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Plan:

1. Structure the summary based on the major sections of the document: Introduction,
Curriculum Development Process, Foundations, Curriculum Models, and other related
topics (like implementation, evaluation, and curriculum change).

2. Elaborate on all key concepts, definitions, criteria, and steps mentioned in the source
material, ensuring a high level of detail.

3. Include relevant citations for all derived information.

4. Use diagrams strategically to help explain concepts like curriculum models.

---The following is an extremely detailed and comprehensive summary of the BEM2101

Curriculum Development notes, covering all major topics, concepts, processes, and models
discussed in the document.

A Comprehensive Summary of BEM2101: Curriculum Development

This summary provides an in-depth analysis of Curriculum Development, focusing on its

definitions, process, foundational elements, models, and contemporary issues as outlined in the
course notes.

1. Introduction and Definition of Curriculum

The concept of a curriculum is dynamic and has evolved over time, reflecting changes in
educational philosophy and societal needs. The word curriculum is derived from the Latin word
currere, meaning "to run a course" or "the race course".

1.1 Meanings and Definitions of Curriculum

The curriculum can be viewed from several perspectives:

A. The Traditional View (The Body of Subjects)

In the traditional sense, the curriculum is primarily understood as a body of subjects or subject
matter that is systematically arranged for instructional purposes.

 It is seen as the syllabus, scheme of work, or content to be covered by the learner.

 It emphasizes the content that students must master to pass examinations.

  The traditional view is often narrow and focused on academic achievement.

B. The Modern/Dynamic View (The Total Experience)

This view broadened the curriculum to encompass the total educational experience of the
learner.

 Kerr defines it as all the learning which is planned and guided by the school.

 Hirst defines it as a program of activities.

 It includes both the intended and the unintended outcomes of schooling.

 The curriculum is seen as a planned educational experience designed to bring about

desired changes in the learner.

C. Curriculum as a Plan vs. Curriculum as a Process

Curriculum definitions also depend on whether it is viewed as a product or a process.

 Curriculum as a product (A plan): This is the written, official document (the syllabus,
scheme of work, or textbook).

 Curriculum as a process (The implementation): This is the practical application of the

plan in the classroom, focusing on the dynamic interaction between the learner, teacher,
content, and the learning environment.

1.2 Types of Curriculum

The curriculum experienced by the learner can be categorized into various types:

Curriculum Type Description

The formal, documented plan, including objectives, content, and

Official/Written expected evaluation. It is the curriculum developed by experts and
government agencies.

The curriculum as it is delivered in the classroom by the teacher. It may

Taught/Implemented deviate from the official curriculum based on the teacher's
interpretation and context.

What the students actually learn and absorb, which may be only a
Learned/Received
portion of the taught curriculum.

The unintended lessons, norms, values, and attitudes conveyed by the

Hidden/Covert
school's structure, atmosphere, and practices. It is learned implicitly.
Curriculum Type Description

The topics, subjects, or perspectives that are intentionally or

Null Curriculum unintentionally omitted or ignored in the formal curriculum, sending a
message about their perceived unimportance.

2. The Curriculum Development Process

Curriculum development is a systematic and continuous process of designing, implementing,

and evaluating educational programs to improve the quality of education. It is cyclical in nature,
meaning that evaluation informs subsequent development cycles.

2.1 Objectives of Curriculum Development

The overall goals of the curriculum development process are to:

 Improve the educational system by aligning it with societal changes and needs.

 Ensure that the objectives, content, experiences, and evaluation are sound, consistent,
and logically related.

 Address deficiencies in the existing curriculum by making it more relevant, valid, and
useful.

2.2 Stages of the Curriculum Development Process (The Rational Approach)

The process is generally structured in four sequential and interdependent stages, famously
articulated by Ralph Tyler.

Step 1: Formulation of Objectives (Aims and Goals)

This stage involves clearly defining the desired learning outcomes—what the learner should be
able to do, know, or feel at the end of the learning experience.

