Semester:I

Course Code: 24BTPHY106

Course: Fundamentals of AI and ML

Fundamentals of AI and ML 1
 Module-1
Introduction and Intelligent Agents

What is AI? — The Foundations of Artificial Intelligence — The History of Artificial Intelligence — The
State of the Art — Risks and Benefits of AI

Agents and Environments — Good Behavior: The Concept of Rationality— The Nature of Environments
— The Structure of Agents

INTRODUCTION TO ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

• John McCarthy who has coined the word "Artificial Intelligence" in 1956, has defined Al as
"the science and engineering of making intelligent machines", especially intelligent computer
programs.
• Artificial Intelligence (AI) is relevant to any intellectual task where the machine needs to take
some decision or choose the next action based on the current state of the system, in short act
intelligently or rationally. As it has a very wide range of applications, it is truly a universal
field.
• In simple words, Artificial Intelligent System works like a Human Brain, where a machine or
software shows intelligence while performing given tasks; such systems are called intelligent
systems or expert systems. You can say that these systems can "think" while generating
output!!!
• Al is one of the newest fields in science and engineering and has a wide variety of application
fields. Al applications range from the general fields like learning, perception and prediction to
the specific field, such as writing stories, proving mathematical theorems, driving a bus on a
crowded street, diagnosing diseases, and playing chess.
• Al is the study of how to make machines do thing which at the moment people do better.

Why Artificial Intelligence?

Before Learning about Artificial Intelligence, we should know that what is the importance of AI and
why should we learn it. Following are some main reasons to learn about AI:

o With the help of AI, you can create such software or devices which can solve real-world
problems very easily and with accuracy such as health issues, marketing, traffic issues, etc.
o With the help of AI, you can create your personal virtual Assistant, such as Cortana, Google
Assistant, Siri, etc.
o With the help of AI, you can build such Robots which can work in an environment where
survival of humans can be at risk.
o AI opens a path for other new technologies, new devices, and new Opportunities.

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Goals of Artificial Intelligence

Following are the main goals of Artificial Intelligence:

1. Replicate human intelligence

2. Solve Knowledge-intensive tasks
3. An intelligent connection of perception and action
4. Building a machine which can perform tasks that requires human intelligence such as:
o Proving a theorem
o Playing chess
o Plan some surgical operation
o Driving a car in traffic
5. Creating some system which can exhibit intelligent behavior, learn new things by itself,
demonstrate, explain, and can advise to its user.

Approaches of AI

Fig: Dimensions of Artificial Intelligence

The “approach of AI” refers to the general philosophy or strategy that is used to build and design
artificial intelligence (AI) systems. There are several different approaches to AI, each with its own
goals and methodologies. The four main approaches to AI are:
1. Thinking Humanly
2. Acting Humanly
3. Thinking Rationally
4. Acting Rationally
Now we will discuss them one by one.

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 1. Thinking Humanly: The Cognitive Modelling Approach
• This approach focuses on building artificial intelligence systems that can think like a human.
The goal is to create systems that can understand human language, emotions, and culture and
can interact with humans in a natural way.
• This approach is mainly used in the development of conversational AI systems, such as
chatbots and virtual assistants, that need to understand and respond to natural language input
from humans.
• In order to make machines think like human, we need to first understand how human think.
Research showed that there are three ways using which human's thinking pattern can be caught.
i) Introspection through which human can catch their own thoughts as they go by.
ii) Psychological experiments can be carried out by observing a person in action.
iii) Brain imaging can be done by observing the brain in action.

Examples:
a. Siri, Alexa, and Google Assistant: Virtual assistants that can understand and respond to natural
language input from users.
b. Chatbots: AI systems that can have conversations with humans using natural language
processing techniques.
c. Emotion recognition systems: AI systems that can detect emotions in human speech and facial
expressions.

2. Acting Humanly: The Turing Test Approach

• This approach focuses on building artificial intelligence systems that can act like humans.
• The goal is to create systems that can perform tasks such as recognizing speech, recognizing
images, and controlling robots in a human-like manner.
• This approach is mainly used in computer vision and robotics, where the goal is to create
systems that can perceive and interact with the physical world in a human-like manner.
Examples:
a. Self-driving cars: AI systems that can control a vehicle and navigate roads, traffic, and
obstacles in a human-like manner.
b. Facial recognition systems: AI systems that can identify individuals based on their facial
features.
c. Gesture-based human-computer interfaces: AI systems that can interpret and respond to
gestures made by a user.
• To judge whether the system can act like a human, Sir Alan Turing had designed a test known
as Turing test. As shown in below Fig, in Turing test, a computer needs to interact with a
human interrogator by answering his questions in written format. Computer passes the test
if a human 'interrogator, cannot identify whether the written responses are from a person or
a computer. Turing test is valid even after 60 year of research.

