HUMAN PERFORMANCE &

SOUTH ASIAN AIRLINES LTD LIMITATIONS CONTINUITION

TRAINING NOTES

CHAPTER 3

HUMAN PERFORMANCE &

LIMITATIONS

INTRODUCTION

HUMAN IN THE HF MODEL

HUMAN PERFORMANCE AS PART OF THE MAINTENANCE

ENGINEERING SYSTEM

VISION

HEARING

LISTENING PROCESS

INFORMATION PROCESSING

CLAUSTROPHOBIA, PHYSICAL ACCESS AND FEAR OF HEIGHTS

PERFORMANCE SHAPING FACTORS

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INTRODUCTION

(a) A maintenance engineer as a human being is the central part of any engineering
system. In aviation, which is considered to be an ultra-safe system, the performances,
abilities and limitations of individuals in the system can have a direct bearing on the
total safety of the system. In our last module, we noted that two inspectors missed some
cracks in an aging 737 at Aloha Airliner. That singular event has caused widespread
change in the system because we have now recognized the importance of each and
event individual engineer in the system.

(b) The intention of this chapter is to provide an overview of those key physical and
mental human performance characteristics which are likely to affect an aircraft
maintenance engineer in his working environment, such as his vision, hearing,
information processing, attention and perception, memory, judgment and decision
making.

HUMAN IN HF MODEL

(a) As discussed in chapter-1, human (Liveware) is at the centre of the model. Human is
generally considered the most critical as well as the most flexible component in the
system. Yet people are subject to considerable variations in performance and suffer
many limitations, most of which are now predictable in general terms. The other
components of the system (indicated in the SHELL model) must be carefully matched
with them if stress in the system and eventual breakdown is to be avoided. In order to
achieve this matching, an understanding of the characteristics of this central component
is essential.

(b) Important characteristics of the Liveware are as follows:

 Physical size and shape: In the design of workplace and equipment, a vital
consideration involves body measurements and movements, which may vary
according to factors such as age, ethnicity and gender. Human Factors inputs must be
provided at an early stage in the design process, and data for these inputs are
available from anthropometry, biomechanics, and kinesiology.
 Physical needs: People's requirements such as for food, water and oxygen are
indicated in human physiology and biology.
 Input characteristics: Humans possess various sensory systems for
collecting information from the world external as well as internal to them, enabling
them to respond to events and carry out the required task. But all senses may be
subjected to degradation for one reason or another, and the sources of knowledge
include psychology and physiology.
 Information processing: Again, these human functions have limitations. Poor
instrument and alerting system design has frequently resulted from a failure to take into
account the capabilities and limitations of human information processing. Factors
such as stress, motivation and short- and long-term memory are involved. Psychology
and cognitive sciences are the sources of background knowledge
 Output characteristics: Once information is sensed and processed, decisions are
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made and messages are sent to muscles to initiate the desired

response. Responses may involve a physical control movement or the initiation of
some form of communication. Acceptable control forces and direction of movement
have to be known, and biomechanics, physiology and psychology provide the
background knowledge.
 Environmental tolerances: Environmental factors such as temperature, vibration,
pressure, humidity, noise, time of day, amount of light and G-forces can affect human
performance and well-being. Heights, enclosed spaces and a boring or stressful work
environment can influence human behavior andperformance. Background information is
available from medicine, psychology, physiology and biology.

HUMAN PERFORMANCE AS PART OF THE MAINTENANCE ENGINEERING

SYSTEM

(a) Just as certain mechanical components used in aircraft maintenance engineering have
limitations, engineers themselves have certain capabilities and limitations that must be
considered when looking at the maintenance engineering 'system'. For instance, rivets
used to attach aluminum skin to a fuselage can withstand forces that act to pull them
apart. It is clear that these rivets will eventually fail if enough force is applied to them.
While the precise range of human capabilities and limitations might not be as well-
defined as the performance range of mechanical or electrical components, the same
principles apply in that human performance is likely to degrade and eventually 'fail'
under certain conditions (e.g. stress).

(b) Mechanical components in aircraft can, on occasion, suffer catastrophic failures. Man,
can also fail to function properly in certain situations. Physically, humans become
Fatigued, are affected by the cold, can break bones in workplace accidents, etc.
Mentally, humans can make errors, have limited perceptual powers, can exhibit poor
judgment due to lack of skills and knowledge, etc. In addition, unlike mechanical
component, human performance is also affected by social and emotional factors.
Therefore failure by aircraft maintenance engineers can also be to the detriment of
aircraft safety.

(c) The aircraft engineer is the central part of the aircraft maintenance system. It is
therefore very useful to have an understanding of how various parts of his body and
mental processes function and how performance limitations can influence his
effectiveness at work.

VISION

General

Vision might seem to be an unusual human performance to be considering here as itis almost
impossible to become an engineer without satisfactory vision but the fact is that our normal
vision has many more limitations that affect our performance than we usually realize. In
considering this issue, we will identify some advantages of using appropriate visual
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discrimination methods for design decisions; we will distinguish between good and bad visual
clues and look at some of the physiology and anatomyor the eye that leads to these points.

Visual Discrimination

(a) To consider visual discrimination, we will use displays to provide examples of the type
of discrimination we are concerned with in respect of human limitations and how
different display designs can and should be used for different purposes in a
maintenance engineering context.

(b) In your role as a maintenance engineer, you will be required to interpret a number of
different visual displays. We have designated them here as:

 Check displays.
 Qualitative as in quality displays
 Quantitative as in quantity displays, and
 Labels, instructions and warnings.

(c) Check displays are most common in the engineering business to indicate whether the
machinery they are using is on or off. In principle, these displays are used so that
someone can make a very quick, almost unconscious check that the condition they are
after exists. Traffic lights are a classic example. You don't need to take time to think
that you have to stop if the traffic light is red, you just stop because it is red. The same
is true of operating machinery. Operators will invariably check that they have power
to the machinery through a status light that will show red for off and green for on or no-
light if the power isn't applied and a steady light if it is.

(d) Quantitative displays measure quantity. If you want to know how much of something is
somewhere then you need a quantitative display. A fuel gauge tells you how much fuel
is in the aircraft, or your car and an air speed indicator or speedometer tells you how
fast you are going and a voltmeter tells you how much life is left in your battery. Each
of these is a quantitative display.

