15-02-2023

Lecture 1:
*Key Concepts in Second Language Acquisition*
*What is Language Acquisition and Language Learning?*

The key words in this course title are *language acquisition* and *language learning.*
Another key term is *English as a second language.*
We want to examine each of these terms to get some understanding, and to relate these two
terms to the second language environment.
Language Acquisition is the process by which people acquire the capacity to perceive and
comprehend language. It also involves the capacity to produce and use words to communicate.
Language acquisition is a process which is innate in all humans. Every normal human being is
born with the capacity to acquire the language that is spoken in the immediate environment of
their birth. Language acquisition is thus a primary skill that every human being possesses.
Language acquisition is of two types:
 First language acquisition, and
 Second language acquisition.
First language acquisition is a natural process universally recognised as the way humans
acquire the structure and system of their native language or first language. First language is
always acquired but never taught. It is a process of gaining language knowledge naturally. The
first language or L1 is otherwise known as the mother-tongue or native language.
Second language acquisition, on the other hand, involves the motivation to learn another
language other than the mother-tongue. There are many reasons why people acquire a second
language. It may be as a result of imposition in cases where nations adopt an external language
as an official or national language, and citizens have to learn the second language. A second
language may also be needed for educational, transactional, diplomatic, religious or political
purposes.
*Language Learning*
As the name implies, this involves a conscious process whereby speakers of a language are
actively involved in obtaining some level of proficiency (knowledge) of either a first language
(L1) or a second language (L2). Language learning begins at birth and continues through the life
of a speaker. In other words, language learning is a continuous process. So, in a way, we may say
that though the first language is acquired naturally, speakers must also go through a continuous
process of progressive *learning* of the intrinsic structure and system of the language.
Language learning thus promotes effective communication and increases speakers’
understanding of the nuances of a particular language.
Language acquisition may also be seen as a concept used to describe the process whereby
children become speakers of their native language (L1 or mother-tongue). It is also the process
by which both children and adults acquire or become speakers of a second language (L2
acquisition) (Malinkjer 2004: 286). While language acquisition is largely unconscious, language
learning involves direct instruction and is often achieved through a formal system.
First Language acquisition normally entails an unconscious but natural process where the
learner is able to speak the language at the attainment of the required age; as long as the language
is being spoken in that environment. First language acquisition occurs irrespective of any
difference in race, class, or culture of the language itself.
After acquiring a language, a learner proceeds to obtain knowledge of the rules of the
language. This is why language learning is regarded as the conscious knowledge which the
learner acquires through instruction. Thus, we can see that there is a thin line between language
acquisition and language learning. One is conscious and deliberate, while the other is a natural
process.
A number of issues and controversies have emerged over the years, which have attracted the
attention of linguists, psychologists, and behaviourists. These issues have inspired research in
second language learning. For instance, linguists like B. F. Skinner and Noam Chomsky have
examined how humans acquire language in the 20th century. Skinner (the behaviourist) claims
that all the child learns about language is acquired through the same mechanisms as other forms
of knowledge. Chomsky, on the other hand, argues that there is some *innate* knowledge of
*language forms* which all human children have that predisposes them to learning. He further
affirms that what children are exposed to in the language is not enough to explain the complexity
of the linguistic rules which enable language learners to produce and understand language.
Other linguists have argued that children do not just learn through imitation or analogy, but
through a knowledge of linguistic rules (Dunham and Lobeck, 2010). Studies in language
acquisition by children show that children acquire language relatively quickly, at relatively the
same rate across languages and cultures. It is noted though, that children do not go through the
stages at the same time or in the same way.
*Language Learning*
Language learning or language acquisition is a concept used to describe the capacity of
humans to perceive and comprehend language. It also refers to the capacity to produce and use
words to communicate in a specific language. Language learning accounts for the ability of
children to become speakers of their native language (L1).
The term ‘language learning’ also refers to the process whereby both children and adults
may become speakers of a second language (L2) (Malinkjer, 2004:286).
 The earliest record of first language acquisition is credited to the German biologist,
Tiedenann (1787), as part of a study on child development (Campbell and Wales, 1970).
*Second Language Learner*
A second language learner already possesses a first language (L1). Therefore, we cannot rule
out the influence of the first language on the second language learned A second language (L2) is
the language to which a language learner is exposed after having acquired a first language or L1.
Thus, the process of acquiring the L2 differs from that of the L1.
An adult L2 learner, having acquired an L1, is always conscious of the cultural codes and
rules of the L1. These cultural codes may aid or hinder the L2 learning. The L2 learner may have
been exposed to a way of using language which is learned in school. Thus, the L1 learner’s
understanding of grammatical concepts and terms may affect his L2 learning process. This is a
what necessitates the issue of *metalanguage *
*Language Acquisition versus Bilingualism*
Language learning or language acquisition is not the same as bilingualism. Bilingualism is
the simultaneous acquisition of more than one L1. However, L2 learners often embark on the
learning of an additional language at least some years after acquiring the L1. Such learning may
be formal and systematic (e.g., in the classroom) or through informal means, such as work place
or migration. An L2 learner may be a child or an adult. The learning may be done formally in a
school where the ‘target language’ is acquired by picking it up in social interactions, at play or at
work.
*Motivation and Learning*
Motivation is an important concept in Second Language Learning. Motivation is the
learner’s orientation with the goal of learning an L2. It involves a learner’s identification of
factors which may prompt the learning process. Motivation has two basic types:
 -Integrative motivation, and
 -Instrumental motivation.
In integrative motivation, the learner has positive attitudes towards the target language
group. Such a learner often has the desire to *integrate* into the target language community.
In instrumental motivation, the goal is to gain some social or economic advantages through
L2 Learning. This refers to a more functional reason for L2 acquisition, for example, getting a
new job, traveling abroad, or achieving some educational or social landmark.
