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CHAPTER 01

FUNDAMENTALS OF HUMAN FACTORS

INTRODUCTION

MEANING OF HUMAN FACTORS

SCOPE OF HUMAN FACTORS AND ERROR MANAGEMENT

HUMAN FACTORS MODELS

HUMAN FACTORS IN AVIATION

ORIGINS OF HUMAN FACTORS IN AVIATION

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HUMAN FACTORS AND ERGONOMICS.

THE IMPORTANCE OF HUMAN INPUT INTO AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE

ACTIVITIES

THE IMPORTANCE OF AN EFFECTIVE HUMAN FACTORS PROGRAM IN A

MAINTENANCE ORGANISATION.

AN INTEGRATED APPROACH TO HUMAN FACTORS AND SAFETY

THE COST EFFECTIVENESS OF IMPLEMENTING HF ROGRAMS IN

ORGANISATIONS.

REGULATORY ASPECTS OF HUMAN FACTORS IN AVIATION

ENGINEERING

THE IMPORTANCE OF TRAINING IN REDUCING MAINTENANCE

ERRORS

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INTRODUCTION

(a) Human performance and limitations centre around what is most commonly
termed as "Human Factors". It is, in broader sense, the Human Factors and
Error Management which applies common sense and substantiated scientific
knowledge on the way we go about our daily work.

(b) As the title suggests, the information on this course centre around the actions
and inactions of the individual in the work place and considers systems that
are designed to discover and correct errors before they have any negative
impact on safety.

(c) The principles associated with this subject area reflect the fact that as humans
we all make errors. If we can accept that we all make errors, then a policy of
zero error tolerance is unlikely to be an effective safeguard against any errors
eventually having harmful effects on operations. Therefore, a policy of error
Management is much more likely to result in safe operations. This subject
then is concerned about recognizing the myriad of factors that affect us as
humans, both positively and negatively.

(d) An understanding of the predictable human capabilities and limitations and

the application of this understanding are the primary concerns of Human
Factors.

MEANING OF HUMAN FACTORS

What is Human Factors?

(a) Human Factors as a term and as a subject has to be clearly defined. But no
single definition seems to meet all of the needs.

(b) As a term, it may be applied to any factor related to humans as the central
part of a working environment.

(c) In any working situation, human element is the most flexible, adaptable and
valuable part of it; but it is also most vulnerable to influences, which can,
adversely affect its performance. An understanding of this nature, predictable
capabilities and limitations of humans and the applications of this
understanding in real-life working situations are the primary concerns of
human factors. There has been research and investigations on Human
Factors and it has evolved as a complete subject. That has been
progressively developed, refined and institutionalized since the end of the last
century and is backed by a vast store of knowledge which can be used by
those concerned with enhancing the safety of the complex system which is
today's civil aircraft

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Some remarkable definitions of HF:

(a) Professor Elwyn Edwards (1988) proposed: "Human Factors is an applied

technology that is concerned with optimizing the relationships between people
and their activities by the systematic application of the human sciences,
integrated within the framework of systems engineering".
[Elwyn Edwards as referenced in ICAO Human Factors Digest No.1. (1989).
ICAO]

(b) "Human Factors refers to the study of human capabilities and limitations in the
workplace. Human Factors include, but are not limited to, such attributes as
human physiology, psychology, work place design, environmental conditions,
human-machine interface, and more. Human Factors researchers study
system performance. That is, they study the interaction of humans, the
equipment they use, the written and verbal procedures and rules they follow,
and the environmental conditions of any system."
[FAA Human Factors Guide for Aviation-MaIntenance]

(c) "Within the FAA, human factors entails a multidisciplinary effort to generate
and compile information about human capabilities and limitations and apply
that information to equipment, systems, facilities, procedures, jobs,
environments, training, staffing, and personnel management for safe,
comfortable, effective human performance." [FAA]

(d) "Human Factors and ergonomics and engineering psychology are roughly
equivalent terms used for the field of science concerned with the optimization
of the; relationship between people and the machines they operate through
the systematic application of human sciences integrated within the framework
of systems a engineering. Human Factors has been more widely used in the
USA, ergonomics r has been more widely used outside of the USA, and
engineering psychology has been more widely used in academia”
[Jensen, R. (1997) Opening address for the 9th International Symposium on
Aviation Psychology. Ohio University, USA.]