(e) A quantitative display will give you exact information in figures within the limits of the
measuring devices being used. Qualitative displays provide the opportunity for the
reader to see at a glance what is happening. For example, it is fairly easy to tell from a
graphical representation whether things are going up or going down. You can read the
trend information from a qualitative graph. The value of these displays is once again
in minimizing the time it takes to interpret the information that is being presented. It is
also designed to reduce misinterpretation by presenting intuitive expressions of what
needs to be known.

For example, if your car's petrol gauge is in the red, you probably don't need to know
exactly how much petrol is there, but you do know that you need to get to the petrol
station fairly quickly.

(f) Quite often you will find that qualitative and quantitative displays are combined. An
air speed indicator in an aircraft, for example, has red zones, orange zones and green
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zones. While it contains the exact information in terms of the aircraft's airspeed, a
quick glance can tell the pilot whether it is safe to rotate the aircraft or extend the
flaps, etc.

(g) Labels, instructions and warnings are fairly self-evident. They provide specific
information for a specific case and on most occasions, that information is additional to
what is normally available.

(h) Cautions and warning signs are fairly common around a workshop due to the potential
harm that machinery, fluids or tools can cause individuals who are not familiar with
their use. These days, occupational health and safety regulations quite often mandate
when labels, instructions and warnings need to be evident, but suffice to say their
intention is to prevent mishaps from occurring in specific situations.

(i) Effective display:

There are a number of standards or norms that most of these types of displays adhere
to common norms include red for stop or danger, green for go or good, and a red bar
across an item to show that it is not wanted or is prohibited from a particular area.

Some of the considerations for effective displays are as follows:

 Color
 Light/Dark
 Contrast
 Legibility and typography

Color has obvious connotations that we all accept but there are different times and
places when the right color is appropriate. Red, for example, is considered as the no-
go or stop / danger area for displays but it is also the color of joy and luck in many
societies. This means that using the right color for the right message is extremely
important.

The lightness or darkness also has a bearing on how displays are received by
individuals. A light pastel shade does not have the forcefulness or authority ofa bright
shining color.

Contrast serves to make signs more noticeable. The classic contrasts are red/green,
blue/yellow and black/white. These are also the combinations of color blindness found
in humans.

Font sizes and types for script also make a significant difference.

Anatomy of the Eye:

(a) In order to understand vision, it is useful first to know a little about the anatomy of
the eye (Figure 3.1). The basic structure of the eye is similar to a simple camera with
an aperture (the iris), a lens and a light sensitive surface (the retina). Light enters the
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eye through the cornea, then passes through the iris and the lens and falls on the retina.
Here the light stimulates the light- sensitive cells on the retina (rods and cones) and
these pass small electrical
Impulses by way of the optic nerve to the visual cortex in the brain. Here, theelectrical
impulses are interpreted and an image is perceived.

Figure 3.1: The Human Eye

(b) The Cornea: The cornea is a clear 'window' at the very front of the eye. Thecornea
acts as fixed focusing device. The shape of the cornea bending the Incoming light rays
achieves the focusing. The cornea is responsible forbetween 70%and 80 % of the total
focusing ability (refraction) of the eye.

(c) The Iris and Pupils: The iris (the colored part of the eye) controls the amount of
light that is allowed to center the eye. It does this by varying the size of the pupil (the
dark area in the centre of the iris). The size of the pupil can be changed very rapidly to
cater for changing light levels. The amount of light can be adjusted by a factor of 5:1.

(d) The Lens: After passing through the pupil, the light passes through the lens. Its
shape is changed by the muscles (cillary muscles) surrounding it which results in the
final focusing adjustment to place a sharp image onto the retina. The change of shape of
the lens is called accommodation. In order to focus clearly on a near object, the lens is
thickened. To focus on a distant point, the lens is flattened. The degree of
accommodation can be affected by factorssuch as fatigue or the ageing process.

When a person is tired accommodation is reduced, resulting in less sharpvision

(sharpness of vision is known as visual acuity).

(e) The Retina:

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(i) The retina is located on the rear wall of the eyeball. It is made up of a
complex layer of nerve cells connected to the optic nerve. Two types of light
sensitive cells are found in the retina. These are rods and cones. The central area of
the retina is known as the fovea and the receptors in this area are all cones. It is here
that the visual image is typically focused. Moving outwards, the cones become less
dense and are progressively replaced by rods, so that in the periphery of the retina,
there are only rods.

Cones function in good light and are capable of detecting fine detail and are color-
sensitive, This means the human eve can distinguish about 1000 different shades of
color.

Rods cannot detect color. They are poor at distinguishing fine detail, but good at
detecting movement in the edge of the visual field (peripheral vision). They are much
more sensitive at lower light levels. As light decreases, the sensing task is passed from
the cones to the rods. This means in poor light levels we see only in black and white
and shades of gray.

(ii) At the point at which the optic nerve joins the back of the eye, a “blind spot”
occurs. This is not evident when viewing things with both eyes (binocular vision), since
it is not possible for the image of an object to fall on the blind spots of both eyes at the
same time. Even when viewing with one eye (monocular vision), the constant rapid
movement of the (saccades) means that the image will not fall on the blind spot all
the time. It is only when viewing a stimulus that appears very fleetingly (e.g. a light
flashing), that the blind spot may result in something not being seen. In maintenance
engineering, task such as close visual inspection or crack detection should not cause
such problems, as the eye or eyes move across and around the area of interest
(visual scanning).

Factors Affecting Clarity of Sight

(a) The eye is very sensitive in the right conditions (e.g. clear air, good light; etc.), In fact,
the eye has approximately 1.2 million nerve cells leading from the retinas to the area of
the brain responsible for vision, while there are only about 50,000 from the inner-ears
making the eye about 24 times more sensitive than the ear.

(b) Before considering factors that can influence and limit the performance of the eye, it is
necessary to describe visual acuity,

Visual acuity is the ability of the eye to discriminate sharp detail at varying distances.

(c) An individual with acuity of 20/20 vision should be able to see at 20 feet that which the
so-called 'normal ' person is capable of seeing at this range. It may be expressed in
meters as 6/6 vision. The figures 20/40 mean that the observer can read at 20 feet that
a 'normal ' person can read at 40 feet.

(d) Various factors can affect and limit the visual acuity of the eye. These include:
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Physical factors such as:

 physical imperfections in one or both eyes (short sightedness, longsightedness),

 age.

