THE DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
Functions of the Digestive System
• Ingestion – The process of taking food into the mouth.
• Digestion – Breakdown of food into smaller molecules:
• Mechanical (chewing, churning)
• Chemical (enzymes, acids)
• Absorption – Nutrients move from the GI tract into the
bloodstream or lymph.
• Defecation – Elimination of indigestible substances as feces.
Anatomy of the Digestive System
Two Main Groups of Organs:
Alimentary Canal (GI Tract)
• A muscular tube from mouth to anus.
• Organs: Mouth, Pharynx, Esophagus, Stomach, Small Intestine, Large
Intestine, Anus
Accessory Digestive Organs
• Aid in digestion but food doesn’t pass through them.
• Organs: Teeth, Tongue, Salivary Glands, Liver, Gallbladder, Pancreas
Organs of the
Alimentary Canal
MOUTH
Function: Ingestion, mechanical
digestion (chewing), chemical
digestion begins (saliva).
Parts: Lips, cheeks, palate (hard
and soft), tongue, teeth.
Contains salivary glands that
secrete saliva with enzymes (e.g.,
amylase for carbs).
PHARYNX
Function: Passageway for food and air;
swallowing (deglutition).
Parts:
Nasopharynx – behind the nasal cavity
(not food-related).
Oropharynx – behind the oral cavity
(food passes here).
Laryngopharynx – connects to the
esophagus.
ESOPHAGUS
• Muscular tube (~25 cm)
from pharynx to stomach.
• Moves food via peristalsis.
• Ends at the
gastroesophageal (cardiac)
sphincter, which prevents
stomach contents from re-
entering.
Layers of the
Alimentary Canal
Layers of the Alimentary Canal
From innermost to outermost:
• Mucosa – Lining; secretes mucus
and enzymes; absorbs nutrients.
• Submucosa – Blood vessels,
nerves, lymph.
• Muscularis externa – Smooth
muscle for peristalsis.
• Serosa – Protective outermost
layer (visceral peritoneum).
Alimentary Canal
Nerve Plexuses
Alimentary Canal Nerve Plexuses
Part of the enteric nervous system
Two major plexuses:
1. Submucosal plexus – Controls secretions
2. Myenteric plexus – Controls GI motility
STOMACH
J-shaped organ between esophagus and small
intestine.
Function: Mechanical and chemical digestion;
begins protein digestion.
Regions:
Cardiac – near esophagus
Fundus – dome-shaped upper part
Body – main part
Pylorus – connects to small intestine
STOMACH
Omentums: Fatty coverings Stomach Mucosa:
• Greater omentum – hangs from greater • Contains gastric pits and gastric glands
curvature • Secretes:
• Lesser omentum – connects liver to • Mucus
lesser curvature • Pepsinogen (converted to pepsin for
protein digestion)
• HCl (activates enzymes, kills
bacteria)
• Intrinsic factor (for vitamin B12
absorption)
SMALL INTESTINE
Longest part (~6m); from pyloric Regions:
sphincter to ileocecal valve. • Duodenum – first part; receives bile
Functions: and pancreatic juice.
• Most digestion and absorption • Jejunum – middle part; site of
occur here. absorption.
• Ileum – connects to large intestine.
SMALL INTESTINE
Structural Modifications for Peyer’s Patches: Lymphoid tissue in
Absorption: the ileum for immune protection.
• Circular folds
• Villi – finger-like projections
• Microvilli – brush border
enzymes
LARGE INTESTINE
Function: Absorbs water, forms Subdivisions:
feces, hosts bacteria for vitamin • Cecum – pouch-like, receives
K/B production. chyme from ileum.
• Appendix attached (immune role).
• Colon – main section:
• Ascending, Transverse, Descending,
Sigmoid
• Rectum – stores feces
• Anal Canal – leads to anus,
controls defecation via internal
(involuntary) and external
(voluntary) sphincters.
Accessory Digestive Organs
TEETH
Function: Mechanical digestion
(chewing/mastication).
Types:
• Deciduous (baby) teeth – 20
total; erupt around 6 months
to 2.5 years.
• Permanent teeth – 32 total;
replace baby teeth around age
6–12.
TEETH
Classifications:
• Incisors – cutting
• Canines – tearing
• Premolars & Molars – grinding
Tooth Structure:
• Crown – exposed part; covered
in enamel; used for chewing.
• Root – embedded in jawbone;
anchors tooth.
SALIVARY GLANDS Glands:
• Parotid – near ears; secretes
Function: Produce saliva – serous fluid.
moistens food, starts carb • Submandibular – beneath jaw;
digestion. mixed secretions.
• Sublingual – under tongue;
Saliva Components: mainly mucus.
• Salivary amylase – breaks
down starch
• Mucus, lysozyme
(antibacterial), antibodies
PANCREAS
Function:
• Exocrine – secretes pancreatic
juice (enzymes + bicarbonate)
into duodenum.
• Endocrine – produces
hormones into blood.
Hormones Produced:
Insulin – lowers blood glucose
Glucagon – raises blood glucose
PANCREAS
Enzymes in Pancreatic Juice:
• Proteases (trypsin,
chymotrypsin)
• Amylase (carbs)
• Lipase (fats)
• Nucleases (DNA/RNA)
LIVER
• Largest gland in the body
• Digestive Role: Produces bile –
emulsifies fats
Other Functions:
Detoxifies blood
Stores glycogen, iron, and
vitamins
Metabolizes nutrients
LIVER
Bile Components:
Bile salts, bile pigments (e.g.,
bilirubin), cholesterol
Bile is stored in the
gallbladder and released
into the duodenum.
