Casting
In the metal casting process, metal shapes are formed by pouring molten metal into a mould cavity,
where it is cooled and later extracted from the mold. Metal casting is arguably the earliest and
most influential industrial process in history. It’s used to make many of the metal objects used in
daily lives: automotive parts, train wheels, lamp posts, school bus pedals, and many more.
Casting is a solidification process, which means the solidification phenomenon controls most of
the properties of the casting. Moreover, most of the casting defects occur during solidification,
such as gas porosity and solidification shrinkage.
Solidification occurs in two steps: nucleation and crystal growth. In the nucleation stage, solid
particles form within the liquid. When these particles form, their internal energy is lower than the
surrounded liquid, which creates an energy interface between the two. The formation of the surface
at this interface requires energy, so as nucleation occurs, the material actually undercools (i.e. cools
below its solidification temperature) because of the extra energy required to form the interface
surfaces. It then recalescence or heats back up to its solidification temperature, for the crystal
growth stage. Nucleation occurs on a pre-existing solid surface because not as much energy is
required for a partial interface surface as for a complete spherical interface surface. This can be
advantageous because fine-grained castings possess better properties than coarse-grained castings.
A fine grain structure can be induced by grain refinement or inoculation, which is the process of
adding impurities to induce nucleation.
The Metal Casting Process
Pattern -A pattern is a replica of the exterior of the casting. Patterns are typically made of wood,
metal, plastic or plaster. Pattern making is incredibly important for industrial part-making, where
precise calculations are needed to make pieces fit and work together.
Core – If a casting is hollow, an additional piece of sand or metal (called a core) shapes the internal
form to make it hollow. Cores are typically strong yet collapsible so they can be easily removed
from the finished casting.
Moulding –To visualize the metal casting process so far, imagine yourself walking on the beach
toward the ocean. Look at a footprint you leave behind in the wet sand. Your foot would be the
core, and the impression left in the sand is a mould of your foot. Moulding is a multistep process
that will form a cast around the pattern using moulding sand. In casting, a mould is contained in a
frame called a flask. Green sand or moulding sand, is packed into the flask around the pattern. This
is known as metal sand casting. Once the sand is packed tight, the pattern can be removed and the
cast will remain. Alternatively, a two-piece, non-destructible metal mould can be created so that
the mould can be used repeatedly to cast identical parts for industrial applications.
Melting and Pouring Molten Metal – After metal is melted, it is poured into the cavity of the
mould and left to solidify. Once solidified, the shakeout process begins: the moulds undergo
vibration to remove sand from the casting. In industrial applications, equipment like Two-Mass
Shakeouts keeps production output high because of its efficient and smooth performance.
Removed sand is typically collected, cooled, and reclaimed to be used once more in future castings.
Sand Casting Conditioner improves this process of sand separation from castings by removing and
cooling sand and castings and evaporating moisture, while alleviating the casting damage that is
common during this point of the process. The end results are a clean cast and sand ready for the
reclamation process.
Cleaning – In this final step, the cast metal object is removed from the mould and then fettled.
During the fettling, the object is cleaned of any moulding material, and rough edges are removed.
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Patternmaker's shrink
Shrinkage after solidification can be dealt with by using slightly oversized pattern designed
specifically for the alloy used. Contraction rules, or shrink rules, are used to make the patterns
oversized to compensate for this type of shrinkage. These rulers are up to 2.5% oversize, depending
on the material being cast. These rulers are mainly referred to by their percentage change. A pattern
made to match an existing part would be made as follows: First, the existing part would be
measured using a standard ruler, then when constructing the pattern, the pattern maker would use
a contraction rule, ensuring that the casting would contract to the correct size. Note that
patternmaker's shrinkage does not take phase change transformations into account. For example,
eutectic reactions, martensitic reactions, and graphitization can cause expansions or contractions.