 Sources of Objectives: Objectives are derived from three main sources:

1. The Learner: Analyzing the interests, needs, and previous experiences of the
students.

2. The Society: Analyzing the needs, demands, and challenges of the community
and the contemporary world.

3. Subject Matter/Discipline: The structures, concepts, and modes of inquiry

inherent in the academic discipline itself.
  Philosophical and Psychological Screening: Objectives must be screened through the
philosophical (aims of life/education) and psychological (theories of learning)
foundations to ensure they are viable and internally consistent.

Step 2: Selection of Learning Experiences and Content

Once objectives are set, the next task is to select the content (the subject matter) and the
learning experiences (the activities and methodologies) that will enable the attainment of the
objectives.

Criteria for Selection of Curriculum Content (The "What" to Learn)

The content must be selected based on five key criteria:

1. Significance: The content must contribute meaningfully to the basic, core ideas and
structures of the field of study.

2. Validity (Authenticity): The content must be accurate, up-to-date, and verifiable. It must
reflect current knowledge in the discipline.

3. Utility/Usefulness: The content must have practical application and relevance to the
learner's current or future life (vocational, social, or personal).

4. Learnability: The content must be appropriate for the maturity, experience, and
development level of the learner. It should not be too easy or too difficult.

5. Consistency with Social Reality: The content should reflect and address the
contemporary needs, problems, and social realities of the community and country (e.g.,
poverty, health, corruption).

Step 3: Organization of Learning Experiences and Content

This stage involves structuring the selected content and experiences to maximize their
cumulative and integrative effect on the learner. The organization process is guided by three
principles (Tyler’s Organizing Criteria):

1. Continuity: The vertical reiteration and recurrence of major curriculum elements,

allowing students to return to key ideas at increasing levels of depth and complexity
(Spiral Curriculum).

2. Sequence: Content must be arranged so that each subsequent element builds upon the
preceding one. The order should move logically, often from simple to complex, concrete
to abstract, or chronological.
 3. Integration: The horizontal relationship of curriculum experiences. This means
connecting knowledge and skills from different subjects or disciplines to help the learner
view the world holistically.

Step 4: Evaluation

Evaluation is the process of determining the extent to which the formulated objectives have
actually been achieved by the learners.

 It provides feedback to every stage of the curriculum process, making the cycle
continuous (a self-correcting mechanism).

 It involves measuring student performance and assessing the effectiveness of the

content and teaching methods.

3. Foundations of Curriculum

The foundations are the philosophical, psychological, sociological, and historical bases upon
which all curriculum decisions are made. They provide the framework for determining the aims,
content, and organization of the curriculum, ensuring it is relevant and viable.

3.1 The Philosophical Foundation

Philosophy defines the aims and goals of education and life, thus guiding the overall direction of
the curriculum.

 It raises fundamental questions about what is worth knowing, what the purpose of
schooling is, and what constitutes a desirable society.

 Different philosophical schools influence curriculum content and methodology:

o Idealism: Emphasizes spiritual and moral perfection; curriculum focuses on

humanities, values, and abstract thought.

o Realism: Focuses on the objective world and scientific truth; curriculum

emphasizes hard sciences, logic, and factual knowledge.

o Pragmatism (Experimentalism): Focuses on practical experience and problem-

solving; curriculum is centered on real-life issues, projects, and democratic
interaction.

3.2 The Psychological Foundation

Psychology provides insights into the nature of the learner and the learning process. It guides
decisions on content learnability, teaching methods (pedagogy), and the sequencing of learning
experiences.

 Behaviorism (Skinner, Pavlov): Focuses on observable behavior and conditioning.

Curriculum emphasizes clear, measurable objectives, drill, practice, and reinforcement.

 Cognitivism (Piaget, Bruner): Focuses on how the mind organizes, stores, and processes
information. Curriculum emphasizes conceptual understanding, critical thinking,
problem-solving, and developmentally appropriate tasks.

 Constructivism (Vygotsky, Dewey): Focuses on the idea that learners actively construct
knowledge and meaning from their experiences. Curriculum promotes collaborative
learning, authentic tasks, and student-centered inquiry.