Generally, motivation is essential to L2 learning, and it is often conscious. Motivation points
to different reasons why speakers learn a language. Motivation often determines the speaker’s
level of success in the learning process. Another factor that aids L2 learning is the learner’s
identification with the cultural community where the language is spoken.
*Combining Integrative and instrumental motivation*
 We must however note that both integrative and instrumental motivation cannot be said to
be mutually exclusive. In other words, both may actually function in the same learning process.
In this regard, Brown (2000) observes that learners rarely select one form of motivation when
learning an L2. Instead, they actually opt for a combination of both orientations. He cites the
example of international students residing in a foreign country to learn English for academic
purposes while at the same time wishing to be integrated with the people and culture of their host
country.
*Integrative Vs Instrumental Motivation*
According to Ellis (1997), in some of the early research conducted by Gardner and Lamber,
integrative motivation was viewed as being more important in a formal learning environment
than instrumental motivation. He stresses however that instrumental motivation has only been
acknowledged as a significant factor in some researches. But integrative motivation is
continually linked to successful L2 acquisition. He argues that students generally select
instrumental reasons more frequently than integrative reasons for the study of language.
Motivation is an important factor in L2 acquisition; and both the types and their combination
assist in the successful acquisition of an L2.
*Reasons for learning an L2*
1. Helping learners become insiders in a local speech community and to speak the language
of wider communication.
2. To help learners gain access to economic development.
3. To increase global understanding.
4. To make travel more feasible and enjoyable.
5. To be able to appreciate international relations and culture.
6. To increase understanding of oneself and one’s own culture.
7. To make life-long friendships.
 22-02-2023
Lecture 2:
*Some other factors that influence second language acquisition*
*Gardener’s (1982) model of language acquisition*
*Socio-cultural Elements of SLA*
Many scholars have taken interest in the topic of language acquisition; and some have been
particularly interested in explaining what happens when an individual is attempting to acquire a
second language. As we mentioned earlier, the fact that a second language learner has already
acquired the system of a native or first language is a strong factor in determining the
performance of such an individual in a second language process.
We have identified motivation as a major driving tool for language acquisition. And the two
types of motivation – instrumental and integrative – stand at the centre of the language learner’s
task. In order to examine the effect of motivation on L2 learning, one must realize that
motivation combines with other factors to influence a learner’s success.
Let us look at 2 models of language learning which have been used to explain L2
acquisition:
1. *Mowrer’s (1950) model*
Mowrer’s model focuses on L1 acquisition and suggests that a child’s success when learning
L1 could be attributed to the desire to gain identity within the family unit. The second desire is to
gain identity within the wider language community.
2. *Gardner (1982) model*
Gardner identifies a number of interrelated factors in L2 learning. Gardener’s model
examines L2 acquisition in a structured classroom (a foreign language classroom) setting, rather
than a natural environment. He highlights 4 features of L2 acquisition. These are:
a) the social and cultural context
b) individual learner differences
c) the setting in which learning takes place, and;
d) linguistic outcomes
1. *The social or cultural context*
This is the environment in which an individual is situated, and this determines their beliefs
about other cultures and language; since these beliefs have significant impact on L2 acquisition.
For example, in a mono-cultural setting like Britain, many believe it is not necessary to learn
another language. They also believe that minority groups should assimilate and become
proficient in the dominant language of the country. However, in a country like Canada,
bilingualism and biculturalism are encouraged (Ellis, 1997).
2. *Individual learner differences*
Secondly, Gardner introduces 4 individual differences believe to be the most influential in
L2 acquisition. These are:
1. Intelligence,
2. Language aptitude,
3. Motivation, and;
4. Situation anxiety
(Giles & Coupland, 1991)
*3. The setting or context*
The setting or context in which learning takes place is closely interrelated with these
variables. Gardner identifies two contexts which affect language learning:
 formal instruction within the classroom; and
 unstructured language acquisition in a natural setting.
The impact of the individual learner differences and variables alter, depending upon the
context.
4. *Learning Outcomes*
The final phase is what Gardner identifies as linguistic and non-linguistic outcomes of the
learning process or experience. Linguistic outcomes are the actual *language knowledge* and
*language skills* that the learner acquires. These include test indices such as course grades,
assignments, or general proficiency tests. Non-linguistic outcomes are individuals’ attitudes
about cultural values and beliefs, usually towards the target language community.
In Gardner’s model, motivation as an important factor of second language acquisition has 3
major elements:
 *Effort:* This is the time spent studying the language and the drive of the learner.
 *Desire:* This is how much the learner wants to become proficient in the language.
 *Affect:* This is the learner’s emotional reaction with regard to language study .
*Elements of SLA*
 Interlanguage
 Fossilisation
 Transfer
 Interference
We have established the fact that many processes are involved in second language
acquisition. Language acquisition is essentially a behavioural process; therefore, we are able to
observe the way the language situation affects the learner as well as how the learners react to
their learning environment.
Let us examine these points fully.
1. *Interlanguage*
The term interlanguage (IL) was introduced by Larry Selinker (1972) to describe the
intermediate states of a learner’s [second] language acquisition process. These intermediate
states are otherwise known as ‘interim grammars.’ These are the stages through which a learner
passes in the journey to acquire a second language. As the learner moves gradually from a first
language to the target language, the learner goes through a process whereby they may need to
device an intermediate language which will help them transit from their L1 to the target
language. This is called learner language or interlanguage. Interlanguage describes the internal
system that the language learner constructs when learning the language and the subsequent
systems that he or she constructs over time, which define the learner’s progress.
Corder (1981) defines Interlanguage thus: “A separate linguistic system whose existence we
are compelled to hypothesize, based upon observed output and high results from the (second
language) learner’s output attempted production of a target language norm.”
In simpler terms, we can say that Interlanguage is the language which has been developed
by the learner of L2, who has not fully acquired or internalised its linguistic systems and
subsystems. The learner merely approximates to the target language, and preserves some features
of their first language in speaking or writing the target language.
According to Selinker, Interlanguage is a creative process, driven by the learner’s inner