The influence of injested foreign substances such as:

 drags
 medication,
 alcohol,
 cigarettes.

Environmental factors such as:

 amount of light available;

 clarity of the air (e.g. dust, mist, rain, etc.).
Factors associated with object being viewed such as:
 size and contours of the object,
 contrast of the object with its surroundings,
 relative motion of the object,
 distance of the object from the viewer,
 the angle of the object from the viewer.

(e) Each of these factors will now be examined in some detail.

Physical Factors

(a) Long sight: known as Hypermetropia is caused by a shorter than normal eyeball
which means that the image is formed behind the retina (Figure 3.2). If the cornea
and the lens cannot use their combined focusing ability to compensate for this, blurred
vision will result when looking at close objects.

Figure 3.2: A convex lens will overcome long sightedness by bending light
inwards before it reaches the cornea.
(b) Short sight, known as Myopia is where the eyeball is longer than normal, causing the
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image to be formed in front of the retina (Figure 3.3). If the accommodation of the lens
cannot counteract this then distant objects are blurred.
(c) Other visual problems include:
 Cataracts: clouding of the lens usually associated with aging;
 Astigmatism: a misshapen cornea causing objects to appear irregularlyshaped;
 Glaucoma: a buildup in pressure of the fluid within the eye which can
cause damage to the optic nerve and even blindness;
 Migraine: severe headaches that can cause visual disturbances

Figure 3.3: A concave lens will overcome short sightedness by bending light
outwards before it overshoots the cornea.

(d) Finally as a person grows older, the lens becomes less flexible meaning that it is
unable to accommodate sufficiently. This is known as presbyopia and is a form of
long sightedness. Consequently, after the age of 40, spectacles may be required for
near vision, especially in poor light conditions. Fatigue can also temporarily affect
accommodation, causing blurred vision for close work.

Foreign Substances

Vision can be adversely affected by the use of certain drugs and medications, alcohol,
and smoking cigarettes. With smoking, carbon monoxide that builds up in the
bloodstream allows less oxygen to be carried in the blood to the eyes. This is known
as hypoxia and can impair rapidly the sensitivity of the rods. Alcohol can have similar
effects, even hours after the last drink.

Environmental Factors

(a) Vision can be improved by increasing the lighting level, but only up to a point, as the
law of diminishing returns operates. Also, increased illumination could result in
increased glare. Older people are more affected by the glare of reflected light than
younger people. Moving from an extremely bright environment to a dimmer one has the
effect of vision being severely reduced until the eyes get used to less light being
available. This is because the eyes have become light adapted. If an engineer works in
a very dark environment for a long time, his eyes gradually become dark-adapted
allowing better visual acuity. This can take about 7 minutes for the cones and 30

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minutes for the rods. As a consequence, moving between a bright hanger (or the inside
of an aircraft) to a dark apron area at night can mean that the maintenance engineer
must wait for his eyes to adjust (adapt). In low light conditions, it is easier to focus if
you look slightly to one side of an object. This allows the image to fall outside the
fovea and onto the part of the retina, which has many rods. In Figure-6 a concave
lenses will overcome short sightedness by bending light outwards before it reaches the
cornea.

(b) Any airborne particles such as dust, rain or mist can interfere with the transmission of
light through the air, distorting what is seen. This can be even worse when spectacles are
worn, as they are susceptible to getting dirty, wet, misted up or scratched. Engineers
who wear contact lenses (especially hard or gas-permeable types) should take into
account the advice from their optician associated with the maximum wear time
usually 8 to 12 hours and consider the effects which extended wear may have on the
eyes, such as drying out and irritation. This is particularly important if they are working
in an environment that is excessively dry or dusty, as airborne particles may also affect
contact lens wear. Goggles should be worn where necessary.

The Nature of the Object Being Viewed

(a) Many factors associated with the object being viewed can also influence vision. We
use information from the objects we are looking at to help distinguish what we are
seeing. These are known as visual cues. Visual cues often refer to the comparison of
objects of known size to unknown objects. An example of this is that we associate small
objects with being further away. Similarly, if an object does not stand out well from its
background (i.e. it has poor contrast with its surroundings), it is harder to distinguish its
edges and hence its shape. Movement and relative motion of an object, as well as
distance and angle of the object from the viewer, can all increase visual demands.

Color Vision

(a) Although not directly affecting visual acuity, inability to see particular colors can be a
problem for the aircraft maintenance engineer. Amongst other things, good color
vision for maintenance engineers is important for:

 Recognizing components;
 Distinguishing between wires;
 Using various diagnostic tools;
 Recognizing various lights on the airfield (e.g. warning lights).

(b) Color defective vision is usually hereditary, although may also occur as a temporary
condition after a serious illness.
Color-defective vision (normally referred to incorrectly as color blindness) affects about 8%
of men but only 0.5% of women. The most common type is difficulty in distinguishing between
red and green. More rarely, it is possible to confuse bluesand yellows.

(c) There are degrees of color defective vision, some people suffering more than others.
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Individuals may be able to distinguish between red and green in a well-lit situation but
not in low light conditions. Color defective people typically see the colors they have
problems with as shades of neutral grey.

(d) Aging also causes changes in color vision. This is a result of progressive yellowing of
the lens, resulting in a reduction in color discrimination in the blue-yellow range. Color
defective vision and its implications can be a complex area and care should be taken
not to stop an engineer from performing certain tasks merely because he suffers from
some degree of color deficient vision. It may be that the type and degree of color
deficiency is not relevant in their particular job. However, if absolutely accurate color
discrimination is critical for a job, it is important that appropriate testing and screening
be put in place.

Vision and the Aircraft Maintenance Engineer

(a) It is important for an engineer, particularly one who is involved in inspection tasks, to
have adequate vision to meet the task requirements. As discussed previously, age and
problems developing in the eye itself can gradually affect vision. Without regular vision
testing, aircraft maintenance engineers may not notice that their vision is deteriorating.
(b) In the UK, the CAA has produced guidance which states:
"A reasonable standard of eyesight is needed for any aircraft engineer to perform his
duties to an acceptable degree. Many maintenance tasks require a combination of both
distance and near vision. In particular, such consideration must be made where there is
a need for the close visual inspection of structures or work related to small or miniature
components. The use of glasses or contact lenses to correct any vision problems is
perfectly acceptable and indeed they must be worn as prescribed. Frequent checks
should be made to ensure the continued adequacy of any glasses or contact lenses. In
addition, color discrimination may be necessary for an individual to drive in areas where
aircraft maneuver or where color coding is used, [Link] aircraft wiring. Organizations
should identify any specific eyesight requirement and put in place suitable procedures to
address these issues."