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 Fig: Turing Test
• For this test, the computer would need to possess the following capabilities:
➢ Natural Language Processing (NLP) : This unit enables computer to interpret the English
language and communicate successfully.
➢ Knowledge Representation : This unit is used to store knowledge gathered by the system
through input
➢ Automated Reasoning : This unit enables to analyze the knowledge stored in the system and
makes new inferences to answer questions.
➢ Machine Learning : This unit learns new knowledge by taking current input from the
environment and adapts to new circumstances, there by enhancing the knowledge base of
the system.
➢ Computer vision: This unit is required to perceive objects from the environment
➢ Robotics: This unit is required to manipulate those objects.

3. Thinking Rationally: The "Laws of Thought" Approach

• This approach focuses on building artificial intelligence systems that can reason logically and
make decisions based on information and rules.
• The goal is to create systems that can solve problems and make decisions in a way that is
consistent with the principles of rational thinking.
• This approach is used in a wide range of applications, including decision-making, planning,
and problem-solving
Examples:
a. Expert systems: AI systems that can make decisions and provide advice based on a set of rules
and knowledge.
b. Recommendation systems: AI systems that can provide personalized recommendations to users
based on their preferences and behavior.

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 c. Optimization algorithms: AI systems that can find the best solution to a problem by considering
multiple factors and constraints.
4. Acting Rationally: The Rational Agent Approach
• This approach focuses on building artificial intelligence systems that can act rationally. The
goal is to create systems that can make decisions and take actions that are consistent with the
principles of rational thinking and that achieve their goals efficiently and effectively.
• This approach is mainly used in artificial intelligence systems that need to make decisions and
take actions to achieve their goals in a rational and efficient manner.
Examples:
a. Autonomous agents: AI systems that can make decisions and take actions to achieve their goals in
an efficient and effective manner.
b. Reinforcement learning algorithms: AI systems that can learn to take actions in an environment by
receiving rewards and punishments based on their decisions.
c. Game AI: AI systems that can play games such as chess, Go, or poker and make decisions based on
the rules and objectives of the game
The two approaches namely, thinking humanly and thinking rationally are based on the reasoning
expected from intelligent systems while; the other two acting humanly and acting rationally are based
on the intelligent behaviour expected from them.

Components of AI
Al is a vast field for research and it has got applications in almost all possible domains. By keeping
this in mind, components of Al can be identified as follows :
• Perception
• Knowledge representation
• Learning
• Reasoning
• Problem Solving
• Natural Language Processing (language-understanding).

Fig: Components of AI

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Perception:
In order to work in the environment, intelligent agents need to scan the environment and the various
objects in it. Agent scans the environment using various sense organs like camera, temperature sensor,
etc. This is called as perception. After capturing various scenes, perceiver analyses the different objects
in it and extracts their features and relationships among them.
Knowledge representation:
The information obtained from environment through sensors may not be in the format required by the
system. Hence, it need to be represented in standard formats for further processing like learning various
patterns, deducing inference, comparing with past objects, etc. There are various knowledge
representation techniques like Prepositional logic and first order logic
Learning
Learning is a very essential part of Al and it happens in various forms. The simplest form of learning
is by trial and error. In this form the program remembers the action that has given desired output and
discards the other trial actions and learns by itself. It is also called as unsupervised learning. In case of
rote learning, the program simply remembers the problem solution pairs or individual items. In other
case, solution to few of the problems is given as input to the system, basis on which the system or
program needs to generate solutions for new problems. This is known as supervised learning
Reasoning
Reasoning is also called as logic or generating inferences form the given set of facts. Reasoning is
carried out based on strict rule of validity to perform a specified task. Reasoning can be of two types,
deductive or inductive. The deductive reasoning is in which the truth of the premises guarantees the
truth of the conclusion while, in case of inductive reasoning, the truth of the premises supports the
conclusion, but it cannot be fully dependent on the premises. In programming logic generally deductive
inferences are used. Reasoning involves drawing inferences that are relevant to the given problem or
situation.
Problem-solving
Al addresses huge variety of problems. For example, finding out winning moves on the board games,
planning action's in order to achieve the defined task, identifying various objects from given images,
etc. As per the types of problem, there is variety of problem solving strategies in Al. Problem solving
methods are mainly divided into general purpose methods and special purpose methods. General
purpose methods are applicable to wide range of problems while, special purpose methods are
customized to solve particular type of problems
Natural Language Processing
Natural Language Processing, involves machines or robots to understand and process the language that
human speak, and infer knowledge from the speech input. It also involves the active participation from
machine in the form of dialog i.e. NLP aims at the text or verbal output from the machine or robot.
The input and output of an NLP system can be speech and written text respectively

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Applications of Artificial Intelligence:
You must have seen use of Artificial Intelligence in many SCI-FI movies. To name a few we have I
Robot, Wall-E, The Matrix Trilogy, Star Wars, etc. movies. Many a times these movies show positive
potential of using Al and sometimes also emphasize the dangers of using Al. Also there are games
based on such movies, which show us many probable applications of Al.
Artificial intelligence is commonly used for problem solving by analyzing or/and predicting output for
a system. Alcan provide solutions for constraint satisfaction problems. It is used in wide range of fields
for example in diagnosing diseases, in business, in education, in controlling a robots, in entertainment
field, etc.