(e) "Human Factors focuses on human beings and their interaction with products,
equipment, facilities, procedures, and environments used in work and every-
day living. The emphasis is on human beings (as opposed to engineering,
where the emphasis is more on strictly technical engineering considerations)
and how the design of things influences people. Human Factors, then, seeks
to change the things people use and the environments in which they use
these things to better match the capabilities, limitations, and needs of people."
[Sanders, M.S. and McCormick, J. (1993) Human Factors in Engineering and
Design. Mc Graw-Hill.]

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(f) "Human factors refer to environmental, organizational and job factors, and
human and individual characteristics which influence behavior at work in a
way which can affect health and safety." [HSE. HSG487 January 2002]

ICAO Definitions Relating to Human Factors

(a) "Human Factors Principles: Principles which apply to aeronautical design,

certification, training, operations and maintenance and which seek safe
interface between the human and other system components by proper
consideration to human performance." [ICAO Annex 6, part 1.]

(b) "Human performance: Human capabilities and limitations which have an

impact on the safety and efficiency of aeronautical operations." [ICAO Annex
6, part 1, Definitions]

(c) "Human Factors is about people: it is about people in their working and living
environments, and it is about their relationship with equipment, procedures
and the environment. Just as importantly, it is about their relationships with
other people. Human Factors involves the overall performance of human
beings within the aviation system; it seeks to optimize people's performance
through the systematic application of the human sciences, often integrated
within the framework of system engineering. Its twin objectives can be seen
as safety and efficiency."
[ICAO HF Training Manual, Part 2, paragraph 1.4.2]

(d) "Human factors is essentially a multi-disciplinary field, including but not limited
to: psychology, engineering, physiology, sociology and anthropometry." [ICAO
HF Training Manual; Part 2, paragraph 1.4.3]

(e) "Human Factors has come to be concerned with diverse elements of the
aviation system. These include human behavior and performance; decision-
making and other cognitive processes; the design of controls and displays;
flight deck and cabin layout; communication and software aspects of
computers; maps, charts and documentation; and the refinement of training.
Each of these aspects demands skilled and effective human performance."
[ICAO HF Training Manual; Part 2, paragraph 1.4.4]

(f) "Aviation Human factors are primarily oriented towards solving practical
problems in the real world. As a concept, its relationship to the human
sciences might well be likened to that of engineering to the physical sciences.
And, just as technology links the physical sciences to various engineering
applications, there are a growing number of integrated Human Factors
techniques or methods; these varied and developing techniques can be
applied to problems as diverse as accident investigation and the optimization
of pilot training." ICAO HF Training Manual

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All of these definitions provide for a good understanding of the essence of human
factors which encapsulate the entire subject matter. Suffice to say that an attempt to
cover all aspects of human factors within one or two sentences is very difficult or
extremely long.

Subset Definitions

There will also be a significant number of aspects of Human Factors that will
require definition throughout this course. In most cases the definitions will be
supplied at the requisite chapters of study. There are a couple of terms, however,
that requires to be familiar with right from the start. They are:

 Ergonomics: The study of work ("the study of man in his working environment").

 Anthropometrics: The science of measurement and the art of application that

establishes the physical geometry, mass properties, and strength capabilities of
the human body.

 Biomechanics: Addresses issues of movement, leverage, and strength. From a

biomechanical perspective, the human body is a series of physical links (bones)
connected at certain points (joints) that allow various movements. Muscles and
tendons provide the motive force for all movements. The force that can be
applied in any given posture is dependent on the strength available from
muscles and the mechanical advantage provided by the relative positions of the
load, muscle connections, and joints.

