MODULE 2 – ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF

METALS & SEMICONDUCTORS

FULL GROUPED REPETITIVE QUESTIONS (VTU
STYLE – QUESTIONS ONLY)
With Exact Model / SEE Question Locations

PART A – REPETITIVE QUESTIONS (SAME CONCEPT,

DIFFERENT WORDING)
Q1. a) Explain the failures of classical free electron theory of metals. OR b) Discuss the limitations
of classical free electron theory. OR c) Why did classical free electron theory fail to explain electrical
properties of metals?

Appeared in: • VTU Model QP 2022–23 – Module 4, Q7(a) • SEE July 2024 – Module 4, Q8(b) •
SEE Jan/Feb 2023 – Module 4, Q7(a)

Q2. a) State the assumptions of quantum free electron theory. OR b) Explain quantum free electron
theory of metals. OR c) Compare classical free electron theory with quantum free electron theory.

Appeared in: • VTU Model QP 2022–23 – Module 4, Q7(a) • SEE Dec 2024 / Jan 2025 – Module 4,
Q7(a)

Q3. a) Define density of states and derive its expression. OR b) Explain the concept of density of
states in metals. OR c) Draw and explain the variation of density of states with energy.

Appeared in: • SEE July 2024 – Module 4, Q8(b) • VTU Model QP 2022–23 – Module 4, Q8(b)

Q4. a) Define Fermi energy and Fermi level. OR b) Explain the significance of Fermi energy in
metals. OR c) Derive the expression for Fermi energy at absolute zero temperature.

Appeared in: • VTU Model QP 2022–23 – Module 4, Q8(a) • SEE Jan/Feb 2023 – Module 4, Q7(b)

Q5. a) Define Fermi–Dirac distribution function. OR b) Explain Fermi–Dirac statistics and Fermi
factor. OR c) Discuss the variation of Fermi factor with temperature and energy.

Appeared in: • VTU Model QP 2022–23 – Module 4, Q7(a) • SEE July 2024 – Module 4, Q7(a) •
SEE Dec 2024 / Jan 2025 – Module 4, Q8(a)

Q6. a) Calculate the probability of occupation of an energy level using Fermi–Dirac distribution. OR
b) Find the probability of an electron occupying an energy level above or below the Fermi level at a
given temperature. OR c) Solve numerical problems based on Fermi factor.
Appeared in: • VTU Model QP 2022–23 – Module 4, Q8(c) • SEE Jan/Feb 2023 – Module 4, Q7(c) •
SEE July 2024 – Module 4, Q7(c) • SEE Dec 2024 / Jan 2025 – Module 4, Q7(c)

Q7. a) Derive an expression for electron concentration in an intrinsic semiconductor. OR b) Obtain

the expression for carrier concentration in intrinsic semiconductors. OR c) Explain the temperature
dependence of carrier concentration in intrinsic semiconductors.

Appeared in: • 1BPHYS102 (Jan 2025 Model) – Module 2, Q3(b)

Q8. a) Explain n-type and p-type semiconductors. OR b) Derive expressions for electron and hole
concentrations in extrinsic semiconductors. OR c) Draw and explain energy band diagrams of
n-type and p-type semiconductors.

Appeared in: • 1BPHYS102 (Jan 2025 Model) – Module 2, Q4(a) • VTU Model QP 2022–23 –
Module 4, Q8(a)

Q9. a) Define Hall effect and derive an expression for Hall voltage. OR b) Explain Hall effect and its
applications. OR c) Obtain an expression for Hall coefficient.

Appeared in: • 1BPHYS102 (Jan 2025 Model) – Module 2, Q3(c) • VTU Model QP 2022–23 –
Module 4, Q8(a) • SEE July 2024 – Module 4, Q7(b)
 Solid State Materials  651

From Eqs. (23.13) and (23.23), we get

K nvkBλ (mv )
=
σ (
2 ne 2λ )
K nvkBλmv  λ
or = ∵ τ = 
σ 2ne 2λ  v 

K v 2 kBλm
⇒ =
σ 2e 2λ

K kBλmv .v
⇒ =
σ 2e 2λ

 3k T 
kBλv  B 
K  v   2 3 kB T 
⇒ = v = 
σ 2e λ2  m 

K 3 kB 2
or = T  (23.24)
σ 2 e2

k
or ∝T  (23.25)
σ
K
Equation (23.25) is known as Wiedemann–Franz law, where = LT and L = Lorentz
number. σ

3 kB2
And also L= = 1.12×10−8 wWK−2
2 e2

23.7 Failures of Classical Free Electron Theory

The free electron theory has the following limitations:

(i) Specific heat: The free electron theory has been successful in explaining electrical
and thermal conductivities of metals but could not explain why the low temperature

1. specific heat should be dominated by the electronic contribution.