Fig: Applications of AI
Education:
Training simulators can be built using artificial intelligence techniques. Software for pre-school
children are developed to enable learning with fun games. Automated grading, Interactive tutoring,
instructional theory are the current areas of application.
Entertainment:
Many movies, games, robots are designed to play as a character. In games they can play as an opponent
when human player is not available or not desirable.
Medical:
Al has applications in the field of cardiology (CRG), Neurology (MRI), Embryology (Sonography),
complex operations of internal organs, etc. It can be also used in organizing bed schedules, managing
staff rotations, store and retrieve information of patient. Many expert systems are enabled to predict
the decease and can provide with medical prescriptions.
Military
Training simulators can be used in military applications. Also areas where human cannot reach or in
life stacking conditions, robots can be very well used to do the required jobs. When decisions have to
be made quickly taking into account an enormous amount of information, and when lives are at stake,

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artificial intelligence can provide crucial assistance. From developing intricate flight plans to
implementing complex supply systems or creating training simulation exercises,Al is a natural partner
in the modern military.
Business and Manufacturing
Latest generation of robots are equipped well with the performance advances, growing integration of
vision and an enlarging capability to transform manufacturing
Automated planning and scheduling
Intelligent planners are available with Al systems, which can process large datasets and can consider
all the constraints to design plans satisfying all of them.
Voice Technology
Voice recognition is improved a lot with AI. Systems are designed to take voice inputs which are very
much applicable in case of handicaps. Also scientists are developing an intelligent machine to emulate
activities of a skillful musician. Composition, performance, sound processing, music theory are some
of the major areas of research.
Heavy Industry
Huge machines involve risk in operating and maintainíng them. Human robots are better replacing
human operators. These robots are safe and efficient. Robot are proven to be effective as compare to
human in the jobs of repetitive nature, human may fail due to lack of continuous attention or laziness.
HISTORY OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
• Artificial Intelligence is not a new word and not a new technology for researchers. This
technology is much older than you would imagine. Following are some milestones in the
history of AI which defines the journey from the AI generation to till date development.

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Maturation of Artificial Intelligence (1943-1952)

Between 1943 and 1952, there was notable progress in the expansion of artificial intelligence
(AI). Throughout this period, AI transitioned from a mere concept to tangible experiments and
practical applications. Here are some key events that happened during this period:

o Year 1943: The first work which is now recognized as AI was done by Warren McCulloch
and Walter pits in 1943. They proposed a model of artificial neurons.
o Year 1949: Donald Hebb demonstrated an updating rule for modifying the connection strength
between neurons. His rule is now called Hebbian learning.
o Year 1950: The Alan Turing who was an English mathematician and pioneered Machine
learning in 1950. Alan Turing publishes "Computing Machinery and Intelligence" in which
he proposed a test. The test can check the machine's ability to exhibit intelligent behavior
equivalent to human intelligence, called a Turing test.
o Year 1951: Marvin Minsky and Dean Edmonds created the initial artificial neural network
(ANN) named SNARC. They utilized 3,000 vaccum tubes to mimic a network of 40 neurons.

The birth of Artificial Intelligence (1952-1956)

From 1952 to 1956, AI surfaced as a unique domain of investigation. During this period, pioneers and
forward-thinkers commenced the groundwork for what would ultimately transform into a
revolutionary technological domain. Here are notable occurrences from this era:

o Year 1952: Arthur Samuel pioneered the creation of the Samuel Checkers-Playing Program,
which marked the world's first self-learning program for playing games.
o Year 1955: An Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon created the "first artificial intelligence
program"Which was named as "Logic Theorist". This program had proved 38 of 52
Mathematics theorems, and find new and more elegant proofs for some theorems.
o Year 1956: The word "Artificial Intelligence" first adopted by American Computer scientist
John McCarthy at the Dartmouth Conference. For the first time, AI coined as an academic
field.

At that time high-level computer languages such as FORTRAN, LISP, or COBOL were
invented. And the enthusiasm for AI was very high at that time.

The golden years-Early enthusiasm (1956-1974)

The period from 1956 to 1974 is commonly known as the "Golden Age" of artificial intelligence (AI).
In this timeframe, AI researchers and innovators were filled with enthusiasm and achieved remarkable
advancements in the field. Here are some notable events from this era:

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Year 1958: During this period, Frank Rosenblatt introduced the perceptron, one of the early artificial
neural networks with the ability to learn from data. This invention laid the foundation for modern
neural networks.