(c) Often, airline companies or airports will set the eyesight standards for reasons other than
aircraft maintenance safety, e.g. for insurance purposes, or for driving on the airfield.

(d) Ultimately, what is important is for the individual to recognize when his vision is
adversely affected, either temporarily or permanently and to consider carefully the
possible consequences should they continue to work if the task requires good vision.
Hearing

General

(a) Hearing or auditory system is one of the most important systems of a human.

(b) The ear performs two quite different functions. It is used to detect sounds by receiving
vibrations in the air, and secondly, it is responsible for balance and sensing acceleration
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of these two, the hearing aspect is more pertinent to the maintenance engineer, and thus
it is necessary to have a basic appreciationof how the ear works,

(c) Like the visual system, auditory system may suffer a wide range of limitations.

The anatomy of the Ear

(a) As can be seen in Figure 3.4, the ear has three divisions: outer ear, middleear and
inner ear. These act to receive vibrations from the air and turn these signals into nerve
impulses that the brain can recognize as sounds.

(b) Outer Ear: The outer part of the ear directs sounds down the auditory canal, and on to
the eardrum .The sound waves will cause the eardrum to vibrate.

(c) Middle Ear: Beyond the eardrum is the middle ear which transmits vibrations from the
eardrum by way of three small bones known as the ossicles, to the fluid of the inner
ear. The middle ear also contains two muscles which help to protect the ear from sounds
above 80 dB by means of the acoustic or aural reflex, reducing the noise level by up to
20 dB. However, this protection can only be provided for a maximum of about 15
minutes, and does not provide protection against sudden impulse noise such as
gunfire. It does explain whya person is temporarily deafened for a few seconds after a
sudden loud noise. The middle ear is usually filled with air which is refreshed by way of
the Eustachian tube which connects this part of the ear with the back of the nose and
mouth. However this tube can allow mucus to travel to the middle ear which can build
up, interfering with normal hearing.

(d) Inner Ear: Unlike the middle ear, the inner ear is filled with fluid. The last of the
ossicles in the middle ear is connected to the cochlea .This contains a fine membrane
(the basilar Membrane) covered in hair-like cells which are sensitive to movement in
the fluid. Any vibrations they detect cause neural impulses to be transmitted to the brain
via the auditory nerve.

The amount of vibration detected in the cochlea depends on the volume and pitch ofthe
original sound.

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Figure 3.4: The human ear

Performance and Limitations of the Ear

(a) The performance of the ear is associated with the range of sounds that can beheard
both in terms of the pitch (frequency) and the volume of the sound.

The audible frequency range that a young person can hear is typically between 20
and 20,000 cycles per second (or Hertz), with greatest sensitivity at about 3000 Hz,

(b) Volume (or intensity) of sound is measured in decibels (dB). Table 3.1 shows
intensity levels for various sounds and activities.

Impact of Noise on Performance

(a) Noise can have various negative effects in the workplace. It can:
 be annoying (e.g. sudden sounds, constant loud sound, etc.);
 interfere with verbal communication between individuals in the workplace;
 cause accidents by masking warning signals or messages;
 be fatiguing and affect concentration, decision making, etc.;
 damage workers hearing (either temporarily or permanently).

Activity Approximate Intencity

level in Decibels (dB)
Rustling of leaves/ whisper 20
Conversation at 2m 50
Typewriter at 1m 65
Car at 15m 70

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Lorry at 15m 75
Power Mower at 2m 90
Propeller aircraft at 300m 100
Jet aircraft at 300m 110
Standing near a propeller aircraft 120
Threshold pain 140
Immediate hearing damage results 150

Table 3,1: Typical sound levels for various activities

(b) Intermittent and sudden noises are generally considered to be more disruptive than
continuous noise at the same level. In addition, high frequency noise generally has a
More adverse affect on performance than lower frequency. Noise tends to increase
errors and variability, rather than directly affect work rate. This subject is discussed
further in Chapter 5.

Hearing impairment

(a) Hearing loss can result from exposure to even relatively short duration noise. The
degree of impairment is influenced mainly by the intensity of the noise. Such damage is
known as Noise Induced Hearing Loss (NIHL).The hearing loss can be temporary,
lasting from a few seconds to a few days or permanent. Temporary hearing loss may
be caused by relatively short exposure to very loud sound, as the hair-like cells on the
basilar membrane take time to 'recover'. With additional exposure, the amount or
recovery gradually decreases and hearing loss becomes permanent. Thus, regular
exposure to high levels of noise over a long period may permanently damage the hair-
like cells in the cochlea, leading to irreversible hearing impairment.

(b) The UK “Noise at Work” regulations-1 (1989) imposes requirements upon employers.
They stipulate three levels of noise at which an employer mustact:

(i) 85 decibels (if normal speech cannot be heard clearly at 2 meters),employer

must;
 assess the risk to employees' hearing,
 tell the employees about the risks and what precautions are proposed,provide their
employees with personal ear protectors and explain their use.

(ii) 90 decibels (if normal speech cannot be heard clearly at 1 meter) employer must:
 do all that is possible to reduce exposure to the noise by means other thanby
providing hearing protection,
 mark zones where noise reaches the second level and provide recognizedsigns to
restrict entry.

(iii) 140 decibels (noise causes pain).

(c) The combination of duration and intensity of noise can be described as noise

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dose. Exposure to any sound over 80 dB constitutes a noise dose, and can be measured
over the day as an 8 hour Time Weighted Average sound level (TWA).

For example, a person subjected to 95 decibels for 3.5 hours, then 105 decibels for
0.5 hours, then 85 decibels for 4 hours, results in a TWA of 93.5 which exceeds the
recommended maximum TWA of 90 decibels.

(d) Permanent hearing loss may occur if the TWA is above the recommended maximum.

It is normally accepted that a TWA noise level exceeding 85 dB for 8 hours is

hazardous and potentially damaging to the inner ear. Exposure to noise in excess of
115 decibels without ear protection, even for a short duration, is not recommended.

Hearing Protection

(a) Hearing protection is available, to a certain extent, by using ear plugs or ear defenders.