Typical patternmaker's shrinkage of various metals
Metal Percentage in/ft
Aluminium 1.0–1.3 1⁄8–5⁄32
Brass 1.5 3⁄16
Magnesium 1.0–1.3 1⁄8–5⁄32
Cast iron 0.8–1.0 1⁄10–1⁄8
Steel 1.5–2.0 3⁄16–1⁄4
There are three types of shrinkage: shrinkage of the liquid, shrinkage of solidifying metal and
patternmaker's shrinkage. The shrinkage of the liquid is rarely a problem because more material is
flowing into the mould behind it. Solidification shrinkage occurs because metals are less dense as
a liquid than a solid, so during solidification the metal density dramatically increases.
Patternmaker's shrinkage refers to the shrinkage that occurs when the material is cooled from the
solidification temperature to room temperature, which occurs due to thermal contraction.
Solidification shrinkage
Most materials shrink as they solidify, at different rates while few materials do not, such as gray
cast iron. For the materials that do shrink upon solidification the type of shrinkage depends on how
wide the freezing range is for the material. For materials with a narrow freezing range, less than
50 °C (122 °F), a cavity, known as a pipe, forms in the center of the casting, because the outer
shell freezes first and progressively solidifies to the center. Pure and eutectic metals usually have
narrow solidification ranges. These materials tend to form a skin in open air moulds, therefore they
are known as skin forming alloys. For materials with a wide freezing range, greater than 110 °C
(230 °F), much more of the casting occupies the mushy or slushy zone (the temperature range
between the solidus and the liquidus), which leads to small pockets of liquid trapped throughout
and ultimately porosity. These castings tend to have poor ductility, toughness, and fatigue
resistance. Moreover, for these types of materials to be fluid-tight, a secondary operation is
required to impregnate the casting with a lower melting point metal or resin.
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Solidification shrinkage of various metals
Metal Percentage
Aluminium 6.6
Copper 4.9
Magnesium 4.0 or 4.2
Zinc 3.7 or 6.5
Low carbon steel 2.5–3.0
High carbon steel 4.0
White cast iron 4.0–5.5
Gray cast iron −2.5–1.6
Ductile cast iron −4.5–2.7
Modern Day Castings
Nearly every mechanical device in use, from automobiles to washing machines are manufactured
using metal parts that were created using the casting process. The difference between today’s cast
metal products and those that were manufactured many years ago is the precision and tolerances
that can be achieved through the computerized automated design process, and modern methods for
producing the detailed cores and moulds. Modern-day metal casting represents innovation at work.
Throughout the centuries, various combinations of raw materials have been developed to produce
various metal types. Some cast products are used in engines that require a high tolerance for heat
and cold. Cast iron pipes must resist corrosion and high pressures. Other cast parts must be
lightweight but durable. In many applications, parts are designed to allow for precise tolerance
between expansion and contraction.
A simple gating system for a horizontal parting mold.
Terminology
Metal casting processes uses the following terminology:
Pattern: An approximate duplicate of the final casting used to form the mould cavity.
Moulding material: The material that is packed around the pattern and then the pattern is removed
to leave the cavity where the casting material will be poured.
Flask: The rigid wood or metal frame that holds the moulding material.
Cope: The top half of the pattern, flask, mould, or core.
Drag: The bottom half of the pattern, flask, mould, or core.
Core: An insert in the mould that produces internal features in the casting, such as holes.
Core print: The region added to the pattern, core, or mould used to locate and support the core.
Mould cavity: The combined open area of the moulding material and core, where the metal is
poured to produce the casting.
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Riser: An extra void in the mould that fills with molten material to compensate for shrinkage
during solidification.
Gating system: The network of connected channels that deliver the molten material to the mould
cavities.
Pouring cup or pouring basin: The part of the gating system that receives the molten material
from the pouring vessel.
Sprue: The pouring cup attaches to the sprue, which is the vertical part of the gating system. The
other end of the sprue attaches to the runners.
Runners: The horizontal portion of the gating system that connects the sprues to the gates.