  The free electron theory assumes that all valence electrons in a metal can absorb
thermal energy. According to law of equipartition of energy, the energy of one
kilomole of the metal is

U=
3
N a kB T
2
652 Engineering physics

The molar heat capacity is

dU 3
(Cv)electronic = = N a kB
dT 2
3
= R = 1.5R
2

= 12.5×10 3 J/mol/R

The electronic heat capacity calculated on the basis of free e theory is about hundred
times greater than the experimentally observed value.
(ii) Electrical conductivity: According to free electron theory, the electrical conductivity
σ is given by
1
σ∝  (23.26)
T
But the experimentally observed value of σ is proportional to temperature.
1
σexp ∝  (23.27)
T
Equations (23.26) and (23.27) show that the temperature dependence of electrical
conductivity could not be explained well by free electron theory.
(iii) Dependence of electrical conductivity on electron concentration: According to free
electron theory,

ne 2 τ
σ= or σ ∝ n
m
where n is electron concentration. But experimentally, this result (σ ∝ n) does not
hold good.
(iv) Paramagnetism of metals: Experimental fact that the paramagnetism of metals is
nearly independent of temperature which could not be explained by free electron
theory.
(v) Wiedemann–Franz law: According to Wiedemann–Franz law,

K
= L = Constant
σT

3 kB2
where L=
2 e2
= 1.12×10−8 wWK−2
For copper at 20°C, the electrical resistivity and thermal conductivity are 1.72 ×
10−8 Wm and 386 Wm−1K−1m−1K−1 respectively. Substituting these values, we get
 Solid State MaterialS 653

K 386
=
σT 5.81×107 × 293

= 2.26 ×10−8 wWK−2

Thus, the value of Lorenz number does not agree with the value calculated from
classical formula. The results obtained by free electron theory agree well only at high
as well as at very low temperature.
(vi) Hall coefficient: According to free electron theory, the density of electrons has a
constant value which is independent of temperature, τ and magnetic field strength
but experimentally observed hall coefficient depends upon high magnetic field
strength and the temperature.
(vii) Directional dependence of electrical conductivity: In metals, sometimes DC
electrical conductivity depends
 on the orientation of the specimen w.r.t.  the electric
field. The current density J need not to be parallel to the electric field E .

EXAMPLE 23.3

If a metal has 5.82 × 1028 conduction electrons/m3, find the relaxation time in a metal
of resistivity 1.543 × 10−8 Ω-m.

m
Solution: We know that ρ=
ne 2 τ
m
or τ=
ne 2ρ

Given ρ = 1.543 ×10−8 Ω-m

n = 5.82×10 28 electrons/m3

9.1×10−31
or τ= 2
(5.82×1028 )(1.602×10−19 ) (1.543×10−8 )
τ = 3.97 × 10−14 s

EXAMPLE 23.4

A uniform silver wire has a resistivity of 1.54 ×10−8 Ω-m at room temperature. For an
electric field of 1 V/cm, calculate (i) Relaxation time τ, (ii) Drift velocity Vd and
(iii) mobility µ.
2.

3.
 enables the evaluation of probability of finding electron in energy levels over a certain range
of energy values. The evaluation is done with the help of a quantity called Fermi factor f (E)
given by:

f (E) = (E −EF )
e
Fermi factor is the probability of occupation of a given energy state for a material in thermal
equilibrium.

4. Effect of temperature on Fermi function or Fermi factor

(OR)
Dependence of Fermi factor on temperature and effect on occupancy of energy levels
Since most of the measurements are made at room temperature and we must consider
the effect of temperature on the electron gas. So, it is important to know the variation of Fermi-
Dirac distribution function with respect to temperature.

Case 1: Probability of occupation for E< EF at T= 0k.

Substituting this condition in F-D equation, we get
1
𝑓(𝐸) =
1 + 𝑒−∞
1
(𝐸) = ➔(𝐸) = 1
1+ 0

The distribution (𝐸) = 1 means that at T = 0k, all the energy levels below the Fermi level are
fully occupied by electrons leaving the upper levels vacant.
i.e., there is 100 % probability of finding an electron below the Fermi energy level.