3.3 The Sociological Foundation

Society is the source of the curriculum’s needs, demands, and challenges. The curriculum must
be socially relevant and prepare learners to function effectively within their community and the
wider world.

 Social Reality and Issues: The curriculum must address contemporary social realities and
problems such as poverty, disease (e.g., HIV/AIDS), corruption, and ethnic tensions.

 Cultural Transmission and Change: The curriculum serves to transmit the essential
culture and values of society (conservative role) while also encouraging positive social
change and reform (creative role).

 Functions of Education/Curriculum in Society: These include socialization, cultural

transmission, political integration, economic productivity, and social selection.

3.4 The Historical Foundation

The historical foundation provides a context for understanding the current curriculum by
examining past educational systems, reports, and reforms.

 Avoiding Past Mistakes: It helps curriculum developers understand the successes and
failures of previous curricula (e.g., Beecher Report 1949, Ominde Report 1964, Gachathi
Report 1976).

 Understanding Evolution: It shows how societal changes (e.g., transition from 7-4-2-3 to
8-4-4 to CBC) have influenced educational structures and objectives.

 In Kenya, curriculum history is tied to colonial educational practices and subsequent

post-independence commissions aimed at making education relevant to national needs.
4. Curriculum Models

Curriculum models are conceptual frameworks or patterns that provide a systematic approach
to the planning, design, and management of the curriculum.

4.1 Tyler’s Rational-Linear Model (The Objective Model)

Ralph W. Tyler's model (1949) is the most influential and is based on a linear, logical, and
prescriptive approach.

 Structure: It is a linear, four-step process that moves sequentially from ends (objectives)
to means (experiences/content) to structure (organization) and back to ends
(evaluation).

 Four Fundamental Questions:

1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? (Objectives)

2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these
purposes? (Content/Experiences Selection)

3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?

(Organization/Structure)

4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained? (Evaluation)

 Critique: It is criticized for being too rigid, prescriptive, and mechanical. It overlooks the
dynamic nature of the classroom and overemphasizes objectives as the starting point.

4.2 Taba’s Grass-Roots Model (Inductive Approach)

Hilda Taba's model (1962) proposes an inductive approach, arguing that curriculum
development should be carried out by the teachers (the 'grass roots') who will actually
implement it.

 Structure: It starts with a Diagnosis of Needs rather than just a statement of objectives,
and then follows a seven-step sequence.

 Seven Steps:

1. Diagnosis of Needs: The teacher/developer identifies the learner's needs and the
challenges in society.

2. Formulation of Objectives: Objectives are derived from the identified needs.

3. Selection of Content: Content is chosen to achieve the objectives.

 4. Organization of Content: Content is structured for maximum effect.

5. Selection of Learning Experiences: Teaching methods and activities are chosen.

6. Organization of Learning Activities: Activities are sequenced and managed.

7. Evaluation: Determining if the objectives were met.

 Critique: While empowering teachers, it can lead to localized, non-standardized curricula

if not coordinated centrally.

4.3 Wheeler’s Cyclical Model

D. K. Wheeler’s model (1967) modifies the Tyler model by emphasizing the cyclical nature of
the process.

 Structure: The model illustrates that evaluation is not an endpoint but a stage that
provides feedback to the preceding stages, especially the aims and objectives.

 Key Advantage: It is self-correcting and continuous, allowing for constant modification

and improvement.

 Steps: The steps are similar to Tyler's but explicitly connect Evaluation back to the Aims,
highlighting the continuous cycle of improvement.

5. Curriculum Design and Organisation

Curriculum design is the process of structuring the curriculum content based on a particular
pattern or subject relationship.

5.1 Curriculum Design Patterns

Design patterns determine how content is selected, organized, and presented:

A. Subject-Centered Design

 Focus: The content is organized around specific academic disciplines (e.g., Mathematics,
History, Biology).

 Characteristics: Emphasis on factual knowledge, logical structure of the subject, and

cognitive skills.

 Advantages: Logical, easy to plan and teach, facilitates specialization.

