DEPARTMENT OF Physics

Superconductivity

(1BPHYS102)

(As per Visvesvaraya Technological University Syllabus2025 Scheme)

Academic Year 2025-26

Prepared By Approved by
Dr. Ambika A V Dr. Ambika A V
&
Assistant Professor & HOD
Dr. Vinod Kumar S
 Superconductivity
Module-3
Zero resistance state, Persistent current, Meissner effect, Critical temperature, Critical current
(Silsbee Effect) – Derivation for a cylindrical wire using ampere’s law, Critical field, Formation of
Cooper pairs - Mediation of phonons, Two-fluid model, BCS Theory - Phase coherent state,
Limitations of BCS theory, examples of systems with low and high electron phonon coupling, Type-
I and Type-II superconductors, Formation of Vortices, Explanation for upper critical field,
Josephson junction, Flux quantization, DC and AC SQUID, Charge Qubit, Numerical Problems.
 SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

Superconductivity

Kamerlingh Onnes discovered the phenomenon of superconductivity in the year 1911.

When he was studying the temperature dependence of resistance of Mercury at very low
temperature, he found that resistance of Mercury decreases with the decrease in temperature up to
a particular temperature 4.15K. At this temperature, the resistance of mercury abruptly drops to
zero. Between 4.15K and 0K, Mercury offered no resistance for the flow of electric current. The
phenomenon is reversible and material becomes normal once again when temperature was
increased above 4.15K. He called this phenomenon as superconductivity and material, which
exhibited this property as superconductor. In subsequent decades, superconductivity was observed
in several other materials.

“The phenomenon in which electrical resistance of certain metals, alloys and

compounds drops to zero abruptly, below a certain temperature is called
superconductivity”.

Zero Resistant state:

A zero-resistance state (ZRS) refers to a condition where a material or system conducts
electricity with no energy loss due to electrical resistance. The most common example is a
superconductor, a material that exhibits zero electrical resistance below a certain critical
temperature. However, ZRS also occurs in other systems, such as two-dimensional electron systems
(2DES) subjected to strong magnetic fields and microwave irradiation, where the phenomenon is
thought to be driven by radiation-induced effects that alter the electronic system's dynamics.
A superconductor, below its critical temperature, becomes a zero-resistance state, allowing
electric current to flow indefinitely without any power dissipation.

Persistent current:
When a ring is placed in the magnetic field and the field is switched off, a current is induced
in the ring. This induced current is called the persistent current.
The magnitude of current remains constant even though there is no source of e.m.f. as the resistance
of the superconducting ring is zero. These currents flowing in the ring produce magnetic fields that
do not require any power supply to maintain a constant field.
Meissner effect

When a magnetic is applied to a superconducting specimen at a temperature below critical

temperature (TC), the magnetic flux lines are expelled from the interior of superconductor. This
phenomenon is called Meissner effect.

When a superconductor is cooled below its critical temperature (Tc), it undergoes a phase
transition and enters a superconducting state. In this state, the superconductor exhibits perfect
diamagnetism, meaning it repels any external magnetic field from its interior as shown in the fig
given below. This expulsion of magnetic flux is a characteristic feature of the Meissner effect.

When the temperature is lowered to Tc, the flux is suddenly and completely expelled, as the
specimen becomes superconducting. The Meissner effect is reversible. When the temperature is
raised the flux penetrates the material, after it reaches Tc. Then the substance will be in the normal
state.
The magnetic induction inside the specimen in the normal state is given by,

B = µo (H + M)

Where 'H' is the externally applied magnetics field and ‘M’ is the magnetization produced
within the material.
When the temperature T of the specimen is lowered below its critical temperature (T < Tc) then B = 0
µ0 (H + M) = 0
M=-H

The susceptibility χ is given by,

𝑀
χ = 𝐻 = −1

For diamagnetic substance χ = −1 i.e. it is perfect diamagnetism.

As the relative permeability
μr =1+χ
∴μr = 0
This indicates perfect diamagnetism.

Hence superconducting material do not allow the magnetic flux to exist inside the material.

