Chapter 13 notes

Chapter 13.1
Mass percentage - ratio of the components' mass to the solution's mass. In similar terms, how
much of one thing is in the whole thing?)
(also known as percent mass, percent weight, weight/weight percent, etc.)

Equation:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡
​ ​ 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
× 100%

●​ Usually looking for the mass percentage of solutes, but we can also look for solvents as
well
●​ Use other detailed symbols depending on the name of the mass percentage you use

Volume percentage- concentration of a solution formed by dissolving a liquid solute in a liquid

solvent
(also know as %vol or (v/v)%)

Equation:
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
​ ​ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
× 100%

Mass volume percentage- ratio of a solute's mass to the solution's volume expressed as a
percentage
●​ Units differ

Parts per million and parts per billion​

●​ Very low solute concentrations, which are used by these units
●​ Defined in terms of masses, volumes, or mixed mass-volume units
●​ There are also ppm and ppb units defined with respect to numbers of atoms and
molecules

Mass-based definitions

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 6
​ ​ 𝑝𝑝𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
× 10 𝑝𝑝𝑚
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 9
​ ​ 𝑝𝑝𝑏 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
× 10 𝑝𝑝𝑚
Chapter 13.2
The dissolution process
Solvents- one component of a solution is present at a significantly greater concentration
Solutes- components of a solution in a lesser concentration
Solution- homogeneous mixture of two or more substances

Subscript (aq) means that a substance can be dissolved in water

Water is a great solvent

Almost any gas, liquid, or solid can act as a solvent
Alloys are solid solutions of one metal dissolved in one or more additional elements

Traits of solutions
●​ They are homogeneous; after the solution is mixed, and has the same composition at all
points throughout ( its composition is uniform)
●​ Physical state of a solution- solid, liquid, or gas- is typically the same as that of the
solvent
●​ Components of a solution are dispersed on a molecular scale; that is, they consist of a
mixture of separated molecules, atoms, and/ or ions
●​ Dissolved solute in a solution will not settle out or separate from the solvent
●​ The composition of a solution, or the concentrations of its components, can be varied
continuously within limits

Formation of solutions
​ Spontaneous process
●​ Spontaneous process- occurs under specific conditions without the requirement of
energy from an external source
●​ Criteria that favor but do not guarantee the spontaneous formation of a solution
1.​ A decrease in the internal energy of the system (an exothermic change)
2.​ Increase in disorder of the system (increase in entropy of the system)

●​ During the process of dissolution, an internal energy change often, but not always,
occurs as heat is absorbed or evolved. An increase in disorder always results when
a solution forms
​ Ideal solution
 ●​ When the strengths of the Intermolecular forces of attraction between solute and
solvent species in a solution are no different than those present in the separated
components, with no energy change.
●​ May also form when structurally similar liquids are mixed

Intermolecular forces in dissolution

1.​ solute-solute: energy is consumed to overcome (endothermic)
2.​ Solvent-solvent: energy is consumed to overcome (endothermic)
3.​ Solute-solvent: formed when energy is released due to solute-solvent attractions
(exothermic) (process known as solvation)
> In some cases, solutions don't form because the energy required to separate solute and
solute species is much greater than the energy released by solvation

●​ The reason oil and water do not want to mix is that the molecules in the oils can't
overcome the hydrogen bonds in water
●​ Some molecules in a liquid can bond with water molecules, allowing them to mix
●​ The solvation process is exothermic to compensate for the endothermic separations of
solute and solvent molecules
13.3 electrolytes
Electrolytes- substance that produces ions when dissolved in water
Non-electrolytes- substances that do not produce ions when dissolved in water
Strong electrolytes- substance that dissociates and ionizes completely when dissolved in water
Weak electrolyte- only a small fraction of the dissolved substance makes ions