forces of interaction with environmental factors. It is influenced both by the L1 as well as by
input from the target language. Selinker (1972) further affirms that an Interlanguage is not a
static process, but a dynamic one; it is a developmental continuum, which reveals increasing
complexity. Interlanguage operates by activating a psychological structure in the learner’s brain
when the L2 learning process begins.
In Interlanguage, the utterances produced by the learner are significantly different from
those which a native speaker is likely to produce. This indicates a distinct linguistic system
which produces different meaning. This is what we normally observe when we study the
utterances of learners who attempt to produce a target language norm.
*2. Fossilization*
We have established that Interlanguage is the product of a psycho-linguistic interaction
between two linguistic systems – the L1 or mother-tongue and the L2 or target language. There
comes a stage in the learning process where the learner’s learning ability reaches a peak, and is
unable to assimilate from the target language. This stage is known as *fossilization*
This is the stage where the learner retains items and rules from the L1 for use in the target
language. This is a result of inability of the learner to make further progress in accessing the
target language. This is the stage when the target language norms become ‘fossilized’; dead,
inactive in the L2 learner’s journey.
3. *Transfer*
 *4. Interference*
As the term suggests, interference is one of the linguistic features of second language
acquisition. The linguistic basis of interference is simply the fact that the learner has already
internalized the linguistic system of his/ her mother-tongue or first language. Thus, the first
language system tends to interfere with the new language system in the course of L2 acquisition.
This phenomenon occurs at every level of linguistic processing.
There are therefore many kinds of interference in L2 acquisition.
 Phonological interference
 Grammatical interference
 Syntactic interference
 Semantic interference
 Lexical interference
Apart from linguistic interference, we also have:
 Cultural interference.
Other types of Interference:
 Static versus Dynamic Interference
  Positive versus Negative Interference
Static Interference describes the relatively permanent influence of one of the bilingual’s
languages on the other. Static interference is thus most prominent in areas of accent, intonation
and sound production. Examples are the substitution of English /p/ with / f/ by Hausa speakers:
 “People” thus becomes /fifu/.
You will find similar examples by other Nigerian speakers of English.
Dynamic interference, on the other hand, recognises that features from one language are
transferred *temporarily* into the other language. A good example is the French word ‘salon’
which may be initially pronounced as ‘saloon’ by an African speaker. The same applies to the
French word ‘coup’ /ku:/ which may be pronounced with a final /p/ by an incompetent learner.
Positive or proactive interference occurs when language interference actually supports the
learning of the target language. For instance, when an English speaker learning French is able to
insert appropriate definite and indefinite articles before nouns.
The book- Le Livre
The class -La classe
Interference is deemed to be negative or retroactive when language interference impedes or
detracts from L2 learning. For instance, in an opposite situation, if a Nigerian omits the definite
or indefinite article before nouns when speaking or writing in English. In some Nigerian
languages, the article system is non-existent, or operates in contrast to English. While Yoruba
places articles after the noun (e.g., ‘owo mi’ = my money). The reverse is the case in English.
 01-03-2023
Lecture 3:
*Components of Language Knowledge for Second Language Learning*
Previously, we have established the point that language acquisition entails the process of
accessing knowledge about another language. The acquisition of language knowledge confers on
the learner the ability to use the language in everyday interactions. This is what is generally
known as *competence* in language learning. Competence simply means the ability to do
something successfully or efficiently.
*Types of Competence*
When applied to SLA, competence is the ability to communicate or interact in any language.
There are different types of competence:
*L1 Competence*: Ability to use the mother-tongue or the first language to interact or
communicate in the same environment in which the speaker is born. L1 competence ideally
includes the broad repertoire of knowledge which a person needs in order to communicate
effectively and interact socially within the native language community. L1 competence is
therefore an integral part of a child’s socialization into their native language or mother-tongue
community. Generally, the simplest definition of *competence * is “everything that a speaker
needs to know in order to communicate appropriately within a particular community.” This
definition combines the knowledge of language and its appropriate use in communicative
activities. This, we recognize as *linguistic competence *.
It also includes the *knowledge of the culture* which considers the social significance of
the context of language use. Knowledge of culture includes content, context, societal structures,
and practices that influence norms and conventions of language use and interpretation. The
relationship of these two domains of competence is graphically illustrated below.
 Savior-Troike, 2006:134
The ability to use language appropriately is known as *pragmatic competence*. This may
be defined as “what people must know in order to interpret and convey meaning to it him
communicative situations” (ibid). This kind of knowledge accounts for the choices (words,
phrases, sentences) that speakers make, the constraints they encounter in using language socially,
and the effects of their language use on other participants in communicative acts (Crystal,
1997:301). The relationship of knowledge with domains of context, content, culture and
language structure is often dynamic, interactive and constitutive. Generally, language use plays
an essential role in the creation of these social features (i.e., context, content, structure, etc.).
*Academic Vs Interpersonal Competence*
In considering the purpose for which people learn a second language, we need to make a
distinction between at least 2 functional types of communicative competence.
These are:
 academic competence
 interpersonal competence
*Academic Competence*
Academic competence includes the knowledge which learners need to acquire in order to
learn about other subjects, apart from language. Academic competence is thus normally found in
people who are involved in scholarly research, or those who seek knowledge in a specific
profession or occupation. Academic competence involves the learner acquiring the specific
vocabulary of their field or subject area; and also developing knowledge that enables them to
read and comprehend relevant texts in their chosen area of study.
*Interpersonal Competence*
 Interpersonal competence, on the other hand, involves the acquisition of knowledge which is
needed to interact with others in face-to-face contact. As with academic competence, vocabulary
is the most important level of knowledge for these kinds of learners to acquire. It is worth noting,
however, that the domains of vocabulary involved differs in each case. L2 communicative
activities in academic and interpersonal competence vary in terms of the priorities for the major
language skills: readings, writing, listening and speaking. The table below shows how the
priorities for language skills differ in each case.