Consider a primary coil and a secondary coil, wound on a superconducting material. The
primary coil is connected to a battery and a key. The secondary coil is connected to ballistic
galvanometer (BG). When the key is closed the current flows through the primary coil and the
magnetic field is produced. This flux is linked with the secondary coil and the current flows
through the secondary coil which makes a deflection in the galvanometer. If the primary current
is steady the magnetic flux and the flux linked with the coil will become steady. As the temperature
of the specimen is decreased below the critical temperature, BG suddenly shows a deflection
indicating that the flux linked with the secondary coil is changed. This is due to the expulsion of
the magnetic flux from the specimen.

Critical temperature (TC ) (or) Transition Temperature :

It is the temperature below which the material changes from normal conductor to superconductor
and is denoted as Tc. The critical temperature is also called transition temperature.
Every superconductor has its own critical temperature at which it passes over into superconducting
state. Depending on the transition temperature, superconductors are classified into two groups are

i) Low temperature superconductors (LTS): The superconductors which have low

transition temperature (below 30K) are known as low temperature superconductors. Example: Tin
(3.2 K), Mercury (4.15 K).

ii) High temperature superconductors (HTS): The superconductors which have high
transition temperature (above 30K) is known as high temperature superconductors. Example:
Barium - Lanthanum - Copper - Oxide (BLCO) - 35 K Yttrium - Barium - Copper - Oxide - (Y
Ba2Cu3O4) - 92 K

High Temperature superconductivity:

Superconducting materials which exhibit superconductivity at relatively higher temperatures are
called high temperature superconductors. Thus, high temperature superconductors possess higher
value of critical temperature compared to conventional superconductors. Most of the high
temperature superconductors are found to fall into the category of ceramics. All high temperature
superconductors are oxides of copper and bear Perovskite crystal structure characterized by large
number of copper-oxygen layers. It was found that addition of extra copper-oxygen layer pushes the
critical temperature Tc to higher values. The super currents are strong in the copper-oxygen layer
and weak in the direction perpendicular to the planes. Ex: in 1986, George Bednorz and Alex Muller
discovered a compound containing Lanthanum, Barium, Copper and Oxygen having Tc =30K was
developed. In 1987 scientists developed a compound which is an oxide of the form YBa2Cu3O7
which is referred to as 1-2-3 compound with Tc > 90K was discovered. Following is the list of High
Temperature Superconductors.

High temperature superconductors:

The low temperature superconductors usually have transition temperatures below 30K and must be
cooled using liquid helium (4K) in order to achieve superconductivity. High temperature
superconductors have been observed with transition temperatures as high as 134 K and can be cooled
to superconductivity using liquid nitrogen (77K) which is much cheaper and easily accessible as
compared to liquid helium.
• 1986, George Bednorz and Karl Müller at IBM, Zurich confirmed superconductivity in Perovskite
structured lanthanum based cuprate oxide material Tc= 35 K).
• 1987 Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery of “high temperature” superconductivity in ceramic
materials. • Examples of High temperature superconductors.
• YBa2Cu3O7 (92K), Bi2Sr2Ca2Cu3O6 (110K), Tl2Ba2Ca2Cu3O10 (125K) and HgBa2Ca2Cu3O8
(134K). • The chemical substitution in perovskite cuprates push the transition temperatures well
beyond 35 Kelvin.
The reason of superconductivity in high temperature superconductors cannot be explained using
BCS theory. Several models emerged for explaining high temperature superconductivity but none
of them fully explained the phenomenon.

Critical current (Silsbee effect):

The Silsbee effect explains how a sufficiently large current in a superconductor destroys its
superconducting state. When a current flows through a superconductor, it generates its own
magnetic field (self field). If this self-field, at the surface of the wire, reaches the material's critical
magnetic field, the superconductivity will be destroyed, causing the material to become a normal
conductor. The maximum current that can flow before this occurs is the critical current (Ic).

Critical Current (Ic):

Definition: The critical current (Ic) is the maximum current a superconductor can carry without
losing its superconductivity.
Relationship to 𝑯𝒄:
The value of Ic depends on the geometry of the superconductor and is related to the critical magnetic
field. For a cylindrical wire of radius 'r', the critical current is given by the formula:
I𝑐 = 2𝜋𝑟𝐻𝑐
Where: Ic is the critical current
r is the radius of the wire
Hc is the critical magnetic field strength
Significance: The Silsbee effect is a fundamental principle in understanding the limits of
superconducting current carrying capacity. It helps explain why superconductors cannot carry
infinite currents and how their superconducting state can be quenched by excessive current.