Gates: The controlled entrances from the runners into the mould cavities.
Vents: Additional channels that provide an escape for gases generated during the pour.
Parting line or parting surface: The interface between the cope and drag halves of the mould,
flask, or pattern.
Draft: The taper on the casting or pattern that allow it to be withdrawn from the mould
Core box: The mould or die used to produce the cores.
Chaplet: Long vertical holding rod for core that after casting it become the integral part of casting,
provide the support to the core.
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Types of casting
Sand casting
Sand casting is one of the most popular and simplest types of casting, and has been used for
centuries. Sand casting allows for smaller batches than permanent mould casting and at a very
reasonable cost. Not only does this method allow manufacturers to create products at a low cost,
but there are other benefits to sand casting, such as very small-size operations. The process allows
for castings small enough fit in the palm of one's hand to those large enough for a train car bed
(one casting can create the entire bed for one rail car). Sand casting also allows most metals to be
cast depending on the type of sand used for the moulds. Sand casting requires a lead time of days,
or even weeks sometimes, for production at high output rates (1–20 pieces/hr-mold) and is
unsurpassed for large-part production. Green (moist) sand, which is black in colour, has almost no
part weight limit, whereas dry sand has a practical part mass limit of 2,300–2,700 kg (5,100–
6,000 lb). Minimum part weight ranges from 0.075–0.1 kg (0.17–0.22 lb). The sand is bonded
using clays, chemical binders, or polymerized oils (such as motor oil). Sand can be recycled many
times in most operations and requires little maintenance.
Loam moulding
Loam moulding has been used to produce large symmetrical objects such as cannon and church
bells. Loam is a mixture of clay and sand with straw or dung. A model of the produced is formed
in a friable material (the chemise). The mould is formed around the chemise by covering it with
loam. This is then baked (fired) and the chemise removed. The mould is then stood upright in a pit
in front of the furnace for the molten metal to be poured. Afterwards the mould is broken off.
Moulds can thus only be used once, so that other methods are preferred for most purposes.
Lost-Foam Casting
Lost-foam casting method is similar to investment casting with the difference that it uses foam for
the pattern instead of wax. Once the pattern is formed, coating with a refractory ceramic takes
place by dipping, coating, spraying or brushing. Then, the molten metal is poured into the mould
to form the desired product.
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This technique can be used for various materials like alloy steel, carbon steel, alloy cast iron,
ferrous alloy, etc. In particular, products like pump housing, fire hydrants, valves, and fittings are
made through the lost-foam casting process.
Lost foam casting possesses numerous advantages which include high precision and high accuracy
production. However, there are a few limitations of this process that makes it unsuitable for low-
volume applications.
Advantages Disadvantages
High precision casting High pattern costs for low volume production
Allows flexible design Low strength causes distortion or damage of the pattern
Clean production Many production processes and longer delivery time
Economic for high volume production
Vacuum Casting
Vacuum casting, as the name suggests, is the type of casting where production occurs under
vacuum pressure of 100 bar or less to exhaust gas from the mold cavity. In this process, molten
metal is poured into the mould cavity inside a vacuum chamber in order to eliminate bubbles and
air pockets. The vacuum evacuation of the die cavity reduces the entrapment of gases within the
cavity during the metal injection process. Finally, the metal is cured in a heating chamber and
removed from the mold.
The vacuum die casting process is popular in various industries including automobiles, aerospace,
electronics, marine, telecommunication, etc. As a result, some components fabricated by this
manufacturing process include structural chassis components and automotive body parts.
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Advantages Disadvantages
Reduce porosity, improve mechanical properties and surface
High tooling cost
quality of die casting
The mold used in the process has a
Production of thin-walled products
short life
Welding and heat treatment of products is possible Potential hollowness issues
Suitable for low volume production
No requirement for expensive hard tool finishing
Diminishes air pockets and bubbles at early stages
Shell moulding
Shell molding is similar to sand casting, but the molding cavity is formed by a hardened "shell" of
sand instead of a flask filled with sand. The sand used is finer than sand casting sand and is mixed
with a resin so that it can be heated by the pattern and hardened into a shell around the pattern.