Reference: Saville-Troike, M. (2006:136) *Introducing Second Language Acquisition*

Generally, an important key to language learning is to acquire the language through
extensive practice (in spoken and written communication) and practical usage. These are usually
achievable through constant exposure to the target language on a daily basis.
*Receptive and Productive Learning Activities*
Language skills are broadly categorized into:
 -Reading
 -Writing
 -Speaking
 -Listening
These skills do not apply the same way in different learning situations. As the table above
shows, the order of priority for these skills differs in academic versus interpersonal competence.
 In order to understand these differences, scholars have classified language skills into
*Receptive* and *Productive* skills, depending on the specific activity to which they are being
applied, in either academic or interpersonal communication.
As the table shows, while reading and listening skills will be more needed as receptive skills
in academic competence, writing and speaking skills belong in productive competence when
academic communication is being activated. In interpersonal competence, we find that listening
and speaking skills fit more effectively as Receptive skills while learners will rely on reading and
writing as productive skills. These differences shows that successful SLA requires active practice
and engagement in its the social aspects of the language.
Further Reading: Saville-Troike, Muriel (2006,2009) Chapter 6: “Acquiring Knowledge for
L2 Use” (p.133-137; p.153-169).
 08-03-2023
*Lecture 4:*
Theories of SLA
Stages of SLA
*Theories of SLA*
 Behaviourism
 Universal Grammar
 Principles and Parameters
 Contrastive Analysis
 Error Analysis
Theories are generally useful in charting the course of language understanding. They
provide pathways to the systematic exploration of linguistic concepts and ideas. The major aim
of a linguistic theory is to characterize the nature of human languages (descriptive adequacy) and
to explain their specific or unique features (explanatory adequacy).
When applied to SLA, linguistic theory describes how language is produced by second
language learners, and explains the process of language production. Thus, theories may also be
regarded as Approaches to language study.
*Behaviourism*
The psychological theory known as Behaviourism was propounded by Watson (1924). Its
major claim that everything has to do with mental ability (including language use) can be
explained in terms of habits, or patterns of stimulus-response, built up through conditioning.
These patterns of behaviour are known as *Output*, and the conditioning through which
they are formed are known as *Input*. Output and Input are observable phenomena. The
learning of any skill is perceived as the formation of habits, in other words, the creation of
stimulus-response procedures, which become stronger with *reinforcement*
When applied to L1, the learners acquired a set of habits while learning to respond to stimuli
in his/ her environment. In the case of L2, however, the learner runs into a challenge because
he/she already has a mother-tongue, involving established habits. The L2 learning process thus
entails replacing those habits by a new set if habits. In this process, the L1 interferes with L2
acquisition, either by aiding or inhibiting it. Generally, if the structures in the L2 are similar to
those of the L1, learning will be easy. If the reverse is the case, learning will be difficult.
The behaviourist approach to learning centres around the belief that appropriate behaviour
can be taught through constant repetition of a task combined with feedback from the facilitator.
Positive feedback encourages and reinforces success while negative feedback and immediate
correction discourages the repetition of a mistake or undesirable behaviour.
 In 1927 Ivan Pavlov conducted a famous experiment with dogs. Pavlov 'taught' the animals
to salivate on hearing a ringing bell by linking the time of their feeding to the bell being rung.
Later he stopped feeding them in this way, but the dogs continued to salivate when they heard
the bell. In other words, the learned behaviour was a result of a sequence of events experienced,
rather than a conscious thought process.
Pavlov discovered what is now termed ‘classical conditioning’. This kind of conditioning
can be used to develop repetitive actions within training, for example, looking in the mirror and
putting your seatbelt on before driving off in a car. The association between stimulus-response
can be made more effective by reinforcement.
It is this idea that underpins the theory later developed by B.F. Skinner (1957).
Reinforcement can work in both positive and negative ways. A positive reinforcer is anything
that strengthens the desired response. In training, where the aim is learning, for example, this
might be stimulated by verbal praise, a good mark, or a feeling of achievement. On the other
hand, if verbal praise is withdrawn, this will have a negative effect and motivation to learn will
decrease.
*R. M. Gagné - Theory of Instruction*
A more recent proponent of the behaviourist approach can be found in the work of Gagné. In
his theory of instruction, Gagné suggests that learning takes place in a hierarchical way. He
proposes an eight-stage model, each stage of which is associated with a type of learning that
influences the way that instruction is delivered. Gagne says that learning at one level is only
possible if learning at a previous level has already taken place.
Gagné’s eight types of learning are:
1. *Signal learning/recognition* (recognising that something is happening).
2. *Stimulus/response learning* (learning the response to the stimulus).
3. *Motor chain learning* (learning the sequence of actions necessary).
4. *Verbal chain learning* (associating words in sequence).
5. *Multiple discrimination (choosing relevant responses to particular stimuli).*
6. *Concept learning* (making a common response to a class of stimuli).
7. *Acquisition of rules* (concepts joining together to guide behaviour).
8. *Problem solving* (combining rules to form a new capability).
Reference: Gagné R M. The Conditions of Learning (1977). New York: Holt, Rinehart
and Winston.
The behaviourist approach is also based on the view that there is one right way, one truth
that the student needs to learn, and that knowledge is the same for all learners. For this reason, it
emphasises teacher or trainer control; the trainer employs external reinforcement to motivate and
encourage trainees to reach the stated objectives.
*Universal Grammar in SLA*
 This theory was developed by the American linguist, NoamChomsky, and his numerous
followers over the last few decades. The approach of Universal Grammar (UG) claims that all
human beings inherit a universal set of *principles *and *parameters* that shape or control
language. Chomsky argues that the core of human language must comprise these two
components. The fundamental goal of Universal Grammar is to characterize or explain the innate
language facility.
*Principles*
There are certain universal principles that highly constrain language learning even before the
learning process begins.
These constraints make the language learning task manageable for the learner.
One of such principles is the principle of structure-dependency.
This principle state that language is organized in such a way that it essentially depends on
the structural relationships between elements in a sentence, such as words, phrases, morphemes,
etc. (Mitchell and Myles 2004)
For instance, morphemes the smallest meaningful units of meaning in language.
Morphemes are organized into words.
Words are organized into higher level structures or units which form the basis of language.
For example:
-Mary is sleeping.
-My teacher came here yesterday.
-The man who bought the car has vanished.
Each structure above is an illustration of structure and how each element of the structure is
dependent on others.
Most learners know this by intuition.
The knowledge that languages are structure-dependent is a critical aspect of human
languages.
*Parameters*
Parameters are simply the ways in which language may vary.
All languages behave differently in terms of their structural properties.
A typical example is the *Head Parameter* which defines the way in which phrases are
structured.
 It applies to phrases which are headed by lexical and functional categories. In other words,
these are known as content words and function words.
Each has a central
element called a *Head* In the case of a Noun Phrase, the Head is the noun,; in the case of a
verb phrase, the Head is the verb ( and in the case of an adverbial phrase, the Head is the adverb,
and so on.
The claim of Universal Grammar in respect to second language acquisition is that children
who are equipped with UG do not need to discover that language is structured into phrases
because this principle is already in their language competence.
 22-03-2023
Lecture 6
Continuation of
Theories of SLA
*Contrastive Analysis*