Ampere’s law: Application to a infinite (long) straight cylindrical wire: (Derivation)

Consider an infinite long cylindrical wire. I is the current flows through the cylinder. To get
magnetic field inside and outside the cylindrical wire, we consider 4 points and each point forms its
amperian loop. Let’s say P1 outside the wire, P2 outer surface of the wire,P3 inside the wire and P4
in the axis of the wire where there is no amperian loop can be formed.

We can take the point surface be at four different places.

Case 1. Point P (say P1) outside the cylindrical wire where r>R
Case 2. At a point P (say P2) at the surface (outer layer) of the cylindrical wire where r=R
Case 3. At point P (say P3) inside the cylindrical wire where r<R
Case 4. At point P (sayP4) at the axis of the wire where r=0

Case 1. Point P (say P1) outside the cylindrical wire where r>R
Case 2. At a point P (say P2) at the surface (outer layer) of the cylindrical wire where r=R

Now taking point P (say P2) is on the surface of the wire where r=R,
Put r=R in equation (2), we get

We can tell from equation (3) is constant because at every point of the surface, the magnetic field is
constant. Hence magnetic field B is a Constant.

Case 3. At point P (say P3) inside the cylindrical wire where 𝒓 < 𝑹

When point P (say P3) inside the wire, which is smaller than the present loop(P2) where 𝒓 < 𝑹.
Therefore, current through the third amperion loop (P3) is not same as the present loop (P2).

As current I flows uniformly, it flows across the cross-sectional area of 𝝅𝑹𝟐 . While the closed path
encloses only part of the current which passes across the cross-sectional area of 𝝅𝒓𝟐 .

We know that the current flow I equal to Area of the wire, 𝝅𝑹𝟐 = 𝑰

Hence current density enclosed by the path,

 Case 4: At point P (sayP4) at the axis of the wire where r=0

Critical field (Hc) and Temperature dependence of critical field:

The magnetic field plays a significant role in the observation of the phenomenon of
superconductivity. When superconductor is placed in a magnetic field, it expels magnetic lines of
force completely out of the body and becomes a perfectly diamagnetic material. However, if the
strength of the magnetic field is further increased, it is found that for a particular value of the
magnetic field, material loses its superconducting property and becomes a normal conductor.

The value of the magnetic field at which superconductivity is destroyed is called the Critical
magnetic field, denoted by Hc. It is different for different Superconductors. It was found that by
reducing the temperature of the material further, superconducting property of the material could be
restored. Thus, critical field does not destroy the superconducting property of the material but only
reduces the critical temperature of the material. The variation of critical field with temperature for
a given superconductor is shown below.
The minimum field required to destroy the superconducting property is given by

Where, H0 is the field required to destroy the superconducting property at 0K, Hc the minimum field
required to destroy the superconducting property at T in K and Tc the transition temperature of the
material.

Under the influence of a magnetic field whose strength is greater than H0, the material can never
become superconductor however low the temperature may be.
Temperature dependence of resistivity of superconductors:
Temperature dependence of resistivity of superconductor is as given below.

The resistivity (ρ) decreases with decreasing temperature, similar to a normal metal, until it
reaches a critical temperature Tc. At critical temperature Tc, resistivity drops abruptly to zero
signifying the transition from normal state to the superconducting state of the material and it remains
zero even up to 0 K.

Concept of Phonon:

Soviet physicist Igor Tamm introduced the concept of phonons in 1932. The name phonon is
taken from the Greek word ‘phone’ which translates to sound or voice, because long wavelength
phonons gives rise to sound.

“A phonon is the elementary excitation in the quantum mechanical treatment of vibrations in

a crystal lattice or the quantum unit of a crystal lattice vibration.”

A phonon is the quantum energy of the lattice vibration just like photons are the quantum energy of
electromagnetic radiations. The study of phonon is very important in solid-state physics. They play
a major role in many of the physical properties like thermal and electrical conductivity as well as in
models of neutron scattering and related effects.
In the free electron theory, electrons in a crystal are treated as if they move independently, almost
as if they were free particles in a metal. However, in reality, the crystal lattice, which consists of
atoms or ions held in a regular repeating pattern, is not completely still. The atoms or ions in the
lattice are in constant motion, vibrating about their equilibrium positions due to thermal energy.
These vibrations give rise to what we call as phonons. Phonons represent the vibrational modes of
atoms or ions in a crystal lattice.

