SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES

Chapter2
 Interference & Diffraction

Principle of superposition

• The resultant displacement (amplitude)of two waves at

any point is equal to the sum of the displacements of each
individual wave at that point

• Interference of two waves that

Constructive
interference
are in phase to produce a new
bigger wave (higher amplitude)

Phase difference = 0 (Crest, Crest) or (trough, trough)

New amplitude = A + A = 2A

(Bigger wave)

2cm 1cm 3cm

Crest+Crest
 • Interference of two waves that
Destructive
interference
are antiphase to produce a
smaller wave or cancel each other

Phase difference = 𝜋𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑂𝑟 180𝑜 (Crest meets trough)

2cm

1cm

New amplitude = 3-2=1cm

3cm

(Smaller wave)

4cm
4cm
Waves cancel Each other.

Crest+trough
 Phase difference & Path difference
(1) Interference takes place between two waves emitted from the same source
(direct wave and reflected wave that are identical)
(2) The reflected weave travels longer distance (path) than the direct wave
(3) There is a path difference between the direct wave and the reflected wave.
(4) The path difference tells you whether the interference is constructive or
destructive.

Path Path
difference of difference of
Produces ½λ, 1½λ, 2½λ Produces
0 , 1λ , 2λ , 3λ
constructive ... etc. destructive
…. etc
interference. interference.
 ∆𝑋 = 𝑛𝜆 ሺ∆𝑋 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒ሻ
ሺ𝐼𝑓 𝑛 = 0 𝑜𝑟 1 𝑜𝑟 2 , … . . 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒ሻ

ሺ𝐼𝑓 𝑛 = 0.5 𝑜𝑟 1.5 𝑜𝑟 2.5 , … . . 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒ሻ

This equation is used whenever you are asked about the path
difference or the type of interference.

Path difference
It is the difference in distance (Path) travelled by
two waves that meet at a point

trrough+trough
2 waves 2½ waves Crest+trough

3 waves
3 waves

Path diff= 3-2 = 1λ Path diff = 3-2½ = ½λ

(Constructive) (Destructive)
2 waves 3waves

1 wave 2½waves

Path diff = 1λ Path diff = 3-2½=½λ

(Constructive) (Destructive)
 Constructive interference Destructive interference
Path diff. Phase diff. Path diff. Phase diff.
0 0 ½λ 𝜋 or 180o
1λ 2𝜋 or 360o 1½λ 3𝜋 or 540o
2λ 4𝜋 or 720o 2½λ 5𝜋 or 900o
3λ 6𝜋 Or 1080 3½λ 7𝜋 or 1260o

To convert the path difference into phase difference,

replace (λ) by (2 𝝅) or (360o)

• The phase difference between points (a) & (b) is ………

a) 90o A
b) 180o
c) 270o
d) 540o
B
 Diffraction of waves

Bending or spreading out of waves as they pass

through a small gap or curve round an edge.

Diffraction of water waves

Waves diffract as they pass No diffraction when waves

through a gap of width that pass through a wide gap.
equals to (λ) of the waves.
 Diffraction of light waves

It is harder to observe diffraction of light Bright fringe Dark fringe

waves than sound or water waves. formed due formed due
to to
Light needs a very small gap to constructive destructive
interference interference
be diffracted because it has a when light when light
very short wavelength. waves from waves from
different different
parts of the parts of the
gap combine gap combine
wider central max to reinforce so that they
Longer wavelength
greater diffraction each other cancel each
other out
smaller cent. Max
Wider gap
smaller diffraction

Diffraction
increases when:

Wavelength
increase or frquency
decreases

The gap width

decreases
 Standing (stationary) waves
Waves formed by interference of two identical waves
travelling along a straight line opposite to each other.

Nodes:
Points on standing waves at which no vibration is there due to
destructive interference.

Antinodes:
Points on standing waves where vibration is maximum due to
constructive interference.
Notes:

(1) Distance between:

a) Nodes →½λ

b) Antinodes →½λ

c) Node & antinode = ¼λ

(2) 1 loop = ½λ→ 1λ= 2 loops.