Case 2: Probability of occupation for E >EF at T= 0k.

Substituting this condition in F-D equation, we get
1
𝑓(𝐸) =
1 + 𝑒∞
1 1
(𝐸) = ➔(𝐸) = =0
1+ ∞ ∞
 This indicates that at T= 0k, the energy levels above the Fermi level is not occupied by
electrons, they are vacant. i.e., there is 0% probability of finding the electron above the Fermi
level at absolute zero K.

Case 3: Probability of occupation at ordinary temperatures.

At temperatures above 0 K and E = EF .
Substituting this condition in F-D equation, we get
1 1
𝑓(𝐸) = 1+𝑒 0 = 1+1 =0.5

At temperatures above 0K, there is only 50 % probability for an electron to occupy Fermi level.

Case 4: At high temperatures, kT >>EF,

electrons are excited to vacant levels above
the Fermi level. As a result, the probability
of finding an electron above EF becomes
greater than zero.
Figure shows the variation of Fermi
function for Different temperature and energy values.

Fermi energy at T=0K:

Let EF at 0K be denoted as EF0 . Then it can be shown that
2⁄
3nh2 3
EF0 = ( )( )
8m π
where ‘n’ is the concentration of electrons in a metal or electron density of a metal. After
2⁄
substituting the various values, we get EF0 = 5.85 × 10−38(n) 3 Joule
Thus Fermi energy of a metal depends on the electron density of the metal.

Fermi energy at T>0K:

The second term in the bracket on R.H.S is very small compared to unity except at very
2
π2 kT
high temperatures. EF = EF0 ⌊1 − 12 (E ) ⌋ Hence, at ordinary temperatures EF = EF0
F 0
5.

6. is numerial formulas
 Department of Physics

7.

9|Page
I & II Semester, Applied Physics for CSE stream (BPHYS102/202)
 Department of Physics

10 | P a g e
I & II Semester, Applied Physics for CSE stream (BPHYS102/202)
 Department of Physics

11 | P a g e
I & II Semester, Applied Physics for CSE stream (BPHYS102/202)
 Semiconductor Devices  739

1
⇒ γ= (25.26)
1− α

25.9 Hall Effect

9. When a current-carrying (conducting) metal or semiconductor is placed inside a magnetic
field applied perpendicular to the faces of the material (transverse field), an electric field
that is normal to both the magnetic field and the current is produced. This is defined as
Hall effect.
The potential difference that is measured across the faces of the material constitutes the
Hall voltage (VH).

25.9.1 Theory
Figure 25.32 illustrates the occurrence of Hall effect in a slab of an n-type material that
is subjected to an external magnetic field (By) along the y-direction and an electric field
(Ex) along the x-direction, both acting in perpendicular directions. If the electric field is
due to the electrons only, then the electrons move in an opposite direction with a velocity
vx, as shown in Fig. 25.32. Because of this, the majority charge carriers, the electrons, are
subjected to a deflecting force (magnetic Lorentz force) in the upward direction. The
drifting is mutually perpendicular to both the fields, and the electrons get accumulated on
top of the slab as shown.

By

VH
Ez
– – – – – – – – – – – V
By z
y
Ex
E2 + + + + + + + + + + +
x
vx

Ex

Figure 25.32 Diagram illustrating the occurrence of Hall effect

The minority holes, on the other hand, get accumulated at the bottom of the slab. This
charge separation across the ends of the slab faces is measured as a potential difference
externally. Also, this separation of charges creates a transverse electric field (EH), in the
z-direction. This field, known as the Hall field (Ez) opposes the drifting of electrons.
When the upward deflecting force (–evxBy) and the downward opposing force (–eEH)
become equal, the situation is said to be under equilibrium. At this junction, the drifting
of the electrons stops, because the net force acting on the electron becomes zero. Therefore,
740 Engineering physics

−eEH = –evxBy

i.e., – eEH + evxBy = 0 = Fz

or, eEH = evxBy

EH = vxAy (25.27)

The drift velocity vx of the electrons is related to the current density Jx as

Jx = –nevx

Jx
∴ vx = − (25.28)
ne
where n is the concentration of the electrons.
Substituting Eq. (25.28) in Eq. (25.27), we obtain
J x By
EH = −
ne
or
EH 1
= − (25.29)
J x By ne

The term on the right-hand side of the equation describes the Hall coefficient RH, i.e.,
EH 1
RH = = − (25.30)
J x By ne

The negative sign indicates that the Hall field for n-type material is opposite to that of
the applied field. For a p-type material, the holes travel in the same direction as that of the
applied field, and hence the Hall coefficient is given by
EH 1
RH = = (25.31)
J x By pe

where RH is the Hall coefficient, n the density of the electrons, and p the density of the
holes.
Since from these equations, the quantities EH, Jx and By are measurable, the Hall coefficient
RH can be determined.