Phonons are quantized units of lattice vibrations, similar to how photons are quantized units of
light. They carry both energy and momentum. When an electron moves through the crystal lattice,
it can interact with phonons. These interactions can scatter electrons, leading to phenomena like
electrical resistance and heat conduction. Phonons play a crucial role in understanding the
behavior of electrons in a crystal, especially in explaining why some materials conduct electricity
well while others do not.
Formation of Cooper pairs:
The formation of Cooper pairs is the fundamental concept of the Bardeen-Cooper Schrieffer
(BCS) theory, which explains the properties of superconductors, such as zero electrical resistance.

BCS theory

Three scientists Barden, Cooper & Schrieffer in the year 1957, which is in short known as BCS
theory, gave this theory of superconductivity. The BCS theory is based on the formation of Cooper
pairs, which is purely a quantum mechanical concept. According to BCS theory, the basic interaction
responsible for superconductivity is that two electrons attract each other via exchange of virtual
phonons (they are called so because of their very short lifetime) which are emitted by lattice
distortion.

When an electron approaches a positive ion core, it undergoes attractive coulomb interaction thus
setting the ion in distortion which emits phonons. Smaller the mass of the positive ion core, the
greater will be the distortion. This interaction called the electron-phonon interaction leads to
scattering of the electron and causes electrical resistivity. The distortion causes an increase in the
density of ions in the region of distortion. The higher density of ions in the distorted regions attracts,
in its turn another electron. If a second electron comes near distorted ion, the energy of the second
electron is lowered by exchange of energy between with lattice ion. Thus, a free electron exerts an
attractive force on another electron through phonons.

This type of interaction, which is effective at very low temperature, is called electron – lattice –
electron interaction. This interaction causes two electrons of opposite spin & equal and opposite
momenta to attract each other in the presence of phonon field and forms a bound pair called Cooper
pair.

Suppose, an electron of wave vector K emits a virtual phonon q which is absorbed by another
electron having wave vector K1. Then they are scattered as K-q and K1+q as shown in figure. The
resulting electron-electron interaction becomes attractive interaction (Vph). Two electrons
interacting attractively in the phonon field to form a bonded pair is shown in figure.

At normal temperature, the attractive force is too small and pairing of electrons does not take place.
At lower temperature i.e., below the critical temperature T c , the apparent force of attraction reaches
a maximum value for two electrons of equal and opposite spins and opposite momentum. This force
of attraction exceeds the Columbian force of repulsion between two electrons and the electron stick
together and move as pairs. These pairs of electrons of opposite momenta are called Cooper pairs.

A pair of electrons formed by the interaction between the electrons with opposite spin and
momenta in a phonon field is called a Cooper pair. The Cooper pair has a total spin of zero. As a
result, the electron pairs in a superconductor are bosons. Each Cooper pair possesses a single wave
function and wave functions associated with similar cooper pairs start overlapping and may extend
over the entire super conductor. This dense cloud of Cooper pairs from a collective state where
strong correlations arise among the motions of all pairs because of which they drift cooperatively
through the material.

This leads to union of vast number of cooper pairs resulting in the entire union moving as a
single unit. As we know that any number of Cooper pairs can occupy single energy state, all Cooper
pairs occupy lower energy state called superconducting state. Since the density of Cooper pairs is
quite high, even large currents require only a small velocity. The small velocity of Cooper pairs
combined with their precise ordering minimizes collision process and hence they do not suffer any
scattering. The extremely rare collisions of Cooper pairs with the lattice leads to zero resistivity.
Advantages: BCS THEORY

1. Provides an explanation of the superconductivity of Type I superconductors.

2. Explains superconductivity within the realms of classical mechanics.

3. Explains the relative difference in superconductivity between metals, better conductors at normal
temperatures are terrible superconductors.

4. Provides an explanation of the superconductivity of Type I superconductors.

Limitations of BCS theory: Disadvantages:

1. BCS theory cannot explain high Tc superconductivity.

2. BCS assumes only weak electron-electron interaction. In some materials, motion of electron is
strongly dependent on the position and spin of the neighbours’ electrons. This strong interaction
cannot be explained by BCS theory.

3. BCS theory is unable to predict new superconductors.

4. AC current affects the formation of cooper pairs. BCS theory cannot explain the cooper pairs are
formed not only due to electron-phonon (or electron-lattice) interaction.