Contrastive analysis or hypothesis also called CA is the comparison of the linguistic system
of two or more languages and it is based on the main difficulties in learning a new language that
is caused by interference from the first language.

*What is contrastive analysis hypothesis in SLA?

What are its major limitations?

Contrastive analysis is a systematic study of comparison between two languages: the native
language (L1) and the target language (L2). Moon Researchers from the 1940s to the 1960s
conducted contrastive analyses, systematically comparing two languages.

They were motivated by the prospect of being able to identify points of similarity and
difference between L1 and L2.

In this connection, the researchers made some assumptions. In accordance with their
assumptions, the researchers came into a decision that the main difficulties in learning a new
language/ target language (TL) are caused by the interference of the native language(NL).

This interference is called the L1 interference.

Contrastive analysis(CA) can predict these difficulties which a learner faces in learning the
TL.
In his classic work *Linguistics Across Cultures*, Robert Lado attributes our difficulties
and errors in learning TL or a foreign language to the interference of our native language(NL) or
mother language (L1).
 According to Charles Fries, comparing a scientific description of L2 with a parallel
description of L1 is the most efficient material in SLA.

From the hypothetical point view, individuals or learners tend to transfer the forms and
meanings and the distribution of forms and meanings of their native language and culture to the
foreign language and culture- both productively and receptively.
All difficulties or differences in SLA or in learning the target language(TL) are not equal.

There is a degree of difficulty as well as degree of easiness. Where two languages are
similar, positive transfer occurs and where they are different, negative transfer, or interference is
result.
Eminent linguists Stockwell, Bowen and Marlin developed a hierarchy of difficulties on the
basis of this hypothesis. This is known as the Hierarchy of Difficulties.

Contrastive Analysis has two aspects-psychological and linguistic. The psychological aspect
is based upon the behaviourist theory.

Behaviourist theory/ behaviourism is a theory of psychology which states that human and
animal behaviour can and should be studied in psychological process only.

And the linguistic aspect is based upon structuralist linguistics. It is an approach to

linguistics which stresses the importance of language as a system and which investigates the
place those linguistic units such as sounds, words, and sentences have within this system.
*There are some limitations in Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis.*

As behaviourism as a theory fails, Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis also fails.

It ceases to exist.

CA is not effective in all responses.

CA is directly originated from behaviourism/ stimulus response theory.

 -Contrastive analysis suffers from under prediction and over prediction.
It cannot find out the errors which are committed by the learners due to overgeneralization.

-CA is inadequate to predict the interference problems of a language learner.

No uniformity is evident in Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis.

CA is unable to account for the failures or the success of the learners.

-CA does not analyze the language acquisition process in all the ways. It only analyzes with
linguistic approach.
*Thus Contrastive Analysis is a partial approach.*

- It is not acceptable as it cannot give a total idea of language acquisition.

- It does not say anything about psychological factors.

*Error Analysis*

Error Analysis is the first approach

to the study of SLA which included an internal focus on learners’ creative ability to
construct language.

It is based on the description and analysis of actual

learner errors in L2.

Error Analysis does not dwell on idealized linguistic structures which are attributed to native
speakers of L1 and L2.
 Error Analysis largely augmented or replaced Contrastive Analysis by the early 70s because
of the following developments:

1. Predictions made by CA did not always materialize in actual learner errors. Also, many
keener errors could not be attributed to transfer from L1 to L2.

2. As linguistic theory evolved, the focus on surface -level forms and patterns in EA shifted
to concern for underlying rules.

3. The behaviourist assumption that habit formation accounts for language acquisition was
seriously questioned by many linguists and psychologists. There was a shift to Mentalism
(Chomsky) in the explanation of language acquisition. Emphasis was on the innate capacity of
the language learner rather than on external influence.

4. The study of SLA was no longer motivated as strongly by teaching concerns as it has
been for Contrasting Analysis. L2 learning came to be perceived as being independent of L2
teaching to some extent. Researchers began to separate SLA issues from teaching concerns.
Learning processes became an important focus of study in their own right.
The most influential publication that launched Error Analysis as an approach to SLA was S.
Pit Corder’s (1967) article on “The Significance of Learner Errors”which calls on applied
linguists to focus on L2 learners’ errors not as bad habits to be able eradicated, but as sources of
insight into the learning process.
According to Corder, errors provide evidence of the system
of language which a learner is using at any particular point in the course of L2 development.

It also explores the strategies or procedures which the learner is using in accessing the target
language.
Corder argues that errors are windows into the language learner’s mind.