Year 1959: Arthur Samuel is credited with introducing the phrase "machine learning" in a pivotal paper
in which he proposed that computers could be programmed to surpass their creators in performance.

Year 1969: Arthur Bryson and Yu-Chi Ho outlined a learning algorithm known as backpropagation,
which enabled the development of multilayer artificial neural networks.

Year 1972: The first intelligent humanoid robot was built in Japan, which was named WABOT-1.

The first AI winter (1974-1980)

The initial AI winter, occurring from 1974 to 1980, is known as a tough period for artificial intelligence
(AI). During this time, there was a substantial decrease in research funding, and AI faced a sense of
letdown.

A boom of AI (1980-1987)

o In 1980, the first national conference of the American Association of Artificial Intelligence
was held at Stanford University.
o Year 1981: Danny Hillis created parallel computers tailored for AI and various computational
functions, featuring an architecture akin to contemporary GPUs.

The second AI winter (1987-1993)

o The duration between the years 1987 to 1993 was the second AI Winter duration.
o Again Investors and government stopped in funding for AI research as due to high cost but not
efficient result.

The emergence of intelligent agents (1993-2011)

During this era, AI professionals shifted their emphasis from attempting to match human intelligence
to crafting pragmatic, ingenious software tailored to specific tasks.

Year 1997: In 1997, IBM's Deep Blue achieved a historic milestone by defeating world chess
champion Gary Kasparov, marking the first time a computer triumphed over a reigning world chess
champion.

o Year 2002: for the first time, AI entered the home in the form of Roomba, a vacuum cleaner.

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o Year 2006: AI came into the Business world till the year 2006. Companies like Facebook, Twitter,
and Netflix also started using AI.

Deep learning, big data and artificial general intelligence (2011-present)

Year 2011: In 2011, IBM's Watson won Jeopardy, a quiz show where it had to solve complex questions
as well as riddles

Year 2012: Google launched an Android app feature, "Google Now", which was able to provide
information to the user as a prediction

Year 2021: OpenAI unveiled the Dall-E multimodal AI system, capable of producing images based
on textual prompts.

Year 2022: In November, OpenAI launched ChatGPT, offering a chat-oriented interface to its GPT-
3.5 LLM.

The State of the Art-What can AI Do today?

What can AI do today? A concise answer is difficult because there are so many activities in so many
subfields. Here we sample a few applications

Robotic vehicles: A driverless robotic car named STANLEY sped through the rough terrain of the
Mojave dessert at 22 mph, finishing the 132-mile course first to win the 2005 DARPA Grand
Challenge. STANLEY is a Volkswagen Touareg outfitted with cameras, radar, and laser rangefinders
to sense the environment and onboard software to command the steering, braking, and acceleration
(Thrun, 2006)

Speech recognition: A traveler calling United Airlines to book a flight can have the entire
conversation guided by an automated speech recognition and dialog management system.

Autonomous planning and scheduling: A hundred million miles from Earth, NASA’s Remote Agent
program became the first on-board autonomous planning program to control the scheduling of
operations for a spacecraft (Jonsson et al., 2000). REMOTE AGENT generated plans from high-level
goals specified from the ground and monitored the execution of those plans—detecting, diagnosing,
and recovering from problems as they occurred.

Game playing: IBM’s DEEP BLUE became the first computer program to defeat the world champion
in a chess match when it bested Garry Kasparov by a score of 3.5 to 2.5 in an exhibition match
(Goodman and Keene, 1997).

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Spam fighting: Each day, learning algorithms classify over a billion messages as spam, saving the
recipient from having to waste time deleting what, for many users, could comprise 80% or 90% of all
messages, if not classified away by algorithms.

Logistics planning: During the Persian Gulf crisis of 1991, U.S. forces deployed a Dynamic Analysis
and Replanning Tool, DART (Cross and Walker, 1994), to do automated logistics planning and
scheduling for transportation.

Robotics: The iRobot Corporation has sold over two million Roomba robotic vacuum cleaners for
home use.

Machine Translation: A computer program automatically translates from Arabic to English

Risks of Artificial Intelligence

As the world witnesses unprecedented growth in artificial intelligence (AI) technologies, it's essential
to consider the potential risks and challenges associated with their widespread adoption. AI does
present some significant dangers — from job displacement to security and privacy concerns.

Here are the biggest risks of artificial intelligence:

1. Lack of Transparency

Lack of transparency in AI systems, particularly in deep learning models that can be complex and
difficult to interpret, is a pressing issue. This opaqueness obscures the decision-making processes and
underlying logic of these technologies.

When people can’t comprehend how an AI system arrives at its conclusions, it can lead to distrust and
resistance to adopting these technologies.

2. Bias and Discrimination

AI systems can inadvertently perpetuate or amplify societal biases due to biased training data or
algorithmic design. To minimize discrimination and ensure fairness, it is crucial to invest in the
development of unbiased algorithms and diverse training data sets.