5. There are some other mechanisms such as d-wave pairing, p-wave pairing, BCS theory fails to
explain the formation of cooper pairs by these mechanisms.
Mediations of Phonons:
We find that phonon-mediated superconductivity explains the main experimental findings, namely
the displacement field and doping level dependence of the critical temperature, and the presence of
two superconducting regions with different pairing symmetries that depend on the parent normal
state.
Two fluid model:
When a material is cooled below its superconducting transition temperature Tc, it proceeds
immediately into the superconducting phase. As the materials cools down below Tc, not all electrons
in the materials jump into the superconducting phase at once. They become superconducting one by
one (or rather pair –by–pair). As the material becomes colder, more electrons enters into the
superconducting phase. There exists normal electrons and superconducting electrons
simultaneously. The presence of two types of electrons, coexisting in the superconductor can be
treated as two fluids of electrons. This is called two-fluid model.
The term fluid originates from Drude’s classical fee electron theory where free electrons as treated
as ‘Fluid’.
So, the two fluid model of a superconductor treats each electron in the superconductor as
participating in one of the two fluids: say the normal fluid or the superconducting fluid. These two
fluids coexist, and they both flow simultaneously and in parallel through the superconducting fluid.
The number density of electrons in normal fluid state Nn and that in superconducting fluid state Ns
depends on the temperature. As temperature decreases Nn decreases and Ns increases.
According to this model, conduction electrons in a superconductor below its transition temperature
divide into two types: super-electrons and normal electrons. Super electrons can move in a
superconductor without any resistance, whereas normal electrons behave in the usual fashion
suffering collisions and thereby experience resistance. The number of super-electrons is a function
of temperature and can be expressed as

Where, Nn is the total number of density of electrons.

Explanation: Fig. shows the temperature variation of the fraction of super-electrons in a

superconductor. Note that at absolute zero, all conduction electrons behave like super-electrons. As
temperature increases, some of them start behaving like normal electrons I dependence of the and
at the transition temperature, all the electrons become normal and superconductivity disappears.

Number of super-electrons relative to normal electrons in superconducting state below the

transition temperature, current can be carried by normal as well as super-electrons, You may ask:
Why then we do not observe any resistance? In fact, the super-electrons short circuit normal
electrons and we observe zero resistance. A superconducting specimen essentially behaves like two
conductors connected in parallel; one having a normal resistance and the other zero resistance. This
model could qualitatively explain zero resistance. But it failed to explain Meissner effect and other
properties of superconductors. Moreover, this model is not based on basic principles.

London theory of superconductivity deals with the discussion on electromagnetic principles

of superconductors and could explain the Meissner effect. It also used the two-fluid model and is
semi-phenomenological as it uses an equation which at that time could not be derived from the first
principles. The more comprehensive theory of superconductivity was proposed by BCS, which is
capable of explaining all the observed phenomena relating to conventional superconductors. It starts
with first principles and using quantum concepts, explains the occurrence of zero resistance, the
Meissner effect, the observed temperature dependence of heat capacity and so on. Since meaningful
discussion of BCS theory is possible only using advanced quantum mechanical concepts and
mathematical techniques, for simplicity, we discuss it here only qualitatively.
Phase coherent state in superconductors:

The electrons in a cooper pair have opposite spins so that the total spin is zero and the pair
behaves as bosons (Bosons means particle having zero spin). Any number of them can exist in the
same quantum state at the same time. All the pairs are in the same ground state and can be explained
by a single wave function. This is known as Phase coherence state.

In superconductors, the phase-coherent state refers to a macroscopic quantum state where the
Cooper pairs; formed by two electrons, act as a single entity, behaving like bosons. In this state, the
phase of the superconducting order parameter—the collective wave function of the Cooper pairs—
is well defined and uniform throughout the material. This collective, phase locked behavior is
responsible for superconductivity's defining characteristics, such as dissipation less and super
fluidity. The ability of the superconductor to flow without resistance is a direct consequence of this
phase-coherent state.

Formation of the Coherent State:

These Cooper pairs then condense into a single, macroscopic quantum state. In this state, the
quantum mechanical phase of the electronic wave function is not random but is "rigid," meaning the
phase is uniform and consistent across the entire superconductor. This unified phase is known as the
phase-coherent state.