25.10 Determination of Hall Coefficient

Consider a rectangular slab of a material of thickness t and width b, as shown in Fig. 25.33.
If the Hall voltage (VH) is measured across the width of the sample, then the electric field
developed is given by (because electric field is the ratio of the potential developed across
a distance)
 Semiconductor Devices  741

VH
EH = (25.32)
b
Substituting Eq. (25.32) in Eq. (25.31), we get
VH
RH =
bJB

VH = RH JBb (25.33)

The current density (J) across the material is given by

I
J=  (25.34)
bt

VH
V

Bt RH
A

Figure 25.33 Experimental set-up for the determination of Hall coefficient

Substituting Eq. (25.34) in Eq. (25.33) and rearranging for RH, we get

I  
VH = RH Bb   ∵ RH = tVH   (25.35)
 bt   IB 

Knowing the values of the thickness (t), the magnetic field (B), the current and the Hall
voltage developed, the Hall coefficient can be determined.

25.10.1 Experiment and Results

As shown in Fig. 25.33, a sample of width b and thickness t is taken. Through the sample,
a current I (in amp) is passed through a battery Bt and a rheostat Rh. A magnetic flux
density B (in Wb m−2) is produced using the pole pieces of a magnet, and the resultant
Hall voltage VH (in volts) is measured. Using these values, the Hall coefficient RH (in m3
C−1) is obtained as given by Eq. (25.35).
742 Engineering physics

Results
We know that the mobility and conductivity are related by (for n-type materials)

σn = µe ne (25.36)

σn
or µe = (25.37)
ne
i.e.,
 1
µe = −σn RH ∵ RH = −  (25.38)
 ne 
These equations hold good only when the electrons in the conduction band move with a
steady drift velocity (i.e., they are not subjected to Coulomb attractions). This is mostly the
case in metals. But in semiconductors, the velocities of electrons are distributed over a range
(Maxwellian type); hence, the Hall coefficient is modified as

3π  1  1.18
RH = −   = −  (25.39)
8 ne ne
Hence, the conductivity
1.18µe
σn = − (25.40)
RH
and the mobility
σn RH
µe = − (25.41)
1.18
For a p-type material, by similar argument, we can get

1.18µh
the conductivity σp = − (25.42)
RH

σ p RH
and the mobility µh = − (25.43)
1.18

25.11 Applications of Hall Effect

1. Determination of mobility (μe)
The mobility of a conductor is related to its conductivity as

σn
µe = (25.44)
ne
But the concentration of the charges n is related to the Hall coefficient as
 Semiconductor deviceS 743

1.18
n= (25.45)
eRH
Substituting for n in Eq. (25.43), we get

σn (eRH ) σ R
µe = =− n H (25.46)
e(1.18) 1.18

2. Determination of type of semiconductor

The Hall coefficient can take either a positive or a negative value. It is positive
for a p-type semiconductor and negative for an n-type semiconductor. Hence,
from the direction of the Hall voltage developed, we can find out the type of
semiconductor. Also, we can determine whether the given material is a conductor
or an insulator.
3. Carrier concentration calculation
The Hall coefficient RH is related to the carrier concentration n as

1.18
RH = (25.47)
ne
Using this equation, knowing the Hall coefficient, the carrier concentration can be
determined.
4. To measure the magnetic flux density
If the Hall coefficient (RH) is known, then the magnetic flux density (B) of a
semiconductor is calculated from the formula
VH t
B= (25.48)
IRH

where I is the Hall current, VH the Hall voltage, and t the thickness of the sample.

EXAMPLE 25.6

The single carrier holes in a shaped silicon sample is 2.05 × 1022 m−3. Calculate its Hall
coefficient. Electronic charge = 1.602 × 10−19 C.

Solution:
1
RH =
ne
1
=
charge carrier density × electronic charge