2𝐿
(3) λ= 𝑛
𝐿 → 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑛 → 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑠ሺ𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝𝑠ሻ
𝑛λ
𝐿= 2

(4) Number of antinodes (loops) = no. of nodes – 1

(5) Speed of a standing wave is constant even if (λ) or

(F) change because if (𝑓 ↑) , (λ↓) & Vice versa
2𝐿
V=λ 𝑓 =( 𝑛 × 𝑓𝑛 )

𝑛𝑣
𝑓𝑛 =
2𝐿
(6) Longest wavelength is when no. of loops is 1 Which is
called Fundamental tone (First harmonic)
 𝟏𝒗
1st harmonic (1 loop): 𝑓1 =
𝟐𝑳

Or Fundamental mode

𝟐𝒗 𝒗
2nd harmonic (2 loops): 𝑓2 = =
𝟐𝑳 𝑳

Or 1st overtone

𝐹2 = 2 × 𝐹1

𝟑𝒗
3rd harmonic (3 loops): 𝑓3 =
𝟐𝑳

Or 2nd overtone

𝑓3 = 3 × 𝑓1

(7) relation between: - n

𝑛1 𝑓1
a) n & F → n 𝛼 f → =
𝑛2 𝑓2
F↑, no. of loops
increases. F

n n
1 𝑛1 λ2
b) n & λ→ n 𝛼 → =
λ 𝑛2 λ1

λ 𝟏
𝝀

To find Length of strings from the opposite graph:

2𝐿 𝑛λ 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝟏
λ= →𝐿= = 𝝀
𝑛 2 2
∆𝒚 𝒏
G= = 𝟏
∆𝑿
𝝀
G=nλ
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 2 𝐿

Resonance effect
• It occurs when a string is plucked and allowed to
vibrate freely, at certain frequencies it vibrates at large
amplitude
 stationary waves in closed columns
For stationary waves formed by sound
waves in a closed tube, the air particles
can’t vibrate at the closed end so this
must be always a node and the open
end there is always antinode.

1st harmonic: 1 antinode

λ 4L
𝐿= → λ=
4 1

2nd harmonic: 2 antinodes

3λ 4L
𝐿= → λ=
4 3

3rd harmonic: 3 antinodes

5λ 4L
𝐿= → λ=
4 5

To calculate the Wavelength: 4𝐿

λ𝑛 =
ሺ2n − 1ሻ

n: number of antinodes= number of nodes

To calculate the frequency: ሺ2n − 1ሻ𝑣

𝑓𝑛 =
4𝐿

To calculate the speed of sound: 4𝐿

𝑣 = λ𝑓 = 𝑓
ሺ2n − 1ሻ

𝑓2 = 3𝑓1 𝑓3 = 5𝑓1 𝑓4 = 7𝑓1 𝑓5 = 9𝑓1 𝑓6 = 11𝑓1

To find any frequency from (𝑓1 ሻሺ𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎሻ:
𝑓𝑛 = ሺ2𝑛 − 1ሻ × 𝑓1

Important note:

• For the same frequency source, if two successive resonance

modes occur at two different lengths, The difference in length
ሺ∆𝐿ሻ between each resonance and the next is equal to ½λ
• Ex: The difference between 1st and 2nd harmonic:
3λ λ λ
• ∆𝐿 = 𝐿2 − 𝐿1 = − =
4 4 2

So λ = 2 × ∆𝐿 where ሺ∆𝐿ሻ is the difference of both lengths of

both air columns.

• To change the resonance mode, either change the frequency of

the source or change the length of the air column (tube)

• A tuning fork held at the mouth of

an open tube projects a sound
wave into the column of air in
the tube.
• The length can be changed by
varying the water level.
• At certain lengths tube, the air
column resonates.
• This is due to the formation of
stationary waves by the incident
and reflected sound waves at the
water surface.
• Node always formed at surface of
water.
 Two sources interference

Coherent waves

Waves that have the same wavelength and maintain

constant phase difference

Interference of two dippers water waves: -

When two dippers vibrate at the same time on the

surface of water, they form a pattern of interference
showing that: -

1- Max. interference fringes formed due to

Constructive interference.