3. Privacy Concerns

AI technologies often collect and analyze large amounts of personal data, raising issues related to data
privacy and security. To mitigate privacy risks, we must advocate for strict data protection regulations
and safe data handling practices.

4. Ethical Dilemmas

Fundamentals of AI and ML 13
Instilling moral and ethical values in AI systems, especially in decision-making contexts with
significant consequences, presents a considerable challenge. Researchers and developers must
prioritize the ethical implications of AI technologies to avoid negative societal impacts.

5. Security Risks

As AI technologies become increasingly sophisticated, the security risks associated with their use and
the potential for misuse also increase. Hackers and malicious actors can harness the power of AI to
develop more advanced cyberattacks, bypass security measures, and exploit vulnerabilities in systems.

The rise of AI-driven autonomous weaponry also raises concerns about the dangers of rogue states or
non-state actors using this technology — especially when we consider the potential loss of human
control in critical decision-making processes. To mitigate these security risks, governments and
organizations need to develop best practices for secure AI development and deployment and foster
international cooperation to establish global norms and regulations that protect against AI security
threats.

6. Concentration of Power

The risk of AI development being dominated by a small number of large corporations and governments
could exacerbate inequality and limit diversity in AI applications. Encouraging decentralized and
collaborative AI development is key to avoiding a concentration of power.

7. Dependence on AI

Overreliance on AI systems may lead to a loss of creativity, critical thinking skills, and human
intuition. Striking a balance between AI-assisted decision-making and human input is vital to
preserving our cognitive abilities.

8. Job Displacement

AI-driven automation has the potential to lead to job losses across various industries, particularly for
low-skilled workers (although there is evidence that AI and other emerging technologies
will create more jobs than it eliminates).

As AI technologies continue to develop and become more efficient, the workforce must adapt and
acquire new skills to remain relevant in the changing landscape. This is especially true for lower-
skilled workers in the current labor force.

9. Economic Inequality

AI has the potential to contribute to economic inequality by disproportionally benefiting wealthy

individuals and corporations. As we talked about above, job losses due to AI-driven automation are
more likely to affect low-skilled workers, leading to a growing income gap and reduced opportunities
for social mobility.

The concentration of AI development and ownership within a small number of large corporations and
governments can exacerbate this inequality as they accumulate wealth and power while smaller
businesses struggle to compete. Policies and initiatives that promote economic equity—like reskilling

Fundamentals of AI and ML 14
programs, social safety nets, and inclusive AI development that ensures a more balanced distribution
of opportunities — can help combat economic inequality.

10. Legal and Regulatory Challenges

It’s crucial to develop new legal frameworks and regulations to address the unique issues arising from
AI technologies, including liability and intellectual property rights. Legal systems must evolve to keep
pace with technological advancements and protect the rights of everyone.

11. AI Arms Race

The risk of countries engaging in an AI arms race could lead to the rapid development of AI
technologies with potentially harmful consequences.

Recently, more than a thousand technology researchers and leaders, including Apple co-founder Steve
Wozniak, have urged intelligence labs to pause the development of advanced AI systems. The letter
states that AI tools present “profound risks to society and humanity.

12. Loss of Human Connection

Increasing reliance on AI-driven communication and interactions could lead to diminished empathy,
social skills, and human connections. To preserve the essence of our social nature, we must strive to
maintain a balance between technology and human interaction.

13. Misinformation and Manipulation

AI-generated content, such as deepfakes, contributes to the spread of false information and the
manipulation of public opinion. Efforts to detect and combat AI-generated misinformation are critical
in preserving the integrity of information in the digital age.

14. Unintended Consequences

AI systems, due to their complexity and lack of human oversight, might exhibit unexpected behaviors
or make decisions with unforeseen consequences. This unpredictability can result in outcomes that
negatively impact individuals, businesses, or society as a whole.

Robust testing, validation, and monitoring processes can help developers and researchers identify and
fix these types of issues before they escalate.

15. Existential Risks

The development of artificial general intelligence (AGI) that surpasses human intelligence raises long-
term concerns for humanity. The prospect of AGI could lead to unintended and potentially catastrophic
consequences, as these advanced AI systems may not be aligned with human values or priorities.

To mitigate these risks, the AI research community needs to actively engage in safety research,
collaborate on ethical guidelines, and promote transparency in AGI development. Ensuring that AGI
serves the best interests of humanity and does not pose a threat to our existence is paramount.