Noise levels can be reduced (attenuated) by up to 20 decibels using ear plugs and
40 decibels using ear muff. However, using ear protection will tend to adversely interfere with
verbal communication. Despite this, it must be used consistently and as instructed to be
effective.

(b) It is good practice to reduce noise levels at source, or move noise away from workers.
Often this is not a practical option in the aviation maintenance environment. Hearing
protection should always be used for noise, of any duration, above 115 dB. Referring
again to Table-1, this means that the aviation maintenance engineer will almost
always need to use some form of hearing protection when in reasonably close proximity
(about 200 - 300m) to aircraft whose engines are running.

Presbycusis

Hearing deteriorates naturally as one grows older. This is known as presbycusis. This
affects ability to hear high pitch sounds first, and may occur gradually from the 30's onwards.
When this natural decline is exacerbated by Noise Induced Hearing Loss, it can obviously
occur rather sooner.

Hearing and the Aircraft Maintenance Engineer

(a) The UK CAA makes the following recommendations regarding hearing:

"The ability to hear an average conversational voice in a quiet room at a distance of 2

meters (6 feet) from the examiner is recommended as a routine test. Failure of this test
would require an audiogram to be carried out to provide an objective assessment. If
necessary, a hearing aid may be worn but consideration should be given to the
practicalities of wearing the aid during routine tasks demanded of the individual."

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(b) it is very important that the aircraft maintenance engineer understands the limited ability
of the ears to protect themselves from damage due to excessive noise. Even though
engineers should be given appropriate hearing protection and trained in its use, it is up
to individuals to ensure that they actually put this to good use. It is a misconception
that the ears get used to constant noise: if this noise is too loud, it will damage the
ears gradually and insidiously. Noise in the workplace is discussed further in Chapter 5.

LISTENING PROCESS

General

(a) Hearing is a passive process which theoretical just involves the mechanics of the
sensation caused by noise in the vicinity of the human ear. Listening, on the other
hand, requires the full information processing activity that we will describe later in this
module to take place. We have to attend to what is heardby the senses and place it into
the short term or working memory for consideration.

(b) Listening involves selecting, attending, understanding and responding:

(i) Selecting: we select what we want to listen to from all the sounds aroundus.
(ii) Attending: we must pay attention to the sound.
(iii) Understanding: this is the process of assigning meaning to the sound.
(iv) Responding: a response may be remembering what you have heard or itmay be
taking action.

Active Listening Process

(a) In order for you to listen properly you must engage in what we call active listening.
(b) For active listening, it is needed for an individual to:

 Get prepared by thinking about the topic being discussed;

 Stay involved by focusing in what the speaker is saying not on what you wantto say;
 Keep an open mind about the subject and in particular be willing to accept
alternative views to your own;
 Review and evaluate by putting the information into different words thatprovide the
same meaning; and,
 Give feedback though appropriate responses.

(c) There are many barriers to active listening. For example:

-Too much information

- Listening shouldn’t be a passive activity
- Boring subject;

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- Concentrating on your own views;

- Being easily distracted by other influences;
- Criticizing the delivery rather than the content.

(d) In summary,

- Listening shouldn't be a passive activity

- Restate or paraphrase what the other person is saying
- Provides clarification and assists accuracy
- Focus on verbal and non-verbal feedback
- Factors such as body position or posture, tone of voice, and physical
appearance can be quite revealing.

INFORMATION PROCESSING

General

(a) The previous sections have described the basic functions and limitations of two of the
senses used by aircraft maintenance engineers in the course of their work. This
section examines the way the information gathered by the senses is processed by the
brain. The limitations of the human information processing system are also considered.

Information processing is the process of receiving information through the senses,

analysing it and making it meaningful,

(b) As people interact with their environment, senses are used in acquiring
information that are subsequently processed and applied.

(c) We have five senses. Some people claim a sixth sense which is intuition and there is
no doubt many people have some intuition.

(d) The five senses are:

 Sight: through the visual system using our eyes as the primary sensor.
 Hearing: through the auditory system using our ears.
 Touch: feel through the skin are said to use the integument.
 Taste: is sensed via the gustatory system using the tongue as the primarysource
of sense.
 Smell: is through our noses using the olfactory system.

An Information Processing Model

(a) Information processing can be represented as a model. This captures the main
elements of the process, from receipt of information via the senses, to outputs such as decision
making and actions. One such model is shown in Figure 3.5.

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Figure 3.5: A functional model of human information processing

Sensor Receptors and Sensory Stores

Physical stimuli are received via the sensory receptors (eyes, ears, etc.) and stored for a very
brief period of time in sensory stores (sensory memory).Visual informationis stored for up to
half a second in iconic memory and sounds are stored for slightly longer (up to 2 seconds) in
echoic memory. This enables us to remember a sentence as a sentence, rather than merely
as an unconnected string of isolated words, or a film as a film, rather than as a series of
disjointed images.

Attention and Perception

(a) Having detected information, our mental resources are concentrated onspecific
elements -this is attention.

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Attention can be thought of as the concentration of mental effort on sensory or

mental events.

(b) Although attention can move very quickly from one item to another, it can only deal
with one item at a time. Attention can take the form of:

 Selective attention,
 Divided attention
 Focused attention
 Sustained attention.

(c) Selective attention occurs when a person is monitoring several sources of input, with
greater attention being given to one or more sources which appear more important. A
person can be consciously attending to one source whilst still sampling other sources
in the background. Psychologists refer to this as the “cocktail party” effect:
whereby you can be engrossed in a conversation with one person but your attention is
temporarily diverted if you overhear your name being mentioned at the other side of the
room, even though you were not aware of listening in to other people's conversations.
Distraction is the negative side of selective attention.

(d) Divided attention is common in most work situations, where people are required to do
more than one thing at the same time. Usually, one task suffers at the expense of the
other, more so if they are similar in nature. This type of situation is also sometimes
referred to as time sharing.

(e) Focused attention is merely the skill of focusing one's attention upon a single source and
avoiding distraction.

(f) Sustained attention as its name implies, refers to the ability to maintain attention and
remain alert over long periods of time, often on one task. Most of the research has
been carried out in connection with monitoring radar displays, but there is also
associated research which has concentrated upon inspection tasks.

(g) Attention is influenced by arousal level and stress. This can improve attention or
damage it depending on the circumstances. This is covered in more detailIn Chapter
5.