2- Minimum interference fringes due to destructive interference

Maximums Minimums
Central max → 0 path diff. 1 min → ½𝜆 path diff.
st

1st max → 1𝜆 path diff. 2nd min → 1½𝜆 path diff.

2nd max → 2𝜆 path diff. 3rd min → 2½𝜆 path diff.
nth max → n 𝜆 path diff nth min → ሺ𝑛 − ½ሻ 𝜆 path diff
Interference of two coherent light sources: -

Young's double slit experiment

• A monochromatic light is used. Why?

Because it has a single wavelength.
• What is the use of the two slits?
• They act as two coherent light sources
because waves emerging from them
originate from the same wave, so they maintain a constant
phase difference.

2nd max
2λ

Fringe A band of constructing brightness or 1st max

1λ
S1
darkness produced by interference 𝑥

or diffraction of light. So Cont. max

a 0λ

S2 1st max
1λ

2nd max
2λ
D
Young's equation

n→ no. of fringe separations (x)

𝒏𝝀 𝑿
= 𝝀 →Wavelength.
𝒂 𝑫 a→Slits separation (separation of the sources).
X→Fringe separation. (Between max. or min.)
D→Screen position from the slits.
𝟏
ሺ𝒏 + ሻ𝝀 𝑿
𝟐
=
𝒂 𝑫

∆𝑋 = 𝑛𝜆 For maximums ∆𝑋 → 𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒉 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇

𝒏 → 𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒆
∆𝑋 = ሺ𝑛 + ½ሻ 𝜆 For minimums

Add (½) to the path difference to get the order of the minimum.

∆𝑋 = 𝑋2 − 𝑋1
What is the order & type of interference at point (a)?
a
(if λ=2X10 )
-7
X1 = 3500nm

S1 X2 = 4500nm

S2

If (𝝀) of the waves from (S1& S2) is (3cm) figure out the type
screen
and order of interference at (B)
S1
Answer:

S2

If the path difference between paths (A) and (B) is (0.3 cm)
find the order & type of interference at (y)?
Answer:
Important notes

𝑥1 𝜆1
=
𝑥2 𝜆2

𝑥1 𝐷1
=
𝑥2 𝐷2

𝑥1 𝑎2
=
𝑥2 𝑎1
Relation between 𝜆𝐷 X
𝑥=
𝐼
𝑎
1- X & a → X 𝛼
𝑎
𝑋1 𝑎2
= a
𝑋2 𝑎1
Slits separation ↑ , fringe separation ↓
_______________________________________
2- X & 𝜆 → X 𝛼 𝜆 X

𝑋1 𝜆1
=
𝑋2 𝜆2
longer λ → wider fringe separation
_______________________________________ λ
3- X & D →X𝛼 𝐷
𝑋1 𝐷 X
= 1
𝑋2 𝐷2

Moving the screen away (D↑) causes (X) to

increase.
D

___________________________________________
𝐼
4- 𝜆 & D →λ𝛼
𝐷
𝜆1 𝐷2
=
𝜆2 𝐷1

If (λ) increases, move screen closer to keep (X) the same.

5- a & D → a 𝛼 𝐷 a
𝑎1 𝐷
= 1
𝑎2 𝐷2

If slits separation increases, screen must be

moved away to keep fringe separation the same. D
 Diffraction grating

• It is a plate which contains a very large number of

parallel, identical,very closely spaced slits

By using diffraction grating,

light undergoes diffraction
from all the slits then
interferes to produce
bright, sharp, widely d
separated fringes.

n λ = d x sinӨ

For → cent. Max → n=0 n → order of maximum.

→ 1st Max → n= 1 d → diffraction grating spacing

→ 2nd Max → n =2 (distance between two successive slits)

1 1
𝑑= or 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠/𝑚 =
𝑑
𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠/𝑚

(d) in diffraction grating the same as (a) in young's exp.