Fundamentals of AI and ML 15
Benefits of Artificial Intelligence

AI offers numerous benefits across various domains, revolutionizing how we live, work, and interact
with technology. Here are some of the key benefits:

[Link] in Human Error:

The phrase "human error" was born because humans make mistakes from time to time. Computers,
however, do not make these mistakes if they are programmed properly. With Artificial intelligence,
the decisions are taken from the previously gathered information applying a certain set of algorithms.
So errors are reduced and the chance of reaching accuracy with a greater degree of precision is a
possibility.
Example : In Weather Forecasting using Ai they have reduced the majority of human error.
2. Takes risks instead of Humans :
This is one of the biggest advantages of Artificial intelligence. We can overcome many risky
limitations of humans by developing an AI Robot which in turn can do the risky things for us. Let it
be going to mars, defuse a bomb, explore the deepest parts of oceans, mining for coal and oil, it can
be used effectively in any kind of natural or man-made disasters.
Example : Have you heard about the Chernobyl nuclear power plant explosion in Ukraine? At that
time there were no Al-powered rot robots that can help us to minimize the effect of radiation by
controlling the fire in early stages, as any human went close to the core was dead in a matter of minutes.
They eventually poured sand and boron from helicopters from a mere distance
AI Robots can be used in such situations where intervention can be hazardous.
3. Available 24 x 7:
An Average human will work for 4-6 hours a day excluding the breaks. Humans are built in such a
way to get some time out for refreshing themselves and get ready for a new day of work and they even
have weekly offed to stay intact with their work-life and personal life. But using Al we can make
machines work 24 x7 without any breaks and they don't even get bored, unlike humans.
Example : Educational Institutes and Helpline centers are getting many queries and issues which can
be handled effectively using Al.
4. Helping in Repetitive Jobs:
In our day-tó- day work, we will be performing many repetitive works like sending a thanking mail,
verifying certain documents for errors and many more things. Using artificial intelligence we can
productively automate these mundane tasks and can even remove "boring"tasks for humans and free
them up to be increasingly creative.
Example : In banks, we often see many verifications of documents to get a loan which is a repetitive
task for the owner of the bank. Using Al Cognitive Automation the owner can speed up the process of
verifying the documents by which both the customers and the owner will be benefited.

Fundamentals of AI and ML 16
5. Digital Assistance:
Some of the highly advanced organizations use digital assistants to interact with users which saves the
need for human resources. The digital assistants alsó used in many websites to provide things that users
want. We can chat with them about what we are looking for. Some chat bots are designed in such a
way that it's become hard to determine that we're chatting with a chatbot or a human being.
Example : We all know that organizations have a customer support team that needs to clarify the doubts
and queries of the customers. Using Al the organizations can set up a Voice bot or Chatbot which can
help customers with all their queries. We can see many organizations already started using them on
their websites and mobile applications.
6. Faster Decisions :
Using Al alongside other technologies we can make machine stake decisions faster than a human and
carry out actions quicker. While taking a decision human will analyze many factors both emotionally
and practically but Al-powered machine works on what it is programmed and delivers the results in a
faster way
Example :We all have played Chess games in Windows. It is nearly impossible to beat CPU in the
hard mode because of the Al behind that game. It will take the best possible step in a very short time
according to the algorithms used behind it.
7. Daily Applications:
Daily applications such as Apple's Siri, Window's Cortana, Goggle's OK Google are frequently used
in our daily routinè whether it is for searching a location, taking a selfie, making a phone call, replying
to a mail and many more.
Example : Around 20 years ago, when we are planning to go somewhere we used to ask a person who
already went there for the directions. But now all we have to do is say "OK Google where is
Visakhapatnam". It will show you Visakhapatnam's location on google map and the best path between
you and Visakhapatnam.
8. New Inventions:
Al is powering many inventions in almost every domaín which will help humans solve the majority of
complex problems.
Example ; Recently doctors can predict breast cancer in the woman at earlier stages using advanced
Al based technologies.

Fundamentals of AI and ML 17
 INTELLIGENT AGENTS

AGENTS AND ENVIRONMENT

• An AI system can be defined as the study of the rational agent and its environment.
• The agents sense the environment through sensors and act on their environment through
actuators.
• An AI agent can have mental properties such as knowledge, belief, intention, etc.

What is an Agent?

An agent can be anything that perceives environment through sensors and act upon that environment
through actuators. An Agent runs in the cycle of perceiving, thinking, and acting. An agent can be:

o Human-Agent: A human agent has eyes, ears, and other organs which work for sensors and
hand, legs, vocal tract work for actuators.
o Robotic Agent: A robotic agent can have cameras, infrared range finder, NLP for sensors and
various motors for actuators.
o Software Agent: Software agent can have keystrokes, file contents as sensory input and act on
those inputs and display output on the screen.

Sensors, effectors, and actuators.

• Sensor: Sensor is a device which detects the change in the environment and sends the
information to other electronic devices. An agent observes its environment through
sensors.
• Actuators: Actuators are the component of machines that converts energy into motion.
The actuators are only responsible for moving and controlling a system. An actuator
can be an electric motor, gears, rails, etc.
• Effectors: Effectors are the devices which affect the environment. Effectors can be
legs, wheels, arms, fingers, wings, fins, and display screen.