He further observes that the making of errors is a significant part of the learning process
itself.
 Errors are thus a sign that the learner is (perhaps unconsciously) exploring the new system,
rather than just experiencing interference from
old habits.
*Procedure for Analyzing Errors*

According to Ellis (1994), the procedure for analyzing errors include the following steps:

a) Collection of Samples of learner language.

b) Identification of Errors

c)Description of Errors

d) Explanation of Errors

e) Evaluation of Errors

*Further Reading*
Saville-Troike, M (2006) *Introducing Second Language Acquisition*
p.37-40
 Lecture 7:
*Stages of SLA*
Second Language acquisition is divided into 5 stages:
1. Preproduction
2. Early Production
3. Speech Emergence
4. Intermediate Fluency
5. Advanced Fluency
*1. Preproduction*

The first stage, preproduction, is also known as the *Silent Period.* Learners at this stage
have a receptive vocabulary of up to 500 words, but they do not yet speak their second language.
Not all learners go through a silent period.

Some learners start speaking straight away, although their output may consist of imitation
rather than creative language use.

Others may be required to speak from the start as part of a language course.

For learners that do go through a silent period, it may last around 3 to 6 months.
2. *Early Production*

The second stage of SLA is early production, during which learners are able to speak in
short phrases of one or two words.

They can also memorize chunks of language, although they may make mistakes when using
them.

Learners typically have both an active and receptive vocabulary of around 1000 words. This
stage normally lasts for around 6 months.
 3. *Speech Emergence*

The third stage is speech emergence. Learners’ vocabularies increase to around 3000 words
during this stage, and they can communicate using simple questions and phrases, but they may
often make grammatical errors.
4. *Intermediate Fluency*
The fourth stage is intermediate fluency. At this stage, learners have a vocabulary of around
6000 words, and they can use more complicated sentence structures. They are also able to share
their thoughts and opinions. Learners may make frequent errors with more complicated sentence
structures.
5. *Advanced Fluency*
The final stage is advanced fluency, which is typically reached somewhere between 5 and 10
years of learning the new language. Learners at this stage can function at a level close to native
speakers.
An important point to note in the consideration of all these 5 stages is that an effective way
to acquire language is through extensive and practical usage. This means that the learner must go
through a daily process of actually speaking and using the language. This involves a process of
repetition which is aimed at acquiring the needed competence in the language.
👇
*The importance of usage -based approaches in SLA*

A major tenet of usage-based approaches is that *language has to be learned on the basis of
experience*, because no innate linguistic representations are assumed. Therefore, a number of
studies were conducted that showed that children’s early competence was limited.
Usage-based approaches are inspired by studies on the generalization skills of infants and
young children.

Thus, the focus on usage-based approach changes from emphasizing the limited productivity
of early child language to the study of the *exact learning mechanisms*
In applying the usage-based approach, a learner has to be well-versed in the grammar of the
language, which includes *learning and using* the phonological, syntactic,semantic aspects of
the language and using them appropriately.
 29-03-2023
Lecture 7:
Frameworks for the study of SLA
Interest in the study of SLA dates back many centuries.
However, it was the 1960s that witnessed the formulation of systematic theories and models
that sought to address the basic questions in the field of second language, such as:
-what exactly does the L2 learner know?
-How does the learner acquire the knowledge of a second language?
- Why are some learners more successful than others ?
The different approaches to the study of SLA can be categorized broadly into:
-Linguistic
- Psychological and;
-Social frameworks

We shall examine each of these in some detail. But we must note that there are extensive
interrelationships among them.
*Background*

Before the 1960s, major interest in SLA focused almost exclusively on foreign language
teaching.

The dominant linguistic model throughout the 1950a was *Structuralism* (Bloomfield and
others), which emphasized the description of different levels of speech production:
Phonology (sound systems)
Morphology (word processing and composition)
Syntax (grammatical relationships of words within sentences)and;
Lexicon(vocabulary)
The most influential cognitive model of learning which was applied to SLA at that period
was *Behaviourism* (Skinner, 1957), which emphasized the notion of habit formation resulting
from Stimuli- Response —Reinforcement (SRR).
 Stimuli from the environment (such as linguistic imput);
Responses to those stimuli and;
Reinforcement if the responses resulted in some desired outcome.

According to the behaviorism theory, repeated S-R-R sequences are “learned” ( that is,
strong habits lead to learning)
Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory (1962 in English translation) was also widely accepted as a
learning theory by mid-century.

It emphasizes interaction with other people as critical to the learning process.

The socio-cultural perspective is still influential in SLA approaches which focus on the role
of input and interaction.
Most of the important theoretical frameworks which have been influential to SLA
approaches are highlighted below.

They are arranged by the discipline with which each is primarily associated, as well as the
period in which these theories attained prominence.👇👇
 Saville-Troike, (2006: 24)
Each of these theoretical directions are discussed fully in the chapters indicated.
Let us examine these frameworks and their major components👇
*The Linguistic Framework*
The linguistic framework basically has two focal points for the study of SLA since 1960.
These are:
*Internal and External focus*

The internal focus has been based mainly on the work of Noam Chomsky and his followers.
This perspective affirms that the goal of SLA study is to account for speakers’ internalised,
underlying knowledge of language. This is known as *linguistic competence* .
 This is a clear opposition to the description of surface forms as was some earlier in
Structuralism.

The *external focus* for the study of SLA has emphasized actual language use, the
functions of language which are realized in speakers’ language production at different stages of
development( as in stages of SLA we discussed in the last class)
Under the Internal focus, the linguistic frameworks are:
-Chomsky’s Generative Grammar (1957,1965)
This was followed by:
-Principles and Parameters Model and;
-the Minimalist Program , also by Noam Chomsky.
In the external focus, the most influential linguistic frameworks which are contributing to
SLA are categorized within *Functionalism*
This approach dates back to the early 20th century and it has its roots in the Prague School
of Eastern Europe.
This perspective differs from the Chomskyan frameworks in terms of emphasizing the
information content of utterances, and in considering language primarily as a system of
communication.
Approaches based on the functional framework are quite dominant in Europe studies of SLA
and are widely followed in otter parts of the world.
*The Psychological Framework*
There have been three points of focus in the psychological framework of SLA studies:
-Language and the brain
-Learning processes and;
-Learner differences
*Language and the brain*
Languages and the brain
The focus on location and representation of language in the brain has been of interest to
biologists and psychologists since the 19th century.

