-intercept at x = π. This agrees with below
figure.

1.6.4 Derivatives of the Inverse Trigonometric Functions

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Example 3 Find dy/dx if

(a) y = sin−1(x3) (b) y = sec−1(ex)
Solution (a).

Solution (b).

1.6.5 Integration Formulas

Example 4 Evaluate

Solution. Substituting
u =√3x, du =√3 dx
yields

Example 5 Evaluate

Solution. Substituting
u = ex, du = ex dx
yields

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Example 6 Evaluate

where a≠0 is a constant.

Solution. Some simple algebra and an appropriate u-substitution will allow us to use

The method of Example 6 leads to the following generalizations for a > 0:

Example 7 Evaluate

Solution. Applying (previous eq.) with u = x and a =√2 yields

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

1.7 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS AND HANGING CABLES

1.7.1 Definitions of Hyperbolic Functions

Definitions

Example 1

1.7.2 Graphs of the Hyperbolic Functions

*The graphs of the hyperbolic functions, which are shown in the below figure, can be
generated with a graphing utility, but it is worthwhile to observe that the general shape of the
1
graph of y = cosh x can be obtained by sketching the graphs of 𝑦 = 2 𝑒 𝑥 and 𝑦 =
1
𝑒 −𝑥 separately and adding the corresponding y-coordinates [see part (a) of the figure].
2

*Similarly, the general shape of the graph of y = sinh x can be obtained by sketching the
1 1
graphs of 𝑦 = 2 𝑒 𝑥 and 𝑦 = − 2 𝑒 −𝑥 separately and adding corresponding y-coordinates [see

part (b) of the figure].

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

1 1
*Observe also that 𝑦 = 2 𝑒 𝑥 and 𝑦 = 2 𝑒 −𝑥 are curvilinear asymptotes for y = cosh x in the
1
sense that the graph of y = cosh x gets closer and closer to the graph of 𝑦 = 2 𝑒 𝑥 as x→+∞ and
1
gets closer and closer to the graph of 𝑦 = 2 𝑒 −𝑥 as x→−∞.

1.7.3 Hanging Cables and Other Applications

Hyperbolic functions arise in vibratory motions inside elastic solids and more generally in
many problems where mechanical energy is gradually absorbed by a surrounding medium.
They also occur when a homogeneous, flexible cable is suspended between two points, as
with a telephone line hanging between two poles. Such a cable forms a curve, called a
catenary (from the Latin catena, meaning “chain”).

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

1.7.4 Hyperbolic Identities

Theorem

represent the unit circle x2 + y2 = 1

If 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π, then the parameter t can be interpreted as

the angle in radians from the positive x-axis to the point
(cos t, sin t) or, alternatively, as twice the shaded area
of the sector in Figure a. Analogously, the parametric
equations
x = cosh t, y = sinh t (−∞ < t < +∞)
represent a portion of the curve x2 − y2 = 1, as may be
seen by writing
x2 − y2 = cosh2 t − sinh2 t = 1
and observing that x = cosh t > 0. This curve, which is
shown in Figure b, is the right half of a larger curve
called the unit hyperbola; this is the reason why the functions in this section are called
hyperbolic functions.

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

1.7.5 Derivative and Integral Formulas

Theorem

Example 2

Example 3

We were justified in dropping the absolute value signs since cosh x > 0 for all x.

Example 4 A 100 ft wire is attached at its ends to the tops of two 50 ft poles that are
positioned 90 ft apart. How high above the ground is the middle of the wire?
Solution. From above, the wire forms a catenary curve with equation

where the origin is on the ground midway between the poles. Using Formula for the length of
the catenary, we have

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Using a calculating utility’s numeric solver to solve

so c ≈ −25.08. Thus, the middle of the wire is y(0) ≈ 56.01 − 25.08 = 30.93 ft above the
ground (below figure).

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

1.7.6 Inverses of Hyperbolic Functions

1.7.7 Logarithmic Forms of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

Theorem The following relationships hold for all x in the domains of the stated inverse
hyperbolic functions:

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

1.7.8 Derivatives and Integrals Involving Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

Theorem

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Chapter 1: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

44