●​ The strength of an electrolyte can be determined by measuring the electrical conductance

of an aqueous solution containing the substance
●​ To conduct electricity, a substance must contain freely mobile, charged species
●​ Immerse a wire connected to a light bulb, then immerse the wire in the solution, and then
observe the light of the bulb. Seeing how light and dark it is can show how strong
electrolytes are
Ionic electrolytes
Water and other polar molecules are attracted to ions, causing an electrostatic attraction between
an ion and a molecule with a dipole, known as an ion-dipole attraction

Dissociation - When an ionic compound dissolves in water, the ions in the solid separate and
disperse uniformly
●​ Under most conditions, ionic compounds will dissociate nearly completely when
dissolved, so they are classified as strong electrolytes

Example )
When you add solid potassium chloride (KCl) to water, the water molecules pull apart the KCl
into its individual ions—potassium (K⁺) and chloride (Cl⁻). The positive parts of water molecules
are attracted to the negative chloride ions, and the negative parts of water are attracted to the
positive potassium ions. This attraction helps break the bonds between the ions in the solid,
allowing them to spread out and move freely in the water. As the ions go from being tightly
packed in a solid to freely moving in a solution, the system becomes more disordered. This
increase in disorder helps the KCl dissolve, even though it absorbs some heat in the process.

In other cases, electrostatic attractions between the ions in a crystal are so large, or the
ion-dipole attractive forces between the ions and water molecules are so weak, that the
increase in disorder can't come up with the energy required to separate ions.

Covalent electrolytes
●​ Water is a very poor conductor of electricity
●​ In some cases, solutions prepared from covalent compounds conduct electricity because
the solute molecules react chemically with the solvent to produce ions

In-text example
Pure hydrogen chloride is a gas consisting of covalent HCl molecules. This gas contains no ions.
However, when we dissolve hydrogen chloride in water, we find that the solution is a very good
conductor. The water molecules play an essential part in forming ions: Solutions of hydrogen
chloride in many other solvents, such as benzene, do not conduct electricity and do not contain
ions.

Hydrogen chloride is an acid, and molecules react with water, transferring H^+ions to form
hydronium ions and chloride ions
13.5 solubility

Limits of the example water and salt

●​ Limit determined by relative strengths of the solute-solvent, solute-solute, and
solvent-solvent attractive forces
●​ You can be certain you have reached the limit because no matter how long you stir the
solution, undissolved salt remains.

Solubility- the solubility of a solute in a particular solvent is the maximum concentration that
may be achieved under given conditions when the dissolution process (process of solid particles
being continuously dissolved in solvent) is at equilibrium

Saturated- is when a solute's concentration is equal to its solubility; the solution is said to be
saturated
Unsaturated- if the solute's concentration is less than its solubility

If we were to add more salt to a saturated solution of salt, the salt would fall to the bottom.
During this process, the salt is still dissolving, as indicated by the forward movement, even
though it may not appear to be doing so. Dissolved salt will precipitate as depicted by the reverse
direction of the equation ( this system is then at equilibrium). When the two processes are
happening at equal rates, the system is said to be at equilibrium (sizes of undissolved crystals
will change, but mass will stay the same).

Supersaturated- when a solute's concentration exceeds its solubility

​ > interesting examples of nonequilibrium states

Solutions of gases in liquids

●​ Chemical structures of the solute and solvent dictate the type of forces possible
●​ Temperature affects solubility
●​ An increase in temperature typically makes gas solubility decrease
●​ Solubility of a gaseous solution is also affected by the increase in the partial pressure of
the gas increase
●​ Gas solubility increases as the pressure of the gas increases

Henry's law: the quantity of an ideal gas that dissolves in a definite volume of liquid is directly
proportional to the pressure of the gas

