DATA
GATHERING
Understanding data and ways to
systematically collect data
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Choose appropriate quantitative research design
• Describe sampling procedure
• Construct an instrument and establish its validity
and reliability
RESEARCH DESIGN
3
• Refers to the overall plan and scheme for conducting your study
- historical design, descriptive design, experimental design
SAMPLING
• The process of selecting and getting respondents of the study
at the minimum cost such that resulting observations will be
representative of the entire population
INSTRUMENTS
• Data-gathering devices that will be used in the study. It is a
testing devices for measuring a given phenomenon. The three
characteristics of an instrument that we need to consider:
usability, validity and reliability
QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS
• Technique utilized for analyzing the data gathered. It may
be statistical or deterministic.
RESEARCH DESIGNS
• DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
To describe the status of an identified variable
such as events, people or subjects as they exist.
- comparison contrasts and correlation, cause-
effect relationships
EXAMPLES OF DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN
• DESCRIPTIVE NORMATIVE SURVEYS
• Administering a survey questionnaire to a small group of
people (sample) to identify trends in attitude, opinions,
behaviors or characteristics of a large group of people
(population)
EXAMPLES OF DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN
• CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH STUDIES
• To estimate the extent to which different
variables are related to one another in the
population of interest.
• DESCRIPTIVE EVALUATIVE STUDIES
• To judge the “goodness of a criterion measure”
- longitudinal studies and cross-sectional studies
EXAMPLES OF DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN
• ASSESSMENT/EVALUATION STUDIES
• To determine the effectiveness or efficiency of
certain practices or policies when applied to a
group of respondents.
• DESCRIPTIVE COMPARATIVE STUDIES
• To establish significant differences between two or more
groups of subjects on the basis of a criterion measure.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN 7
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
• Lack of control variables in descriptive designs make them
less reliable in terms of actual hypothesis testing. Statistical
test may yield different results when applied to different
samples of the same population
• Unless the design is a normative survey where the entire
population is considered, conclusions drawn from
descriptive design are at best tentative.
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH 8
DESIGN
• Also known as longitudinal or repeated-measured studies
• They are also referred to as interventions, because you
do more than just observe the subjects.
• Uses scientific method to establish the cause-effect
relationship among a group of variables that make up a
study.
• Independent variables are manipulated to determine the
effect on the dependent variables.
EXAMPLES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN 9
PRE-TEST/POST-TEST CONTROL
GROUP DESIGN
• Requires to groups of equivalent standing in terms of a
criterion measure (e.g. achievement or mental ability)
• 1st group – control group; 2nd group – experimental group
PRETEST
NO Intervention
YES
Treatment/
Intervention
Post Test
SINGLE GROUP PRE-TEST/ 10
POST-TEST DESIGN
• When there is a limited number of subjects available
• Pretest-> Normal Treatment-> Posttest -> Pretest ->
Experimental treatment -> Final Posttest
Pretest Pretest
Normal Experimental
Treatment Treatment
Final
Posttest
Posttest
SOLOMON FOUR GROUP DESIGN 11
• Makes use of four equivalent groups
• Group 1 & 2 – follow the pretest-posttest control group
design, Group 3 – no pretest with treatment and a posttest,
Group 4 – with pretest no treatment but with a posttest
• This design eliminates the Hawthorne Effect, effects of
maturation and attrition but has the main disadvantage
requiring a large number of respondents
• Hawthorne Effect – a type of reactivity in which individuals modify
as aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being
observed
• Maturation – process of maturing either biological or psychological
that takes place in the participants during experiment regardless of
event
• Attrition – selective dropout of some participants who systematically
differ from those who remain in the study
FACTORS AFFECTING THE 12
EXPERIMENTAL PLAN
• HISTORY – specific events which occur between the first
and second measurement in addition to the experimental
variable.
• MATURATION – process of maturing either biological or
psychological that takes place in the participants during
experiment regardless of event
• TESTING – subjects may be aware of the contents of the
posttest given to pretest. They learn from the pretest.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE 13
EXPERIMENTAL PLAN
• MORTALITY – subjects may drop out of the experimental
plan either voluntarily or involuntarily.
• INTERACTION EFFECTS – interaction of experimental
variable and extraneous factors such as setting, time and
conditions of the experimental set-up may produce
erroneous results
• MEASURING INSTRUMENTS – changes in
instruments, calibration, observers or scorers may cause
changes in the measurements
FACTORS AFFECTING THE 14
EXPERIMENTAL PLAN
• STATISTICAL REGRESSION – because of extreme scores
of measurements, groups are chosen.
• DIFFERENTIAL SELECTION – different individuals or
groups would have different previous knowledge or ability
which could affect the final measurement if not taken into
account
• JOHN HENRY EFFECT – John Henry was a worker who
outperformed a machine under an experimental setting
because he was aware that his performance was compared
with that machine.