Quantum Tunneling:

The phase coherence allows for quantum effects like the

Josephson effect, where a supercurrent can tunnel through
a thin insulating barrier between two superconductors. The
cooper pairs can tunnel through the insulator (without being
destroyed) giving a current from one superconductor into
the other. This is known as quantum tunneling or Cooper
pair tunneling. Also called as Josephson Effect.

Electron - phonon coupling:

Definition: Electron-phonon coupling (EPC) also provides in a fundamental way an attractive

electron-electron interaction, which is always present and, in many metals, is the origin of the
electron pairing underlying the macroscopic quantum phenomenon of superconductivity. The
interaction between electron and quantized lattice vibrations (or phonons) is known as electron
phonon coupling. It can be weak or strong.
Examples of systems with low and high electron-phonon coupling:

Examples of systems with low electron-phonon coupling include gold and other simple noble
metals, which exhibit weak interactions between electrons and lattice vibrations, while high
coupling examples include superconductors like cuprates and complex materials such as MgB2 and
aluminum, where the electron-phonon interaction is strong enough to significantly influence
material properties like superconductivity and electron mobility.

Low Electron-Phonon Coupling Systems:

In weak interaction, there is no scattering of electrons, they move easily, and hence the conductivity
is high. Example; Gold (Au), Silver (Ag), Copper (Cu) etc... Gold is a well-known example of a
material with low electron-phonon coupling. This is evident in its phonon dynamics, where phonon-
phonon interactions are comparatively stronger than electron-phonon interactions.

High Electron-Phonon Coupling Systems:

In strong interactions (high electron-phonon coupling), electrons strongly affected by the lattice
vibrations and hence cooper pairs are formed thereby materials becomes superconductor, Examples:
Lead (Pb), Aluminum (Al), some high pressure hydrides and etc…

Aluminum:

Aluminum exhibits a relatively strong electron-phonon coupling, particularly for longitudinal

phonon modes, which couple more significantly to electrons than other phonon branches.

MgB2:

This material shows strong electron-phonon coupling in specific phonon modes, such as the E2g in-
plane phonons near the zone center, which strongly couple with sigma-bonding states.

Cuprates (High-Temperature Superconductors):

Electron-phonon coupling has been proposed as a significant component for high-temperature

superconductivity in cuprates. While not the sole mechanism, strong electron-boson coupling is
spectroscopically observed.

Semiconductors (e.g., MoSe2): In semiconductor photo catalysts like MoSe2, electron-phonon

interactions slow electron mobility, increasing their effective mass, which influences device
performance and efficiency.
Types of superconductors
There are two types of superconductors. They are type-I superconductors and type-II
superconductors.
Type-I superconductors:
Type-I superconductors exhibit complete Meissner effect. Below the critical field it behaves as
perfect diamagnet. If the external magnetic field increases beyond Hc the superconducting
specimen gets converted to normal state. The magnetic flux penetrates and resistance increase
from zero to some value. As the critical field is very low for type-I superconductors, they are
not used in construction of solenoids and superconducting magnets. Ex. Hg, Pb and Zn.

Type-II superconductors
They do not exhibit complete Meissner effect. The superconductors are characterized by two
critical fields Hc1 and Hc2 namely lower critical field and upper critical filed respectively. The
graph of magnetic moment V/s magnetic field is as shown in the Figure.

Type-II superconductors are hard superconductors. They exist in three states

1) Superconducting state
2) Mixed state
3) Normal state

For the field less then Hc1, it expels the magnetic field completely and becomes a perfect
diamagnetic. Between Hc1 and Hc2 the flux starts penetrating throughout the specimen. This state
is called vortex state. Hc2 is 100 times higher than Hc1. At Hc2 the flux penetrates completely and
becomes normal conductor. Type- II superconductors are used in the manufacturing of the
superconducting magnets of high magnetic fields. Examples: NbTi, Nb3Sn.
Difference between Type-I and Type-II superconductors.