GALLBLADDER
Small sac under the liver.
Function: Stores and
concentrates bile.
Releases bile into the
duodenum through the
common bile duct during fat
digestion.
GASTROINTESTINAL
PROCESSES AND CONTROLS
Two Major Processes
1. Digestion
The process of breaking down food into smaller, absorbable
components:
• Mechanical digestion – chewing, mixing, churning.
• Chemical digestion – enzymatic breakdown:
• Carbohydrates → monosaccharides (e.g., glucose)
• Proteins → amino acids
• Fats → fatty acids + glycerol
Two Major Processes
2. Absorption
The process where nutrients, water, and electrolytes move from the
lumen of the GI tract into the blood or lymph:
• Occurs mainly in the small intestine, especially the jejunum.
• Final products of digestion (e.g., glucose, amino acids) are absorbed
through villi and enter capillaries or lacteals.
6 Essential Processes
of the GI Tract
6 Essential Processes
of the GI Tract
• Ingestion
• Propulsion
• Mechanical Breakdown
• Chemical Digestion
• Absorption
• Defecation
INGESTION
Definition: The act of eating or putting food
into the mouth.
Involves: Conscious choice and chewing
(mastication).
Begins mechanical digestion and mixing
with saliva (which contains salivary amylase
for carbs).
PROPULSION
Definition: The movement of food along the GI tract.
Major types:
• Swallowing (deglutition): Voluntary + reflexive.
• Peristalsis: Involuntary wave-like muscular contractions that
push food forward.
• Segmentation: Rhythmic contractions that mix food with
digestive juices and increase contact with absorptive surfaces.
MECHANICAL BREAKDOWN
Definition: Physical processes that break food
into smaller pieces.
Includes:
• Chewing (mouth)
• Churning (stomach)
• Segmentation (small intestine)
Purpose: Increases surface area for enzyme
action.
CHEMICAL DIGESTION
Definition: Enzymes break macromolecules
into monomers.
Starts in the mouth, continues in stomach,
completed in small intestine.
CHEMICAL DIGESTION
MACRONUTRIENT ENZYME END PRODUCT
Carbohydrates Salivary amylase, Monosaccharides (e.g.,
pancreatic amylase, brush glucose, fructose)
border enzymes
Proteins Pepsin (stomach), trypsin, Amino acids
chymotrypsin (pancreas),
peptidases
Fats (Lipids) Bile (emulsification), Fatty acids + Glycerol
pancreatic lipase
Nucleic Acids Nucleases Nucleotides
Chyme – creamy, acidic, partially digested food in the stomach.
ABSORPTION
Definition: Movement of nutrients from the GI tract into blood or lymph.
Occurs mainly in the small intestine (jejunum).
Mechanism: Diffusion, facilitated diffusion, active transport.
Sites of absorption:
• Stomach: Water, alcohol, some drugs.
• Small intestine: Most nutrients, vitamins, minerals.
• Large intestine: Water, electrolytes, vitamin K and B (from gut bacteria).
ABSORPTION
Important nutrients absorbed:
• Carbs → glucose
• Proteins → amino acids
• Fats → fatty acids and monoglycerides
• Vitamins:
• Fat-soluble (A, D, E, K): absorbed with fats
• Water-soluble (B-complex, C): absorbed by diffusion or active
transport
• Minerals: Na+, K+, Ca2+, Fe
DEFECATION
• Elimination of indigestible substances as feces
• Occurs in the rectum and anal canal
• Triggered by the defecation reflex
• Internal anal sphincter – involuntary
• External anal sphincter – voluntary
HORMONAL CONTROL OF
DIGESTION
HORMONAL CONTROL OF DIGESTION
HORMONE SOURCE STIMULUS ACTION
GASTRIN STOMACH Food in stomach Stimulates HCl secretion,
(G CELLS) (especially pepsinogen release; increases
proteins); gastric motility
stomach stretch
SECRETIN DUODENUM Acidic chyme Stimulates bicarbonate
(S CELLS) entering secretion from pancreas;
duodenum inhibits gastric emptying
Cholecystokinin DUODENUM Fatty acids + Stimulates bile release from
(CCK) (I CELLS) amino acids in gallbladder; enzyme-rich juice
chyme from pancreas; satiety
HORMONAL CONTROL OF DIGESTION
HORMONE SOURCE STIMULUS ACTION
MOTILIN DUODENUM Glucose, fatty Inhibits gastric activity;
acids stimulates insulin release
Gastric DUODENUM Fasting Stimulates peristalsis during
Inhibitory interdigestive phase (migrating
motor complex)
Peptide (GIP)
NUTRITION
NUTRIENT
A nutrient is a substance in food that the body uses for:
• Energy (ATP production)
• Growth
• Maintenance
• Repair
Types of Nutrients
Major Nutrients Minor Nutrients
• Needed in large amounts • Needed in small amounts
• Include: • Include:
• Carbohydrates • Vitamins (e.g., A, B, C, D, E,
• Proteins K)
• Fats
• Water • Minerals (e.g., calcium,
iron, zinc)
“Discipline is choosing between
what you want now and what you
want most.”