Fundamentals of AI and ML 18
Intelligent Agents:

An intelligent agent is an autonomous entity which act upon an environment using sensors and
actuators for achieving goals. An intelligent agent may learn from the environment to achieve their
goals. A thermostat is an example of an intelligent agent.

Following are the main four rules for an AI agent:

o Rule 1: An AI agent must have the ability to perceive the environment.

o Rule 2: The observation must be used to make decisions.
o Rule 3: Decision should result in an action.
o Rule 4: The action taken by an AI agent must be a rational action.

PEAS Representation:

PEAS is a type of model on which an AI agent works upon. When we define an AI agent or rational
agent, then we can group its properties under PEAS representation model. It is made up of four words:

o P: Performance measure
o E: Environment
o A: Actuators
o S: Sensors

1. Performance Measure: Performance measure is the unit to define the success of an agent.
Performance varies with agents based on their different precepts.
2. Environment: Environment is the surrounding of an agent at every instant.
3. Actuator: An actuator is a part of the agent that delivers the output of action to the
environment.
4. Sensor: Sensors are the receptive parts of an agent that takes in the input for the agent.

Fundamentals of AI and ML 19
 Agent Performance Environment Actuators Sensors
Measure
Medical • Healthy • Patient • Tests Keyboard(Entry of
Diagnose patient • Hospital • Treatment symptoms)
• Minimized • Staff
Cost
Vacuum • Claenliness • Room • Wheels • Camera
Cleaner • Efficiency • Table • Brushes • Dirt Detection
• Battery Life • Floor • Vacuum Sensor
• Security • Obstacles Extractor • Cliff Sensor
• Carpet • Bumb sensor
• Infrared wall
sensor

Part • Percentage • Conveyor • Joint arm • Camera

picking of parts in belt with • Hand • Joint angle
Robot correct bins parts sensor
• Bin

Taxi • Safe • Road • Steering • Camera

Driver • Fast • Other • Accelerator • Sonar
• Legal Traffic • Brake • Engine Sensor
• Comfortable • Pedestrian • Signal • Speedometer
trip • Customer • Horn • GPS
• Maximize • Display • Accelerometer
profit
Refinery • Purity • Refinery • Valve • Temperature
Controller • Yield • Operators • Pump sensor
• Safety • Heater • Pressure Sensor
• Display • Chemical
sensor

Subject • Maximum • Classroom • Smart • Eye

tutoring score • Desk display • Ear
• Chair • Notebook
• Board
• Staff

Fundamentals of AI and ML 20
Rational Agent:

• A rational agent is an agent which has clear preference, models uncertainty, and acts in a way
to maximize its performance measure with all possible actions.
• A rational agent is the one that does the right thing. AI is about creating rational agents to use
for game theory and decision theory for various real-world scenarios.

Rationality:
The rationality of an agent is measured by its performance measure. Rationality can be judged on the
basis of following points:

o Performance measure which defines the success criterion.

o Agent prior knowledge of its environment.
o Best possible actions that an agent can perform.
o The sequence of percepts.

What are AI agents?

• Fundamentally, an AI agent is a computer program capable of performing tasks autonomously

by making decisions based on its environment, inputs, and predefined goals. These agents
represent a leap from traditional automation, as they are not just designed to follow a set of
instructions but to think, adapt, and act independently.
• In practice, AI agents can range from simple programs performing single tasks to complex
systems

Structure of an AI Agent

• To understand the structure of Intelligent Agents, we should be familiar

with Architecture and Agent programs
• Architecture is the machinery that the agent executes on. It is a device with sensors and
actuators, for example, a robotic car, a camera, and a PC.
• An agent program is an implementation of an agent function. An agent function is a map
from the percept sequence(history of all that an agent has perceived to date) to an action.

o Agent = Architecture + Agent program

Fundamentals of AI and ML 21
Examples of agents in artificial intelligence:
Autonomous robots: These are agents that are designed to operate autonomously in the physical
world.
Gaming agents: These are agents that are designed to play games, either against human opponents
or other agents.
Fraud detection agents: These are agents that are designed to detect fraudulent behaviour in
financial transactions

Types of Agents

• Simple Reflex Agents

• Model-Based Reflex Agents
• Goal-Based Agents
• Utility-Based Agents
• Learning Agent
• Multi-agent systems
• Hierarchical agents

Simple Reflex Agents

These agents function on the principle of condition-action rules. They respond directly to their
immediate perceptions, lacking an internal model of the world. Simple reflex agents are
straightforward and efficient for environments where the agent’s next action depends solely on the
current percept. Their simplicity, however, limits their effectiveness in complex, unstructured
environments.