Type-I (Soft) superconductors Type-II (Hard) superconductors

Type-II superconductors are soft Type-II superconductors are hard
superconductors superconductors
Type I superconductors exhibit complete They are having two critical fields Hc1 and
Meissner’s effect and they have only one critical Hc2
field Hc
Below the critical field it behaves as perfect The field less then Hc1, it expels the magnetic
diamagnet. field completely and becomes a perfect
diamagnetic.
If the external magnetic field increases beyond Between Hc1 and Hc2 the flux starts
Hc the superconducting specimen gets converted penetrating throughout the specimen. This
to normal state. state is called vortex state
The magnetic flux penetrates and resistance At Hc2 the flux penetrates completely and
increase from zero to some value becomes normal conductor
Examples: Hg, Pb, and Zn. Examples: NbTi, Nb3Sn
Formation of Vortices:

Vortices form in Type-II superconductors above a

critical magnetic field strength (Hc1) when an
external magnetic field penetrates the material in
discrete flux tubes, called Abrikosov vortices,
which contain a non-superconducting core
surrounded by circulating supercurrents. This
mixed state allows for magnetic flux to be partially
expelled from the bulk of the superconductor,
while the remaining flux is confined to these
vortices arranged in a lattice to minimize system energy. This process enables the superconductor
to remain superconducting to a higher applied magnetic field (Hc2) than Type-I superconductors,
which exhibit complete magnetic expulsion.

Upper critical field (Hc2):

The upper critical field (Hc2) is the maximum magnetic field strength at which a material remains
superconducting at a given temperature and pressure. Above Hc2, superconductivity is destroyed,
and the material returns to its normal (non-superconducting) state.

Explanation for upper critical field:

The upper critical field (Hc2) is the maximum magnetic field strength at which a type-II
superconductor can still maintain its superconducting state at a given temperature; above this field,
superconductivity is completely destroyed. This value is a crucial characteristic for both
understanding the fundamental properties of a superconductor, such as the pairing mechanism of
electrons, and for practical applications like superconducting magnets. It is temperature-dependent,
decreasing as temperature increases towards the critical temperature (Tc), and is influenced by
factors such as the material's coherence length, Pauli paramagnetism (spin-related effects), and
orbital effects (magnetic field interactions). This property is crucial for the practical applications of
superconductors, defining their operational limits in devices like superconducting magnets. It is a
temperature-dependent function, and the value at absolute zero (0 K) is often considered for
theoretical analysis.
Josephson Effect
In 1962, B.D. Josephson predicted a number of remarkable phenomena about superconductivity,
which are used to understand the superconducting properties. Persistent current in dc voltage is the
principle used in Josephson device.

An insulating material of thickness nearly 1 to 2 nm sandwiched between two different

superconducting materials (S1 and S2) is known as Josephson device or Josephson junction. The
Josephson device is shown in figure, where S1 and S2 are the two different superconductors.

The DC Josephson Effect

The pair of electrons present in a superconducting material is in the same phase. Whenever a
Josephson junction is formed by sandwiching an insulator in between two different
superconductors, the Cooper pairs present in two different superconducting materials need not
be in the same phase and their density may also be different. There will be a tunnelling of
superconducting electrons from one side with higher electron density to another side with lower
electron density across the junction. Due to this tunnelling of electrons, a dc voltage appears
across the Josephson device, even though no field is applied there. This phenomenon is said to
be DC Josephson effect.
The insulating layer introduces a phase difference () between wave function of cooper pairs on
either side and hence super current appears even though the applied voltage is zero. Super current
(or junction current) is given by
I𝐽 =𝐼𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙
Where, Ic is the maximum junction current that depends on the thickness of insulating layer. It
is quite small (between 1 μA to 1 mA).

The AC Josephson Effect

The AC Josephson effect refers to the phenomenon of a supercurrent flowing between two
superconductors that are separated by a thin insulating barrier, also called a Josephson junction,
 when a voltage oscillating at a particular frequency is applied to the junction. This effect is
known as AC because the voltage oscillates with time, producing an alternating current in the
junction.

If we apply DC voltage across the Josephson junction, it introduces an additional phase

difference between the Cooper pairs and an alternating current is generated. This is known as
AC Josephson Effect. The frequency of alternating current is directly proportional to applied
voltage V and is given by

2𝑒𝑉
𝜈=
ℎ

The photon energy of emission or absorption at the junction is hν = 2eV

i.e,
2𝑒𝑉 2𝑋1.602𝑋10−19 𝑉
𝜈= =
ℎ 6.63𝑋10−34

ν = 483.5×1012 V Hz

For an applied voltage of 1µV, the frequency of the ac signal is

ν = 483.5×1012 V = 483.5×1012×10−6

ν =483.5 MHz

By measuring the frequency of the AC signal accurately, the value of e/h and the photon energy,
2eV are accurately measured.