(h) Perception involves the organization and interpretation of sensory data in order to
make it meaningful, discarding non-relevant data, i.e. transforming data into
information. Perception is a highly sophisticated mechanism and requires existing
knowledge and experience to know what data to keep and what to discard, and how to
associate the data in a meaningful manner.

Perception can be defined as the process of assembling sensations into a useable

mental representation of the world, Perception creates faces, melodies, works of art,
illusions, etc, out of the raw material of sensation.

Examples of the perceptual process:

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 the image formed on the retina is inverted and two dimensional, yet we see theworld
the right way up and in three dimensions.
 If the head is turned, the eyes detect a constantly changing pattern of images, yetwe
perceive things around us to have a set location, rather than move chaotically.

Decision Making

(a) Having recognized coherent information from the stimuli reaching our senses, a
course of action has to be decided upon. In other words decision making occurs.

Decision making is the generation of alternative courses of action based an available

information, knowledge, prior experience, expectation, context, goals, etc and
selecting one preferred option. It is also described as thinking, problem solving and
judgment.

(b) This may range from deciding to do nothing, to deciding to act immediately ina very
specific manner. A fire alarm bell, for instance, may trigger a well- trained sequence of
actions without further thought (i.e. evacuate); alternatively, an unfamiliar siren may
require further information to be gathered before an appropriate course of action can
be initiated.

(c) We are not usually fully aware of the processes and information which we useto make
a decision. Tools can be used to assist the process of making a decision. For instance, in
aircraft maintenance engineering, many documents (e.g. maintenance manuals, fault
diagnosis manuals), and procedures are available to supplement the basic decision
making skills of the individual. Thus, good decisions are based on knowledge
supplemented by written information and procedures, analysis of observed symptoms,
performance indications, etc. It can be dangerous to believe that existing
knowledge and prior experience will always be sufficient in every situation as will be
shown in the section entitled 'Information Processing Limitations.

(d) Finally, once a decision has been made, an appropriate action can be carried out. Our
senses receive feedback of this and its result. This helps to improve knowledge and
refine future judgment by learning from experience.

Memory

(a) Memory is critical to our ability to act consistently and to learn new things. Without
memory, we could not capture a 'stream ' of information reaching our senses, or draw on
past experience and apply this knowledge when making decisions.

Memory can be considered to be the storage and retention of information,

experiences and knowledge, as well as the ability to retrieve this information.

(b) Memory depends on three processes:

 Registration: the input of information into memory;

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 storage : the retention of information;

 retrieval: the recovery of stored information.

(c) It is possible to distinguish between three forms of memory:

 ultra short-term memory (or sensory storage);

 short term memory (often referred to as working memory)
 long term memory.

(d) Ultra short-term memory has already been described when examining the role
of sensory stores. It has duration of up to 2 seconds (depending on the sense) and is
used as a buffer, giving us time to attend to sensory input.

(e) Short term memory receives a proportion of the information received into sensory
stores, and allows us to store information long enough to use it (hence the idea of
'working memory '). It can store only a relatively small amount of information at one
time, i.e. 5 to 9 (often referred to as 7±2) items of information, for a short duration,
typically 10 to 20 seconds. As the following example shows, capacity of short term
memory can be enhanced by splitting information in to 'chunks ' (a group of related
items).

A telephone number, e.g. 01222555234, can be stored as 11 discrete digits, in which

case it is unlikely to be remembered. Alliteratively, it can be stored in chunks of
related information, [Link] the UK, 01222 may be stored as one chunk, 555 as
another, and 234 as another, using only 3 chunks and therefore, more likely to be
remembered. In mainland Europe, the same telephone number would probably be
stored as 01 22 25 55 23 4, using 6 chunks, The size of the chunk will be determined
by the individual's familiarity with the information (based on prior experience and
context), thus in this example, a person from the UK might recognize 0208 as the
code for London, but a person from mainland Europe might not.

(f) The duration of short term memory can be extended through rehearsal (mental
repetition of the information) or encoding the information in some meaningful manner
(e.g. associating it with something as in the example above).

(g) The capacity of long-term memory appears to be unlimited. It is used to store

information that is not currently being used, including:

 Knowledge of the physical world and objects within it and how thesebehave;
 Personal experiences;
 beliefs about people, social norms, values, etc.;
 motor programs, problem solving skills and plans for achieving variousactivities;
 abilities, such as language comprehension.

(h) Information in long-term memory can be divided into two types: (i) semantic
and (ii) episodic.

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(i) Semantic memory refers to our store of general, factual knowledge about the
world, such as concepts, rules, one’s own language, etc. It is information that is not
tied to where and when the knowledge was originally acquired.

(ii) Episodic memory refers to memory of specific events, such as our past
experiences (including people, events and objects). We can usually place these
things within a certain context. It is believed that episodic memory is heavily
influenced by a person's expectations of what should have happened, thus two
people's recollection of the same event can differ.

Motor Programs

If a task is performed often enough, it may eventually become automatic and the required skills
and actions are stored in long term memory. These are known as motor programs and are
ingrained routines that have been established through practice. The use of a motor program
reduces the load on the central decision maker. An often quoted example is that of driving a
car: at first, each individual action such as gear changing is demanding, but eventually the
separate actions are combined into a motor program and can be performed with little or no
awareness. These motor programs allow us to carry out simultaneous activities, such as
having a conversation whilst driving.

Situation Awareness

(a) Although not shown explicitly in Figure 8, the process of attention, perception and
judgment should result in awareness of the current situation.

Situation awareness is the synthesis of an accurate and up-to-date mental model of

one’s environment and state, and the ability to use this to make predictions of
possible future states.

(b) Situation awareness has traditionally been used in the context of the flight deck to
describe the pilot 's awareness of what is going on around him, e.g. where he is
geographically, his orientation in space, what mode the aircraft is in, etc. In the
maintenance engineering context, it refers to:
 the perception of important elements, e.g. seeing loose bolts or missingparts,
hearing information passed verbally; .
 the comprehension of their meaning, e.g. why is it like this? Is this how it
should be?
 the projection of their status into the future, e.g. future effects on safety,
schedule, airworthiness.

An example an engineer seeing (or perceiving) blue streaks on the fuselage. His
comprehension may be that the lavatory fill cap could be missing or the drain line
leaking. If his situation awareness is good, he may appreciate that such a leak could
allow blue water to freeze, leading to airframe or engine damage.