Because of the resin and finer sand, it gives a much finer surface finish. The process is easily
automated and more precise than sand casting. Common metals that are cast include cast iron,
aluminium, magnesium, and copper alloys. This process is ideal for complex items that are small
to medium-sized.
Investment casting
Investment casting (known as lost-wax casting in art) is a process that has been practiced for
thousands of years, with the lost-wax process being one of the oldest known metal forming
techniques. From 5000 years ago, when beeswax formed the pattern, to today's high technology
waxes, refractory materials, and specialist alloys, the castings ensure high-quality components are
produced with the key benefits of accuracy, repeatability, versatility, and integrity.
Investment casting derives its name from the fact that the pattern is invested, or surrounded, with
a refractory material. The wax patterns require extreme care for they are not strong enough to
withstand forces encountered during the mould making. One advantage of investment casting is
that the wax can be reused.
The process is suitable for repeatable production of net shape components from a variety of
different metals and high-performance alloys. Although generally used for small castings, this
process has been used to produce complete aircraft door frames, with steel castings of up to 300 kg
and aluminium castings of up to 30 kg. Compared to other casting processes such as die casting or
sand casting, it can be an expensive process. However, the components that can be produced using
investment casting can incorporate intricate contours, and in most cases the components are cast
near net shape, so require little or no rework once cast.
An investment-cast valve cover
Evaporative-pattern casting
This is a class of casting processes that use pattern materials that evaporate during the pour, which
means there is no need to remove the pattern material from the mould before casting. The two
main processes are lost-foam casting and full-mould casting.
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Full-mould casting
Full-mold casting is an evaporative-pattern casting process which is a combination of sand casting
and lost-foam casting. It uses an expanded polystyrene foam pattern which is then surrounded by
sand, much like sand casting. The metal is then poured directly into the mold, which vaporizes the
foam upon contact.
Non-expendable mold casting
The permanent moulding casting process
Non-expendable mould casting differs from expendable processes in that the moulds need not be
reformed after each production cycle. This technique includes at least four different methods:
permanent, die, centrifugal, and continuous casting. This form of casting also results in improved
repeatability in parts produced and delivers near net shape results.
Permanent mould casting
Permanent mold casting is a metal casting process that employs reusable moulds (permanent
moulds), usually made from metal. The most common process uses gravity to fill the mould.
However, gas pressure or a vacuum are also used. A variation on the typical gravity casting
process, called slush casting, produces hollow castings. Common casting metals are aluminum,
magnesium, and copper alloys. Other materials include tin, zinc, and lead alloys and iron and steel
are also cast in graphite moulds. Permanent moulds, while lasting more than one casting still have
a limited life before wearing out.
Die casting
The die casting process forces molten metal under high pressure into mould cavities (which are
machined into dies). Most die castings are made from nonferrous metals, specifically zinc, copper,
and aluminium-based alloys, but ferrous metal die castings are possible. The die casting method
is especially suited for applications where many small to medium-sized parts are needed with good
detail, a fine surface quality and dimensional consistency.
Semi-solid metal casting
Semi-solid metal (SSM) casting is a modified die casting process that reduces or eliminates the
residual porosity present in most die castings. Rather than using liquid metal as the feed material,
SSM casting uses a higher viscosity feed material that is partially solid and partially liquid. A
modified die casting machine is used to inject the semi-solid slurry into reusable hardened steel
dies. The high viscosity of the semi-solid metal, along with the use of controlled die filling
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conditions, ensures that the semi-solid metal fills the die in a non-turbulent manner so that harmful
porosity can be essentially eliminated. Used commercially mainly for aluminium and magnesium
alloys. The combination of heat treatment, fast cooling rates (from using uncoated steel dies) and
minimal porosity provides excellent combinations of strength and ductility. Other advantages of
SSM casting include the ability to produce complex shaped parts net shape, pressure tightness,
tight dimensional tolerances and the ability to cast thin walls.