𝐶𝑔 = 𝑘𝑃𝑔

𝐶𝑔- solubility
Pg- partial pressure
K- is a proportionality constant that depends on the identities of the gaseous solute and solvent,
and on the solution temperature
Miscible- liquids mix in all proportions ( also means they have mutual solubility)
●​ Liquids that mix well with water in all proportions are usually polar substances or
substances that form hydrogen bonds
○​ For liquids, the dipole-dipole attraction or (hydrogen bonding) of the solute
molecules with the solvent molecules is at least as strong as that between
molecules in the pure solute or in the pure solvent, making them mix more easily.
Immiscible- two liquids that do not mix
●​ When this happens, layers are made
Partially miscible- two liquids have moderate mutual solubility (usually forming 2 layers)

Solutions of solids in liquids

A solution may be saturated with the compound at an elevated temperature (where the solute is
more soluble)
Google: elevation affects the solubility of gases in liquids by changing atmospheric pressure; at
higher elevations, lower atmospheric pressure leads to lower gas solubility, as described by
Henry's Law, while elevation has a negligible effect on the solubility of solids and liquids. This is
because the decreased atmospheric pressure at higher altitudes reduces the partial pressure of
gases above a liquid, which in turn reduces the amount of gas that can dissolve into the liquid,
causing carbonated drinks to go flat faster and reducing dissolved oxygen in high-altitude lakes.
13.6 Colligative Properties
Colligative properties- include vapor pressure lowering, boiling point elevation, freezing point
depression, and osmotic pressure

Mole fraction and molality

Molarity (M): molar amounts of solute species

𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑀= 𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Because solution volumes vary with temperature, molar concentrations will likewise vary
●​ When expressed as molarity, the concentration of a solution with an identical number of
solute and solvent species will be different at different temperatures due to the
contraction/ expansion of the solution
For colligative properties that are mol-based concentration units whose values are not dependent
on temperature (two such units are mole fraction and molality)

Mole fraction X of a component is the ratio of its molar amount to the total number of moles of
all solution components

𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴
𝑋𝑎 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠

Molality- is the concentration unit defined as the ratio of the number of moles of solute to the
mass of the solvent in kilograms:

𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑚= 𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡

The ones above only vary with molar amounts and not temperature, and are better suited for
applications requiring temperature-independent concentrations

Vapor pressure lowering

Equilibrium vapor pressure of a liquid is the pressure exerted by its gaseous phase when
vaporization and condensation are occurring at equal rates
●​ Nonvolatile substance in a volatile liquid results in lowering vapor pressure (volatile has
strong intermolecular forces between bonds)
●​ To vaporize, solvent molecules must be present at the surface area of a solution
●​ The presence of solute decreases the surface area available to solvent molecules and
thereby reduces the rate of solvent vaporization
 ●​ Since the rate of condensation is unaffected by the presence of solute, the net result is that
the vaporization-condensation equilibrium is achieved with fewer solvent molecules in
the vapor phase
●​ The greater entropy of a solution in comparison to its separator solvent and solutes serves
to effectively stabilize the solvent molecules and hinder their vaporization
The relationship between the vapor pressures of solution components and the concentration of
those components is described by Raoult’s law

Raoult's law: the particle pressure exerted by any components of an ideal solution is equal to the
vapor pressure of the pure component multiplied by its mole fraction in the solution
𝑃𝐴 = 𝑋𝑎𝑃𝐴 ◦

Where 𝑃𝐴 is the partial pressure exerted by component A in the solution

𝑃𝐴 ◦ is the vapor pressure of pure A, and 𝑋𝑎 is the mole fraction of A in the solution

The total pressure of a gaseous mixture is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of all of its
components

Total pressure of a gaseous mixture is = to the sum of the partial pressures of all of its
components

Dalton's law of particle pressure- the total vapor pressure exerted by a solution containing i
components is

𝑃𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ∑ 𝑃𝑖 = ∑ 𝑋𝑖𝑃𝑖 ◦
𝑖 𝑖
◦
A nonvolatile substance is one whose vapor pressure is negligible (𝑃 ≈ 0) and so the vapor
pressure above the solution containing only nonvolatile solutes is due to the solvent

𝑃𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑋𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑃 ◦𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡