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(c) As with decision making, feedback improves situation awareness by informing us of

the accuracy of our mental models and their predictive power. The ability to project
system status backward, to determine what events may have led toan observed system
state, is also very important in aircraft maintenance engineering, as it allows effective
fault finding and diagnostic behavior. Situation awareness for the aircraft
maintenance engineer can be summarized as:

 the status of the system the engineer is working on;

 the relationship between the reported defect and the intended rectification;
 the possible effect on this work on other systems;
 the effect of this work on that being done by others and the effect of their work
on this work.

This suggests that in aircraft maintenance engineering, the entire team needs to
have situation awareness: not just of what they are doing individually, but of their
colleagues’ activities as well.

Information Processing Limitations

(a) The basic elements of human information processing have now been explored. It is
important to appreciate that these elements have limitations. As a consequence, the
aircraft engineer, like other skilled professionals, requires support such as reference to
written material (e.g. manuals).

(b) Attention and Perception:

(i) A proportion of 'sensed' data may be lost without being 'perceived'. An example with
which most people are familiar is that of failing to perceive something which someone
has said to you, when you are concentrating on something else, even though the words
would have been received at the ear without any problem. The other side of the coin is
the ability of the information processing system to perceive something (such as a
picture, sentence, concept, etc.) even though some of the data may be missing. The
danger, however, is that people can fill in the gaps with information from their own
'store of knowledge or experience, and this may lead to the wrong conclusion being
drawn.

Once we have formed a mental model of a situation, we often seek information

which will confirm this model and, not consciously, reject Information which suggests
that this model is incorrect.

(ii) There are many well-known visual 'illusions' which illustrate the limits of human
perception. Figure 3.6 shows how the perceptual system can be misled into believing
that one line is longer than the other, even though a ruler will confirm that they are
exactly the same.

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Figure 3.6: The Muller-Lyer Illusion

(iii) Figure 3.7 illustrates that we can perceive the same thing quite differently (i.e. the letter
"B” or the number "13 "). This shows the influence of context on our information
processing.

Figure 3.7: The importance of context.

(iv) In aviation maintenance it is often necessary to consult documents with which the
engineer can become very familiar. It is possible that an engineer can scan a
document and fail to notice that subtle changes have been made. He sees only what he
expects to see (expectation).To illustrate how our eyes can deceive us when quickly
scanning a sentence, read quickly the sentence below in Figure 3.8.

Figure 3.8: The effects of expectation

(v) At first, most people tend to notice nothing wrong with the sentence. Ourperceptual
system sub-consciously rejects the additional "THE ".

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As an illustration of how expectation, can affect our judgment, the same video of a
car accident was shown to two groups of subjects. One group were told that in
advance that they were to be shown a video of a car crash; the other told that the car
had been involved in a “bump”. Both groups were asked to judge the speed at which
the vehicles had collided. The first group assessed the speed as significantly higher
than the second group.

(vi) Expectation can also affect our memory of events. The study outlined above was
extended such that subjects were asked, a week later, whether they recalled seeing glass
on the road after the collision (There was no glass).The group who had been told that
they would see a crash, recalled seeing glass; the other group recalled seeing no glass.

Decision Making, Memory Motor Programs

(a) Attention and perception shortcomings can clearly impinge on decision making.
Perceiving something incorrectly may mean that an incorrect decision is made,
resulting in an inappropriate action. Figure-8 also shows the dependence on memory to
make decisions. It was explained earlier that sensory and short-term memory has
limited capacity, both in terms of capacity and duration. It is also important to bear in
mind that human memory is fallible, so that information:

 may not be stored;

 may be stored incorrectly;
 may be difficult to retrieve.

(b) All these may be referred to as forgetting, which occurs when information is unavailable
(not stored in the first place) or inaccessible (cannot be retrieved). Information in short-
term memory is particularly susceptible to interference, an example of which would be
trying to remember a part number trying to recalla telephone number.

(c) It is generally better to use manuals and temporary aides-memoires rather than to rely
upon memory, even in circumstances where the information to be remembered or
recalled is relatively simple. For instance, an aircraft maintenance engineer may think
that he will remember a torque setting without writing it down, but between
consulting the manual and walking to the aircraft (possibly stopping to talk to someone
on the way), he may forget the setting or confuse it (possibly with a different torque
setting appropriate to a similar task with which he is more familiar). Additionally, if
unsure of the accuracy of memorized information, an aircraft maintenance engineer
should seek to check it, even if this means going elsewhere to do so. Noting
something down temporarily can avoid the risk of forgetting or confusing information.
However, the use of a personal note book to capture such information on a permanent
basis can be dangerous, as the information in it may become out-of-date.

In the Boeing-737 double engine oil loss incident, the AAIB report stated:

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"Once the Controller and fitter had got to their task and found that this supportive
material [Task Cards and AMM extracts] was not available in the workpack, they
would have had to return to Base Engineering or to have gone over to the Line
Maintenance office to get it. It would be, in some measure understandable for them
to have a reluctance to re-cross the exposed apron area on a winter’s night to obtain
a description of what they were fairly confident they knew anyway. However, during
the course of the night, both of them had occasion to return to the Base Maintenance
hangar a number of times before the task had been complete. Either could,
therefore, have referred to or even drawn the task descriptive papers before the job
was signed off. The question that should be addressed, therefore, is whether there
might be any factors other than overconfidence in their memories, bad judgment or
idleness which would dispose them to pass up these opportunities to refresh their
memories on the proper and complete procedures.

CLAUSTROPHOBIA, PHYSICAL ACCESS AND FEAR OF HEIGHTS

General

Although not peculiar to aircraft maintenance engineering, working in restricted space and at
heights is a feature of this trade. Problems associated with physical access are not uncommon.
Maintenance engineers and technicians often have to. access, and work in, very small spaces
([Link] fuel tanks), cramped conditions (suchas beneath flight instrument panels, around rudder
pedals), elevated locations (on cherry-pickers or staging), sometimes in uncomfortable climatic
or environmental conditions (heat, cold, wind, rain, noise).This can be aggravated by aspects
such as poor lighting or having to wear breathing apparatus. The physical environments
associated with these problems are examined further in Chapter 5.

Physical Access and Claustrophobia

(a) There are many circumstances where people may experience various levels of
physical or psychological discomfort when in an enclosed or small space, which is
generally considered to be quite normal. When this discomfort becomes extreme, it is
known as claustrophobia.