The field of Neurolinguistics was one of the first to influence cognitive perspectives on SLA
with the onset of systematic studies in the 1960s.
 One of the prominent perspectives in this framework is Lenneberg (1967) who argued that
there is a *critical period* for language acquisition and that this has a neurological basis.

Much of SLA studies which are age-related are firmly grounded in in this framework.
*Learning Processes*
The focus on learning processes have been heavily influenced by computer-based
*information Processing (IP). These are models of learning which were established in cognitive
psychology in the 1960s.

Explanations of SLA phenomena based on this framework involve assumptions that L2 is a

highly complex skill, and that learning L2 is not essentially unlike learning other highly complex
skills. Language processing itself ( or indeed any other domain) is believed to be cause learning.
So there are quite a number of SLA approaches which are based in Information Processing.
Some of these include:
-Processability, a more recently developed framework which allows extends IP concepts of
learning and applies them to teaching and languages.

- Some of these include:

-Processability, a more recently developed framework which allows extends IP concepts of
learning and applies them to teaching and languages.
- Another is Connectionism, another cognitive framework for the focus on learning
processes. It began in the 1980s and became increasingly influential. It differs from most other
current frameworks for the study of SLA in the sense that it does not consider language learning
to involve either innate knowledge oe abstraction of rules and principles. Rather, connectionism
considers language learning as resulting from increasing strength of associations or connections
between stimuli and responses. Because this framework considers frequency of input an
important factor in inducing learning, it also provides a theoretical base for research on language
teaching.
*Learner differences *
The focus on learner differences in SLA has focused mainly on the question of Why some
learners are more successful than others. This framework arises partly from the *humanistic
framework* within psychology. This framework has a long history in that discipline, but it has
also been of great influence second language learning since the 1970s.
 This framework calls for consideration of emotional involvement in learning, such as
affective biological differences associated with age, sex, and some other individual differences
which are relate to aspects of processing.
 05- 04- 2023
Lecture 9
Learner Differences- Why some language learners are more successful than others.
*Differences in Learners*

In a previous lecture, we considered the issue of learner differences, specifically why some
L2 learners are more successful in language acquisition than others.

Some of the linguistic approaches we discussed in the last have shed some light on this
issue, by examining external factors like the role of theories and models of learning.

In this lecture, we shall focus on *internal issues* in our discussion of learner differences.

Internal issues or factors relate to the psychological

perspective which focuses on learners’ inherent or individual differences.
The differences we will examine today are:
-Age
-Gender
-Aptitude
- Motivation
- Cognitive Style
-Personality
-Learning Strategies

Let us examine each in some detail:👇

1. *Age*
There is the common belief that children acquire an L2 more effectively than [Link]
there has not been adequate evidence to support this, because of inconsistencies in research
findings .
 While some studies have defined ‘relative success’ as the *initial rate*of learning where
older learners tend to have an advantage.

Other studies have define “success” in terms of how close a learner can approximate
performance to native- speaker grammaticality.

Other studies have attribute learner success to factors like fluency or functional competence.
These conflicting claims make it important to evaluate the issues of learners’ relative
success.
The question of Age as a determinant of L2 learning success has been a central issue in SLA
for decades.

A number of recent research have provided insights from different perspectives.

The table below highlights some of the advantages which have been listed for both younger
md older L2 learners👇

Saville-Troike (2006:82)
In our discussion of language and the brain, in the previous class, we noted what is known as
*the critical period * for L1 acquisition. In this period , Children have only a limited number of
years during which normal acquisition is possible. After this period, physiological changes may
cause the brain to
lose its *plasticity*, in other words, the capacity to access the new functions which language
learning demands. Thie means that individuals who have been denied this *plasticity* in
childhood can never learn any language normally. (Curtis, 1977)
Lenneberg (1967) had also speculated that the critical period applies to SLA as well as L1
acquisition. He also observes that this is why almost all L2 speakers have a “foreign accent” if
they do not begin to learn the language before the cut-off age.
Seliger (1978) and Long (1990) have also argued that there are multiple periods which place
constraints on the different aspects of language(phonology, ayntax, etc)

They also suggest that these periods do not impose absolute cut-off points; rather, it is just
that L2 acquisition will more likely be
complete if begin in childhood than at a later age.
Generally, while it is more agreeable to say that younger learners achieve higher levels of
proficiency, there is convincing evidence that adolescents and adults learn faster in initial stages.
Ellis (1985), Snow (1983) argue that it is the same process, and just as successful
irrespective of learner’s age.

Others believe that adults are disadvantaged in areas like phonology, especially in the
achievement of accent-free. second Language performance.
Four major explanations have been identified:

a) social -psychological explanation/ adults are more inhibited than children.

b) Cognitive explanation: chikd SLA and adult SLA process differently, the firmer through
LAD (Language Acquisition Device), and the latter through problem-solving abilities.

c) Input explanation: younger learners are said to receive better, play better with their native
-speaking peers to get phonological input as opposed to the adult learners.
 d)Neurological explanation: this explanation is polarized between those who believe in the
effects of lateralization and those question it.
2. *Gender*
Most researches on the connection between learner gender and SLA have focused on
cognitive style or learning strategies .
In many western cultures, there is widespread belief that females tend to be better at learning
L2
than males.
However, this has been explained as more of a social
construct, based on assumptions which reflect cultural and socio-psychological constraints
and influences.
There does appear to be some gender differences in language acquisition and processing, but
the research evidence is mixed. For instance, women out-perform men in some tests of verbal
fluency (such as finding words that begin with a certain letter).
Other researches have argued that women’s brains may be less asymmetrically organized
than men’s for speech ( Kimura 1992)

Findings which are of particular relevance to SLA are those in relation to *mental
representations in the lexicon versus the grammar

In this regard, females seem to be better at memorizing complex forms , while males appear
to be better at computing compositional rules ( Halpern 2000).