Elevation of the boiling point of a solvent

●​ ∆𝑇𝑏 is the boiling point elevation

○​ And is directly proportional to the molal concentration of solute species

∆𝑇𝑏 = 𝐾𝑏𝑚

●​ 𝐾𝑏 is the boiling point elevation constant (or ebullioscopic constant)

●​ 𝑚 is the molal concentration (molality) of all solute species

Distillation of solutes

Distillation is a technique for separating the components of mixtures

Depression of the freezing point of a solvent
Solutions freeze at lower temperatures than pure liquids -> known as de-icing

Decrease in freezing point of a dilute solution compared to that of the pure solvent
∆𝑇𝑓 It is called the freezing point depression and is directly proportional to the molal
concentration of the solute
∆𝑇𝑓 = 𝐾𝑓𝑚

m- is molal concentration
𝐾𝑓 is the freezing point depression constant (or cryoscopic constant) (values depend on the
chemical identity of a solvent)

Phase diagram for an aqueous solution of a non-electrolyte

Vapor pressure lowering (ΔP): The solution’s liquid-vapor curve lies below that of the pure
solvent.
Boiling point elevation (ΔTb): At any pressure, the solution boils at a higher temperature than
the pure solvent.
Freezing point depression (ΔTf): The solution’s solid-liquid curve shifts left, indicating a lower
freezing point.
No change in solid-gas curve: Since freezing excludes solute particles, transitions between solid
and gas involve only the pure solvent and are unaffected by colligative properties.
Osmosis and osmotic pressure of solutions
●​ A number of natural and synthetic materials exhibit selective permeation, meaning that
only molecules or ions of a certain shape, size, polarity, charge, etc. are capable of
passing through (permeating) the material.
●​ Solvent molecules will diffuse across the membrane in both directions. Since the
concentration of the solvent is greater in a pure solvent than in the solution, molecules
will diffuse from the solvent side of the membrane to the solution side at a faster rate
than they will in the reverse direction.

Osmosis - diffusion-driven transfer of solvent molecules through a semipermeable membrane

●​ When osmosis is carried on in an apparatus, the volume of the solution increases s it

becomes diluted by the accumulation of solvent. This causes the level of the solution to
rise, increasing its hydrostatic pressure (due to the weight of the column of solution in
the tube)and results in faster transfer of solvent molecules back to the pure solvent side.
When the pressure reaches a value that yields a reverse solvent transfer rate equal to
the osmosis rate, bulk transfer of solvent ceases. This pressure is called
osmotic pressure(П)

Π = 𝑀𝑅𝑇
Π- osmotic pressure
M- solute molarity
T- temperature

! Applying pressure greater than the osmotic pressure of the solution will reverse
osmosis, pushing solvent molecules from the solution into a pure solvent (aka reverse
osmosis)

Osmosis in biology
Solutes in body cell fluids and blood serum form five solutions with an osmotic pressure
of approximately 7.7 atm
Solutions injected into the body must have the same osmotic pressure as blood serum
is, (isotonic with blood serum) (isotonic- of equal osmotic pressure).
If a less concentrated solution ( a hypertonic solution) is injected in sufficient quantity to
dilute the blood serum, water from the diluted serum passes into the blood cells by
osmosis, causing cells to expand and rupture (which is the process of hemolysis).
When a more concentrated solution, a hypertonic solution, is injected, the cells lose
water to the more concentrated solution, shrivel, and possibly die in a process called
crenation.
Determining molar mass
Osmotic pressure and changes in freezing point, boiling point, and vapor pressure are
directly proportional to the concentration of solute present. So we can use a measure of
these properties to determine the molar mass of the solute from the measurements.

Colligative properties of electrolytes

If you dissolve 1 mole of a substance thats not an electrolyte in 1 kg of solvent produces the
same lowering of freezing as does q mole of any non-electrolyte. ​

1 mole of an electrolyte like NaCl forms 2 moles of ions when dissolved in a solution. Each ion
produces the same effect on the freezing point as a single molecule does.