Plaster mould casting
Plaster casting is similar to sand casting except that Plaster of Paris is used instead of sand as a
mould material. Generally, the form takes less than a week to prepare, after which a production
rate of 1–10 units/hr-mould is achieved, with items as massive as 45 kg (99 lb) and as small as
30 g (1 oz) with very good surface finish and close tolerances. Plaster casting is an inexpensive
alternative to other moulding processes for complex parts due to the low cost of the plaster and its
ability to produce near net shape castings. The biggest disadvantage is that it can only be used with
low melting point non-ferrous materials, such as aluminium, copper, magnesium, and zinc.[6]
Advantages and disadvantages of plaster casting;
Advantages Disadvantages
The process tends to be more expensive than most casting
Smooth surface finish
operations
Greater dimensional accuracy than
Limited applications to aluminum and copper-based alloys
sand casting
The ability to cast complex shapes May require frequent replacements of the plaster molding
with thin walls material
Not suitable for high melting materials
Longer cooling times, effecting production rates
Unstable material as compared to sand, which can affect
the complete process
Centrifugal casting
In this process molten metal is poured in the mould and allowed to solidify while the mould is
rotating. Metal is poured into the center of the mould at its axis of rotation. Due to inertial force,
the liquid metal is thrown out toward the periphery.
Centrifugal casting is both gravity and pressure independent since it creates its own force feed
using a temporary sand mould held in a spinning chamber. Lead time varies with the application.
Semi- and true-centrifugal processing permit 30–50 pieces/hr-mould to be produced, with a
practical limit for batch processing of approximately 9000 kg total mass with a typical per-item
limit of 2.3–4.5 kg. Industrially, the centrifugal casting of railway wheels was an early application
of the method developed by the German industrial company Krupp and this capability enabled the
rapid growth of the enterprise. Small art pieces such as jewelry are often cast by this method using
the lost wax process, as the forces enable the rather viscous liquid metals to flow through very
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small passages and into fine details such as leaves and petals. This effect is similar to the benefits
from vacuum casting, also applied to jewelry casting. However, it is not suitable for all kinds of
metal alloys.
Advantages Disadvantages
Centrifugal casting requires high
Improved process yields and reduced wastage
investments
Casting has high density and almost no defects Requirement of skilled labor
The process is convenient to manufacture barrel and sleeve
Specific shapes production
composite metal castings
No requirement of gates and risers
Continuous casting
Continuous casting is a refinement of the casting process for the continuous, high-volume
production of metal sections with a constant cross-section. It's primarily used to produce a semi-
finished products for further processing. Molten metal is poured into an open-ended, water-cooled
mould, which allows a 'skin' of solid metal to form over the still-liquid center, gradually solidifying
the metal from the outside in. After solidification, the strand, as it is sometimes called, is
continuously withdrawn from the mould. Predetermined lengths of the strand can be cut off by
either mechanical shears or traveling oxyacetylene torches and transferred to further forming
processes, or to a stockpile. Cast sizes can range from strip (a few millimeters thick by about five
meters wide) to billets (90 to 160 mm square) to slabs (1.25 m wide by 230 mm thick). Sometimes,
the strand may undergo an initial hot rolling process before being cut. Continuous casting is used
due to the lower costs associated with continuous production of a standard product, and also
increased quality of the final product. Metals such as steel, copper, aluminum and lead are
continuously cast, with steel being the metal with the greatest tonnages cast using this method.
Generally, the products created using continuous casting are homogeneous, consistent and dense.