Other researches have argued that women’s brains may be less asymmetrically organized
than men’s for speech ( Kimura 1992)

findings which are of particular relevance to SLA are those in relation to *mental
representations in the lexicon versus the grammar

In this regard, females seem to be better at memorizing complex forms , while males appear
to be better at computing compositional rules ( Halpern 2000).
 Other differences between males and females may be related to hormonal variables, higher
androgen levels correlate with between automated skills. Conversely, higher estrogen levels
correlate with better semantic / interpretive skills ( Mark 1992)

Kimura (1992 ) has also observed that higher levels of articulately and motor- ability have
been associated with women with higher levels of estrogen during the menstrual cycle
3. *Language Aptitude*

Individual learn languages at different rates, regardless of their ages. Carroll (1981)
proposes that foreign language aptitude consists of 4 abilities:

a) *phonetic coding ability:*

This is the ability to process auditory input into segments which can be stored and retrieved.
This is most useful at the early stages of learning.

b) *grammatical sensibility and c) inductive learning ability:*

These are both concerned with central processing. They account for further processing of the
segmented auditory input by the brain to infer structure and identify patterns or make
generalizations. Most language restructuring occurs in central processing.

d) *Associative learning ability for foreign students.*

This is concerned, most importantly, with how linguistic items are stored, and with how they
are recalled and used in output. Associative memory capacity determines appropriate selection
from among the L2 elements that are stored, and ultimately determines speaker fluency.
4. *Motivation*

Individual motivation is another factor which is frequently cited when considering learner
differences in SLA.

Motivation determines the level of effort which learners have put into the learning process at
different stages in the L2 development.
 Motivation is often a key to ultimate level efficiency

Motivation is variously defined, but it is usually conceived as a construct which includes at

least the following components (Oxford and Ehrman 1993,
Dornyei 2001).
-Significant goal or need
- Desire to attain the goal
-Perception that learning L2 is relevant to fulfilling the goal or meeting the need
-Belief in the likely success or failure of learning the L2
- value of potential outcomes / rewards.
The last 3 ‘learner differences’ factors are:
Cognitive Style
Personality and;
Learning Strategies

We shall examine these in the next lecture.

 12-04-2023
Lecture 10
Final part of Learner Differences
-Cognitive Style
-Personality
- Learning Strategies
1. *Cognitive Style*
This refers to individual learner’s preferred way of processing a second language. This
relates to how the learner perceives, conceptualises, organizes or recalls information. Unlike the
other points we previously discussed on learner differences, cognitive style is a factor which is
yet to be fully established. As in other factors, certain claims have been made which need to be
catefully examined .

What is clear however, is that cognitive style involves a complex interaction with specific
L2 social and learning contexts.

Cognitive style is also closely related to , and interacts with *personality* factors and
learning strategies.
Categories of cognitive style are identified in terms of opposite pairs of learner traits. These
are correlated with various measures of L2 proficiency as seen in the table below:👇

Read more: Saville-Troike (2006:87-89)

9. *Personality*
 As mentioned above, Personality factors are sometimes mentioned in relation to cognitive
style and vice versa.
Several factors determine personality in learners:
-Self -esteem
-Extroversion
-Anxiety
- Risk-taking
-Sensitivity to rejection
-Empathy
-Inhibition
-Tolerance of ambiguity

Normally, individual are assessed based on certain personality traits. These can usually be
achieved with the use of research tools like questionnaires or self assessment tests.
In terms of personality, the factor of Anxiety has received the most attention in SLA
research. This is alongside lack of anxiety as an important component of self-confidence.
Anxiety correlates negatively with measures of L2 proficiency,(including grades awarded in
foreign language classes). This means that higher anxiety tends to go with lower levels of
success in L2 learning.
Conversely, lower anxiety may be manifested by more risk-taking, self- confidence, or more
adventurous behaviors.
Read more: Saville-Troike (2006:90-91)
10. *Learning Strategies*

These refer to the behaviors and techniques adopted by language learners in their efforts to
learn a second language.

L2 learners have to make conscious choices from among a wide range of possible strategies.
Such choices are strongly influenced by the nature of their motivation, cognitive style and
personality. The specific contexts of learning are also
 Important in this regard are the specific contexts of language use and opportunities for
learning.
The other variables we discussed in the last lecture -age, gender, and aptitude- all have a role
to play in the selection of appropriate learning strategies.
Many learning strategies are culture-based. Individuals acquire knowledge about learning,
based on their socialization experience. This way, strategies learned in relation to other domains
many be transferred to language learning.
Not all strategies are equal. Some are inherently more effective tha others, while some are
more appropriate in certain contexts than others.

Some are more applicable to individuals with different learning styles and aptitudes.
A typology of language -learning strategies was formulated by O’Malley and Chamot
(1987) is the most widely used in SLA. It outlines the following:

1. *Meta cognitive:*
As in the case of previewing a concept or principle ahead of a learning activity;
Deciding in advance to attend to specific aspects of an input activity;or rehearsing some
linguistic components of an upcoming language task, etc.
2. *Cognitive*:
Such as:
-repeating after a language model;
-translating from L1, remembering a new word in L2 by relating it to a similar sounding
word in L1, or
-by creating vivid images;
-guessing meanings of new material through inferencing.

3. *Social/affective:*
This includes activities like:
-seeking opportunities to interact with native speakers;
-cooperating with peers to obtain feedback or pool information;
-asking questions to obtain clarification;
 -requesting repetition, explanation or examples.
Read more:
Saville-Troike (2006:91-92)
We have come to the end of today’s class, and indeed the end of my last lecture with you in
this course.

I hand you over to my colleague, Dr. Deji Adedara, who will teach the last 2 topics:
1. Communicative Competence in SLA and;

2. Bilingualism: Code-switching and code-mixing in SLA