 Disadvantages: Fragmented knowledge, ignores the learner's needs, often promotes

rote memorization.
B. Learner-Centered Design

 Focus: The content and activities are centered on the learner's needs, interests,
experiences, and psychological development.

 Characteristics: Emphasizes relevance, flexibility, problem-solving, and learner

participation (e.g., the activity/project curriculum).

 Advantages: Highly motivating, promotes creativity and critical thinking, relevant to life.

 Disadvantages: Difficult to organize systematically, can lack intellectual rigor, and is time-
consuming.

C. Problem-Centered/Experience-Centered Design

 Focus: The curriculum is organized around real-life social problems or issues (e.g.,
HIV/AIDS, environmental pollution, citizenship).

 Characteristics: Integrates content from various disciplines to solve practical problems.

Based on John Dewey's philosophy.

 Advantages: Extremely relevant to society, promotes collaborative skills, and breaks

down subject boundaries.

 Disadvantages: Difficult for teachers trained in specific subjects, and can lead to uneven
coverage of core knowledge.

5.2 Curriculum Organization

The organization structures the curriculum in terms of breadth and depth.

Organizational
Description
Pattern

Combines related subjects into broader areas (e.g., Physics, Chemistry, and
Broad
Biology fused into 'Science' or History/Geography/Civics into 'Social
Fields/Fusions
Studies').

A required set of subjects or experiences that all students must take,

Core Curriculum designed to address essential societal needs and provide a common
background.

Content is revisited at different grade levels, with each return building on

Spiral Curriculum previous knowledge and increasing in complexity and sophistication (Jerome
Bruner's concept).
6. Curriculum Implementation and Evaluation

6.1 Curriculum Implementation

Implementation is the crucial stage where the curriculum design (the plan) is translated into
practice in the school setting.

 Definition: The putting into practice of the officially prescribed content of education.

 Key Actors: The teacher is the central actor in implementation, interpreting and
mediating the curriculum.

 Factors Influencing Implementation:

o Teacher Factors: Training, experience, motivation, attitude, and workload.

o Resource Factors: Availability of textbooks, laboratories, libraries, and physical

facilities.

o Learner Factors: Student readiness, interests, and background.

o External Factors: Parental support, community involvement, and administrative

support.

6.2 Curriculum Evaluation

Evaluation is the systematic process of judging the worth or value of the curriculum program as
a whole or its constituent elements.

 Purpose:

o To determine the effectiveness of the curriculum in achieving its objectives.

o To provide feedback for revision and improvement.

o To aid in decision-making regarding resource allocation and continuation of the

program.

 Types of Evaluation:

o Formative Evaluation: Conducted during the implementation to provide

feedback for immediate improvement of the process.

o Summative Evaluation: Conducted at the end of the curriculum cycle to

determine the overall effectiveness and success of the program.
7. Curriculum Change and Innovation

Curriculum change refers to the modifications and adjustments made to the existing curriculum.
Innovation refers to the introduction of something entirely new.

7.1 Reasons for Curriculum Change

Curriculum change is necessitated by the constant flux in society:

 Social and Cultural Changes: Changes in family structure, communication (technology),

and moral values.

 Economic Changes: Shift in labor market needs, introduction of new industries, and
globalization.

 Technological Advancements: The need to integrate new technologies and prepare

students for a technologically driven world.

 New Knowledge/Research: Advances in academic fields and new research on how

children learn (psychology).

7.2 Barriers/Resistance to Curriculum Change

Curriculum change often faces resistance, which can be overcome by involving stakeholders.

 Teacher Resistance: Fear of the unknown, lack of training in new methods, increased
workload, and low morale.

 Administrative Resistance: Financial constraints, lack of support from administrators,

and rigid organizational structures.

 Parent/Community Resistance: Suspicion of new methods, preference for traditional

curriculum, and fear that new curriculum will lower standards.

 Resource Constraints: Inadequate supply of new materials, textbooks, and equipment

necessary for the new curriculum.

This comprehensive overview addresses the necessity for a highly detailed summary, providing
an extensive breakdown of all conceptual and procedural elements of curriculum development
from the BEM2101 notes.