 In young's exp. Given as distance (X)
Fringe separation.
In diffraction grating given as an angle (Ө)
Notes:
If No. of lines/m in diffraction grating increases: -

→(d) or (a) decrease.

→Distance between fringes (x) increases.
→(Ө) Increases.
1 sin 𝜃1
Ө 𝛼 No. of lines & Ө 𝛼
𝑑
→
sin 𝜃2
= 𝑑𝑑2
1

How to find (λ) from the opposite graph?

∆𝑦 sin Ө
Since λ = d sinӨ G=
∆𝑋
sin Ө
G= 1
λ=Gradient 𝑑
1
G= sin Ө X d 𝑑

2nd
max

if you are given λ, a, D and asked to find (Ө)

(a) or (d)
between the [Link]& 2nd max? Ө ) Cent
max

Answer:
D
Screen
𝜆𝑑
First you must find (X) from X =
𝑎

2𝑋 2nd max
Then Tan Ө =
𝐷

2𝑋 2X
Ө = Tan-1 ( )
𝐷
Ө
D Cent max
 Important note:

To calculate the maximum no. of fringes formed on the screen:

1-Consider the angle to be 90o then find (n) which gives the
•
number of fringes above the central maximum

2-Multiply (nx2) then add the central maximum so that the

maximum no. of fringes will be equal to {(nx2) +1}
 Electromagnetic
spectrum
• Visible light is one of the electromagnetic waves.
• Electromagnetic spectrum contains many types of
waves.
• Electromagnetic waves consist of magnetic
and electric field oscillate perpendicular to
each other and also to the directionof wave
propagation.
 Order of magnitudes of wave lengths of
Electromagnetic waves

2-They travel at the same

1-They are all transverse and speed of light, and they can
carry energy travel invacuum

Characteristics of
electromagnetic
waves
3-They consist of magnetic and 4-They show all properties of
electric field oscillate waves(Reflection, refraction,
perpendicular to each other diffraction and interference)
 Polarization

It is a property of the transverse waves only.

Unpolarized wave
The wave in which the particles of the medium vibrate at 90o in
more than one plane.
Polarized wave:
The wave in which the particles vibrate at 90o only in one plane.

Vertically polarized horizontally polarized.

 • When an unpolarized light passes through the 1st filter as
shown in the figure below, it becomes horizontally polarized.
𝐼
• If the intensity of light is ሺ𝐼ሻ, it will decrease into ሺ𝐼0 = ሻ
2
st
after it passes through the 1 filter.
• The amount of light that will pass through the 2nd filter
depends on the angle between the planes of polarization of
the two filters.
• If the angle between the planes of the two filters is zero
(parallel to each other), intensity of light emerging from the
2nd filter will be maximum.
• If the angle between the planes of the two filters is 90o
(perpendicular to each other), no light will be emerging from
the 2nd filter.

Questions

1-The angle between the planes of two polarizing filters is 45.0°.

By how much the second filter reduces the intensity of
the light coming through the first? Ans= 0.5
2-If you have completely polarized light of intensity 150 W/m2,
what will its intensity be after passing through a polarizing
filter with its axis at an 89.0° angle to the light’s polarization
direction. Ans= 𝟒. 𝟓𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 W/m2

3-What angle would the axis of a polarizing filter need to make with
the direction of polarized light of intensity 1.00 kW/m2
to reduce the intensity to 10.0 W/m2? Ans= 𝟖𝟒. 𝟑°

4-By how much the intensity of polarized light is reduced to of its

original value by passing through a polarizing filter
with its axis at an angle of 18.4° to the direction of polarization.
Ans= 90.0%

5-Two Polarizers P1 and P2 are placed with their axis

perpendicular to each other. Unpolarized light of intensity Io is
incident on P1. A third polaroid P3 is kept in between P1 and P2
such that its axis makes an angle 45o with that of P1. Find the
intensity of transmitted light through P2. Ans=0.25
summary
White light