Vant Hoff factor (i) - the ratio of solute particles in a solution to the number of formula units
dissolved

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑖= 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑑
Can predict values of dissociation

Debye-Hückel Theory: Proposed to explain the incomplete ionization of strong electrolytes.

Residual Interionic Attraction: Even in solution, positive and negative ions still attract each other,
though greatly reduced.
Ion Pair: A solvated unit formed when a positive and negative ion touch.
Activity vs. Actual Concentration: Due to interionic attractions, the effective concentration
(activity) of ions is less than their actual concentration.
Dilution Effect: As solutions become more dilute, ions separate further, reducing interionic
attractions.
Ideal Behavior: In extremely dilute solutions, ion activity approaches actual concentration, and
behavior becomes more "ideal."
Van't Hoff Factor (i): For strong electrolytes, 'i is often less than the ideal whole number (e.g.,
1.9 for NaCl instead of 2 at 0.05 m), indicating non-ideal behavior due to these attractions.
Chapter 13.7
●​ A solution may be colored, but it is transparent; the molecules or ions are invisible and
do not settle out on standing
●​ Colloids or colloidal dispersion - are a group of mixtures that exhibit properties
intermediate between those of suspensions and solutions
●​ Particles in a colloid are larger than most simple molecules, but colloidal particles are
small enough that they do not settle out upon standing
●​ Tyndall effect. When the particles in a colloid are large enough to scatter light
○​ This can make a colloidal mixture appear cloudy or opaque

●​ Many colloidal particles are aggregates of hundreds or thousands of molecules. But

others (such as proteins and polymer molecules) consist of a single extremely large
molecule.
●​ Dispersed phase- substance present as relatively large solid or liquid particles in a
colloid
●​ Dispersion medium- substance or solution throughout which the particle is dispersed
●​ Colloids may involve virtually any combination of physical states (gas in liquid, liquid in
solid, solid in gas, etc.

Preparation of Colloidal Systems

We can prepare a colloidal system by producing particles of colloidal dimensions and

distributing these particles throughout a dispersion medium. Particles of colloidal size are
formed by two methods:

1.​ Dispersion methods: that is, by breaking down larger particles. For example, paint
pigments are produced by dispersing large particles by grinding in special mills.
2.​ Condensation methods: that is, growth from smaller units, such as molecules or ions.
For example, clouds form when water molecules condense and form very small droplets.

●​ Emulsion- a colloid formed from immiscible liquids

○​ This breaks one liquid into droplets of colloidal size, which then disperse
throughout the other liquid

●​ Emulsifying agent- a substance that inhibits the coalescence of the dispersed liquid

Condensation methods from colloidal particles by aggregation of molecules or ions. If particles

grow beyond the colloidal size range, drops or precipitation form, and no colloidal system results
Soaps and detergents
Detergents (soap substitutes) are nonpolar carbon chains with an ionic group, making soaps.
Soaps form insoluble calcium and magnesium compounds in hard water; detergents for
water-soluble products
●​ Nonpolar hydrocarbon ends of soaps dissolve
●​ The ionic side is attracted to water since it is polar
This is known to be amphiphilic, both water-loving and water-hating

Electrical properties
●​ Dispersed colloidal particles are often electrically charged
●​ Some ions may keep them neutral
●​ Most metal hydroxide colloids have a positive charge
●​ All colloidal particles in any one system have charges of the same sign. This helps keep
them dispersed because particles containing like charges repel each other.
●​ The charged particles are attracted to highly charged electrodes, where they are
neutralized and deposited as dust
Gels
●​ A gel is a colloid in which the dispersing medium is a solid and the dispersed phase is a
liquid.
●​ It appears that the fibers of the dispersing medium form a complex three-dimensional
network, the interstices being filled with the liquid medium or a dilute solution of the
dispersing medium. Because the formation of a gel is accompanied by the taking up of
water or some other solvent, the gel is said to be hydrated or solvated.