SQUIDS: DC and RF SQUIDs (Qualitative)

SQUID is an acronym for Superconducting Quantum Interference Device. It is based on the principle of
Josephson effect. SQUID is basically a sensitive magnetometer and it is used to measure extremely weak
magnetic fields as small as 10 -21 T.
• It consists of a superconducting ring which can have the magnetic field of quantum
values (1,2, 3,.) of flux placed in between two Josephson junctions as shown in figure.
• When the magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the plane of the ring, the current is
induced at the two Josephson junctions.
• The induced current produces the interference pattern and if flows around the ring so that
the magnetic flux in the ring can have the quantum value of magnetic field applied.
 Superconducting Ring

There are two types of SQUID namely

✓ DC SQUID and
✓ RF SQUID (or AC SQUID)

DC-SQUID: DC-SQUID consists of two Josephson junctions (P and Q) arranged in parallel

to form a loop and a DC source is connected across X and Y as shown in the figure. As a result,
biasing current enters at X and leaves at Y. Let I1 and I2 be the tunneling currents across P and Q.
When a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the arrangement, a phase difference is introduced
between I1 and I2 and they overlap to produce interference effect (very much similar to Young’s
double slit experiment). In superconductors the current is caused by the Cooper pairs. Cooper pairs
are associated with de-Broglie waves. Applied magnetic field introduces phase shift between these
waves and hence they interfere when arrive at Y. The resultant current is
 ℎ
Where,  is the flux linked with the SQUID and 𝜙0 = ( =2.06×10−15𝑤𝑏/𝑚2 ) 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥𝑜𝑖𝑑.
2𝑒
𝐼𝑟 ϕ
A graph of 𝑉/𝑆 is as shown above. The graph is exactly similar to intensity distribution 0 in
𝐼𝑐 ϕ0

single slit diffraction of light. By measuring the resultant current in the SQUID, one can determine
the applied magnetic field. It is possible to measure very small magnetic fields using this
arrangement.

RF-SQUID (or) AC-SQUID:

The RF (Radio Frequency) SQUID is a one-

junction SQUID loop and is used as a magnetic field
detector. Although it is less sensitive than the DC
SQUID, it is cheaper and easier to manufacture and
is therefore more commonly used. It is as shown in
fig (i).

RF SQUID loop is placed

near a LC circuit which is
connected to RF AC source as
shown in Fig (ii).

The loop is immersed in a

magnetic field whose flux is 
(to be measured). Now pass an oscillating current (I) through LC circuit from the RF source. It
induces magnetic flux RF. This flux is coupled with the loop. The total external flux is
𝑒𝑥 =+𝑅𝐹
The loop is linked to circuit through mutual inductance. By chance if the flux in the loop ()
changes, there will be corresponding changes in ex. Any changes in the total flux  ex will induce
emf (according to Faraday’s law) in the LC circuit and hence voltage (V) across LC changes. By
measuring the change in voltage V, one can measure the magnetic flux () and its variation w.r.t.
time.
SQUIDS are used in
✓ Measurement of magnetic fields as small as 10-21T produced by biological currents
such as in human heart and brain.
✓ Geophysical measurements (connected with rocks, seismic waves etc)
 ✓ Nondestructive testing (testing the material without damaging it)
✓ Fabrication of qubits (in quantum computing)

Application in quantum computing:

charge, Phase and Flux qubit: Each type of qubit has its own advantages and
disadvantages, and they are used in different applications.

Charge qubits: In quantum computing, a charge qubit ia also known as cooper pairs box. It is
a qubit whose basis states are charge states. The states represent the presence of absence of excess
cooper pairs in the island (dotted region in the figure). In superconducting quantum computing, a
charge qubit is formed by a tiny superconducting is an coupled by Josephson junction to a
superconducting reservoir.

Flux qubits: Flux qubits (also called as persistent current qubits) are micrometer sized loops
of superconducting metal that is interrupted by a number of Josephson junctions. These devices
function as quantum bits. The Josephson junctions are designed so that the persistent current will
flow continuously when external magnetic field is applied. Only integer number of flux quanta are
allowed to penetrate the superconducting ring.

Phase qubits: A phase qubit is a current-biased Josephson junction, operated in the zero-
voltage state with a non-zero current bias. This employs a single Josephson junction and the two
levels are defined by quantum oscillations of the phase different between the electrodes of the
junction. DC squid is a type of phase qubit.