However, it also limits its use to such applications. Other advantages and disadvantages are:
Advantages Disadvantages
Diverse size range of casting products varying Requirement of continuous cooling of the
from a few millimeters thick strip to larger billets molds, otherwise, center-line shrinkage
and slabs develops
Casting of only simple shapes with a constant
Lower costs due to continuous production
cross-section
Requires large ground space and high initial
Lower material wastage
investment
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Upcasting
The upcasting (up-casting, upstream, or upward casting) is a method of either vertical or horizontal
continuous casting of rods and pipes of various profiles (cylindrical, square, hexagonal, slabs etc.)
of 8-30mm in diameter. Copper (Cu), bronze (Cu·Sn alloy), nickel alloys are usually used because
of greater casting speed (in case of vertical upcasting) and because of better physical features
obtained. The advantage of this method is that metals are almost oxygen-free and that the rate of
product crystallization (solidification) may be adjusted by in a crystallizer - a high-temperature
resistant device that cools a growing metal rod or pipe by using water.
The method is comparable to Czochralski method of growing silicon (Si) crystals, which is a
metalloid.
Casting Defects
There are a number of problems that can be encountered during the casting process. The main
types are:
-gas porosity, shrinkage defects, mould material defects, pouring metal defects and metallurgical
defects.
Shell Moulding
Shell moulding is an expendable mould casting process. It is similar to the sand-casting process
except for that the hardened shell of sand forms the mould cavity instead of a flask of sand. The
sand used is finer than that utilized in sand casting and it is mixed with a resin so that it can be heat
treated and hardened into the shell around the pattern.
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Shell moulding are used for industrial products such as gearbox housing, connecting rod, small-
size boats, truck hoods, cylindrical heads, camshafts, valve bodies, etc.
The casting products possess a good surface finish and dimensional accuracy. However, the
limitation of this kind of casting includes the size and weight limitation of the parts. Some other
advantages and disadvantages include:
Advantages Disadvantages
Casting of thin and complex
Not suitable for small scale production
parts
Semi-skilled labor Limitations on size and weight
Special metal pattern required which makes it expensive for large
No further machining required
casting
Accounts for surface defects
Squeezing Casting
Liquid forging or squeeze casting is a hybrid metal forming process that merges permanent mould
casting and die forging in a single step. In this process, a specific amount (metered) of molten
metal alloy is injected into a die and pressure is applied to shape it. Then, the metal part is heated
over melting temperature and extracted from the die.
Example of squeeze casting
Particularly, squeezing die casting is a potential casting process for safety-critical parts in
automotive systems. For example, space frame joints, aluminum front steering knuckles, chassis
frames, brackets, or nodes.
This type of metal casting combines the benefits of casting and forging processes while eliminating
the casting defects. For example, the high pressure applied during solidification helps prevent
shrinkage and porosities. However, due to specific tooling requirements, it is not as popular as
other casting processes for mass production.
Advantages Disadvantages
Eliminates internal defects like pores, shrinkage
Less flexibility in part geometry
holes and shrinkage porosity
Low surface roughness Lower productivity
It can prevent casting cracks High machining requirements
Requires accurate controlling, slowing down
High strength components
the overall process
No wastage of material
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Casting process simulation
A high-performance software for the simulation of casting processes provides opportunities for an
interactive or automated evaluation of results (here, for example, of mould filling and
solidification, porosity and flow characteristics). Casting process simulation uses numerical
methods to calculate cast component quality considering mould filling, solidification and cooling,
and provides a quantitative prediction of casting mechanical properties, thermal stresses and
distortion. Simulation accurately describes a cast component's quality up-front before production
starts. The casting rigging can be designed with respect to the required component properties. This
has benefits beyond a reduction in pre-production sampling, as the precise layout of the complete
casting system also leads to energy, material, and tooling savings. The software supports the user
in component design, the determination of melting practice and casting method through to pattern
and mould making, heat treatment, and finishing. This saves costs along the entire casting
manufacturing route. Casting process simulation was developed and is regarded as the most
important innovation in casting technology over the last 50 years. Since the late '80s, commercial
programs are available which make it possible for foundries to gain new insight into what is
happening inside the mould or die during the casting process.
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