Claustrophobia can be defined as abnormal fear of being in an enclosed space.

(b) It is quite possible that susceptibility to claustrophobia is not apparent at the start of
employment. It may come about for the first time because of an incident when
working within a confined space, e.g. panic if unable to extricate oneself from a fuel
tank. If an engineer suffers an attack of claustrophobia, they should make their
colleagues and supervisors aware so that if tasks likely to generate claustrophobia
cannot be avoided, at least colleagues may be able to assist in extricating the engineer
from the confined space quickly, and sympathetically. Engineers should work in a
team and assist one another if necessary, making allowances for the fact that people
come in all shapes and sizes and that it may be easier for one person to access a space,
than another. However, this should not be used as an excuse for an engineer who has put
on weight, to excuse himself from jobs which he would previously have been able to do
with greater ease!

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Fear of Heights

(a) Working at significant heights can also be a problem for some aircraft maintenance
engineers, especially when doing 'crown' inspections (top of fuselage, etc.). Some
engineers may be quite at ease in situations like these whereas others may be so
uncomfortable that they are far more concerned about the height, and holding on to the
access equipment, than they are about the job in hand. In such situations, it is very
important that appropriate use is made of harnesses and safety ropes. These will not
necessarily remove the fear of heights, but will certainly help to reassure the engineer
and allow him to concentrate on the task in hand. The FAA's hiskyway website provides
practical guidance to access equipment when working at height. Ultimately, if an
engineer finds working high up brings on phobic symptoms (such as severe anxiety
and panic), they should avoid such situations for safety's sake. However, as with
claustrophobia, support from team members can be helpful.

Shortly before the Aloha accident, during maintenance, the inspector needed ropes
attached to the rafters of the hangar to prevent falling from the aircraft when it was
necessary to inspect rivet lines on top of the fuselage, Although unavoidable, this
would not have been conducive to ensuring that the inspection was carried out
meticulously (nor was it, as the subsequent accident investigation revealed). The
NTSB investigation report stated.

“Inspection of the rivets required inspectors to climb on scaffolding and move along
the upper fuselage carrying a bright light with them; in the case of an eddy current
inspection, the inspectors needed probe, a meter, and a light. At times, the inspector
needed ropes attached to the rafters of the hangar to prevent falling from the
airplane when it was necessary to inspect rivet lines on top of the fuselage. Even if
the temperatures were comfortable and the lighting was good, the task of examining
the area around one rivet after another for signs of minute cracks while standing on
scaffolding or on top of the fuselage is very tedious. After examining more and more
rivets and finding no cracks, it is natural to begin to expect that cracks will not be
found.”

(b) Managers and supervisors should attempt to make the job as comfortable and secure as
reasonable possible (e.g. providing knee pad rests, ensuring that staging does not
wobble, providing ventilation in enclosed spaces, etc.) and allow for frequent breaks if
practicable.

PERFORMANCE SHAPING FACTORS

General

In this section, we will attempt to indentify and describe the internal and external factors that
have an impact on shaping the performance of aircraft maintenance engineers. The split
between internal and external Performance Shaping Factors (FSFs) is a deliberate one to
explain that there are some aspects of performance shaping factors that we actually can’t control
ourselves.

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This does not mean that we have to be any less aware of them, because it is that awareness that
allows us to take account of those issues and put further safety barriers in place to trap any
errors that may occur.

Internal and External PSFs

(a) We will also take this internal/ external split a step further and consider both positive
and negative performance shaping factors. The reason for this is to attempt to make the
point that performance can actually be enhanced if the PSFs are positive even though we
spend more time concentrating on the negative aspects because it is the errors that are
generated by the negative aspects that we are trying to manage.

(b) Internal PSFs relate to the individual. The can be physiological, as in having some
physical bearing on you as an individual, or psychological, as in affecting the way
you think or feel, or indeed they could be social elements that have a more
widespread effect on your life. Specifically, they relate to a particular individual and no
two individuals will have exactly the same PSFs though they may share some
similarities. For example, co-workers may be expecting to attend a wedding party that
evening and are quite excited about the prospect. This is likely to affect the work of
both of them though not necessarily in the same way. One might be quite distracted as
he or she goes about their work, while the other might be hurrying through their work
in order to finish early.

(c) External PSF's, on the other hand, are outside of the control of the individual. The work
environment (as in work space) and organizational factors can havea large bearing on
the performance of individuals. A simple example would be the quality and power of the
computers that employees are issued with to conduct their work.

(d) It is also important to recognize that PSF's can be both positive and negative though we
mostly consider just their negative context, if we are trying to prevent errors.

Positive and Negative Internal PSFs

(a) Some positive internal PSF's could include the motivation that an individual gets from
his or her superiors and peers, the friendships that they have in the workplace, and in
many respects, how well they feel they are trained to do the job. Most people are
happier doing a job that they know how to do well rather than one in which they are a
bit worried they might get into trouble over if they don't get it right.

(b) Negative internal performance shaping factors are those which have a negative effect
on being able to perform properly. For example, if you have had an argument with
your wife or girlfriend it is likely to be causing you some stress and distracting you from
doing the job properly. If you don't get on with your co-workers, so well it can become a
chore to come to work each day and even harder to be effective and performing at your
best.

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 HUMAN PERFORMANCE &
SOUTH ASIAN AIRLINES LTD LIMITATIONS CONTINUITION
TRAINING NOTES

(c) Of course the opposite of being competent at your job becomes a negative PSF. If
you are always worried about whether you are doing things right or whether or not
you are going to get into trouble because you are not much good at a certain task
then that will also negatively affect your work.

Positive and Negative External PSFs

(a) There are also positive and negative external PSFs, Positive external PSFs make it easy
to do your job properly. A well appointed, clean and well laid out workshop is likely to
get better performance out of the workers than one which is unkempt. The quality of
the tools and machinery that engineers are expected to use makes a difference and
an interested management can make a significant difference to the workplace
performance of individuals.

(b) On the negative side, having to work in conditions that are too hot or too cold for long
periods, and having to perform with unsatisfactory training and equipment will
definitely affect performance but not in the way management would prefer. This is a
prime breeding ground for errors and it is important that you are able to recognize them
so that something can be done about them.

Course Title
Chapter 03 Page
Human Performance & Limitations