Model-based reflex agents

These agents possess an internal model of the world, allowing them to keep track of parts of the
environment that are not immediately perceptible. This model helps the agent handle partially
observable environments by inferring missing information. They decide actions based on their current
percept and internal model, making them more adaptable than simple reflex agents.
Goal-based agents
Goal-based agents go a step further by considering the future consequences of their actions. They have
goals and make decisions based on how likely actions will achieve these goals. This foresight enables
them to plan and choose actions that lead to desired outcomes, making them suitable for complex
decision-making tasks.

Utility-based agents

These agents assess the desirability of different states using a utility function. They strive to achieve a
goal and maximize their performance based on a given utility measure. This approach is beneficial in

Fundamentals of AI and ML 22
scenarios with multiple possible actions or outcomes, and the agent needs to decide the best course
based on a preference.
Learning agents

These agents improve their performance over time based on experience. They are particularly
advantageous in dynamic environments where they adapt and evolve their strategies. For instance, a
learning agent could continuously refine its understanding of customer preferences to optimize ad
placements.
Multi-agent systems (MAS)
In MAS, multiple agents interact and work towards common or individual goals. MAS is used for
complex tasks involving multiple agents working together where coordination is key. These systems
can be seen in supply chain management, where different agents represent various components of the
supply chain, working in unison to optimize the overall process.
Hierarchical agents
These agents are structured in a hierarchical manner, where higher-level agents manage and direct
lower-level agents. Each level in the hierarchy has specific roles and responsibilities, contributing to
the overall goal. Hierarchical agents benefit large-scale systems where tasks must be broken down and
managed at different levels.

Agent Environment in AI
An environment is everything in the world which surrounds the agent, but it is not a part of an agent
itself. An environment can be described as a situation in which an agent is present.

Features of Environment

As per Russell and Norvig, an environment can have various features from the point of view of an
agent:

1. Fully observable vs Partially Observable

2. Static vs Dynamic
3. Discrete vs Continuous
4. Deterministic vs Stochastic
5. Single-agent vs Multi-agent
6. Episodic vs sequential
7. Known vs Unknown
8. Accessible vs Inaccessible

Fundamentals of AI and ML 23
1. Fully observable vs Partially Observable:

• If an agent sensor can sense or access the complete state of an environment at each point in
time then it is a fully observable environment
• An agent with no sensors in all environments then such an environment is called unobservable.

2. Deterministic vs Stochastic:

• If an agent's current state and selected action can completely determine the next state of the
environment, then such an environment is called a deterministic environment. Chess is a classic
example of a deterministic environment.
• A stochastic environment is random and cannot be determined completely by an agent. For
reference, The stock market is an example of a stochastic environment.

3. Episodic vs Sequential:

• In an episodic environment, there is a series of one-shot actions, and only the current percept
is required for the action. For example, Tic-Tac-Toe is a classic example of an episodic
environment.
• However, in a Sequential environment, an agent requires memory of past actions to determine
the next best actions.
• For example, Chess is an example of a sequential environment.

4. Single-agent vs Multi-agent

• If only one agent is involved in an environment, and operating by itself then such an
environment is called a single-agent environment.
• However, if multiple agents are operating in an environment, then such an environment is
called a multi-agent environment.

5. Static vs Dynamic:

• If the environment can change itself while an agent is deliberating then such an environment is
called a dynamic environment it is called a static environment.
• However, for a dynamic environment, agents need to keep looking at the world at each action.
• For reference, Taxi driving is an example of a dynamic environment.
• When you're driving a taxi, the environment is constantly changing. The road conditions,
traffic, pedestrians, and other vehicles all contribute to the dynamic nature of this environment.

6. Discrete vs Continuous:

• If in an environment, there are a finite number of percepts and actions that can be performed
within it, then such an environment is called a discrete environment

Fundamentals of AI and ML 24
 • Chess is an example of a discrete environment. In chess, there are a finite number of distinct
chess pieces (e.g., pawns, rooks, knights) and a finite number of squares on the chessboard.
• Controlling a robotic arm to perform precise movements in a factory setting is an example of
a continuous environment

7. Known vs Unknown

• In a known environment, the results of all actions are known to the agent. While in an unknown
environment, an agent needs to learn how it works in order to perform an action.
• The opening theory in chess can be considered as a known environment for experienced chess
players.
• Imagine a scenario where a rover or drone is sent to explore an alien planet with no prior
knowledge or maps of the terrain can be considered as unknown environment

8. Accessible vs Inaccessible

• If an agent can obtain complete and accurate information about the state's environment, then
such an environment is called an Accessible environment
• For example, Imagine an empty room equipped with highly accurate temperature sensors.
These sensors can provide real-time temperature measurements at any point within the room.
An agent placed in this room can obtain complete and accurate information about the
temperature at different locations
• For example, Consider a scenario where a satellite in space is tasked with monitoring a specific
event taking place on Earth, such as a natural disaster or a remote area's condition. While the
satellite can capture images and data from space, it cannot access fine-grained information
about the event's details.

Fundamentals of AI and ML 25