SCOPE OF HUMAN FACTORS AND ERROR MANAGEMENT

(a) Many different textbooks will provide different ranges of topic areas that the
authors believe fall in the Human Factors and Error Management category.
For example, Frank Hawkins, in one of the more original texts on the subject
titled "Human Factors in Flight", identified the following topics through Chapter
headings in 1987:
 Human Error
 Fatigue, Body Rhythms and Sleep
 Fitness and Performance
 Vision and Visual Illusions
 Motivation and Leadership
 Communication: Language and Speech
 Attitudes and Persuasion
 Training and Training Devices
 Documentation
 Displays and Controls

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 Space and Layout

 Education and Application
 The Aircraft Cabin and its Human Payload

(b) The FAA Guide provides quite a different list of the elements of Human
Factors and Error Management as outlined below:

Detection and Perception Stereotypical Behavior

Early and Frequent Testing Errors Stress
Systems Approach Usability
Habituation Compatibility Limitations
Human Capabilities and Limitations Understandability
Performance Shaping Factors Effectiveness
Physical Compatibility User Population
Anthropometry Vigilance
Biomechanics Workload and so on
Work Physiology

113 HUMAN FACTORS MODELS

General

(a) Fundamentals of human factors are better understood by different models

postulated by experts.
(b) In this section, some models of human factors will be highlighted as a
beginning of the basic elements of the subject.

The SHEL Model

(a) Perhaps the most common way of expressing complex systems is to use
simple models to illustrate the ideas. In aviation, Elwyn Edwards (1972)
proposed the SHEL model to identify the components and interactions within
our complex industry. The acronym had the following meanings:
Software: the manuals, rules, procedures, spoken words, etc., which are part
and parcel of standard operating procedures in an organization;
Hardware: the aircraft, machinery, tools, control and display systems;
Environment: the physical, social and economic climate in which the
organization and individuals operate; and
Liveware: the human beings - engineers, flight crew, cabin crew, ground crew,
management and administration people - in the system.

(b) Human factors concentrates on the interfaces between the human (the 'L' in
the centre box i.e. Liveware) and the other elements of the SHEL model (see
Figure 1.1), and from a safety viewpoint, where these elements can be
deficient, e.g.:

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S: misinterpretation of procedures, badly written manuals, poorly designed

checklists, untested or difficult to use computer software
H: not enough tools, inappropriate equipment, poor aircraft design for
maintainability'
E: uncomfortable workplace, inadequate hangar space, extreme
temperatures, excessive noise, poor lighting
L: relationships with other people, shortage of manpower, lack of
supervision, lack of support from managers

Figure 1.1 SHEL Model

(c) As will be covered in this document, man, the "Liveware", can perform a wide
range of activities. Despite the fact that modern aircraft are now designed to
embody the latest self-test and diagnostic routines that modern computing
power can provide, one aspect of aviation maintenance has not changed:
maintenance tasks are still being done by human beings. However, man has
limitations. Since Liveware is at the centre of the model, all other aspects
(Software, Hardware and Environment) must be designed or adapted to assist
his performance and respect his limitations. If these two aspects are
ignored, the human - in this case the maintenance engineer will not perform to
the best of his abilities, may make errors, and may jeopardize safety.

(d) Thanks to modern design and manufacturing, aircraft are becoming more and
more reliable. However, it is not possible to re-design the human being: we
have to accept the fact that the human being is intrinsically unreliable.
However, we can work around that unreliability by providing good training,
procedures, tools, duplicate inspections, etc. We can also reduce the potential
for error by improving aircraft design such that, for example, it is physically
impossible to reconnect something the wrong way round.

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(e) Notably, Liveware is the hub of the SHEL model of Human Factors. The
remaining components must be adapted to and matched with this central
component.

(f) Liveware-Hardware: This interface is the most commonly considered when

speaking of human-machine systems: the design of seats to fit the sitting
characteristics of the human body; of displays to match the sensory and
information-processing characteristics of the user; of controls with proper
movement, coding, and location. The interactions between individuals and the
machinery or tools that they used requires some major rethinking to reduce
the error rate. Controls that required extreme physical strength, displays that
were easy to misread and hours of boring monitoring contributed to high error
rates in these interactions.

The user may not be aware of an L-H deficiency, even when it finally leads to
disaster, because the great virtue of human adaptability may mask the effects
of such a deficiency. However, the deficiency continues to exist and may
constitute a potential hazard.

Human Factors Ergonomically deals mostly, although not exclusively, with

issues arising from this interface.
User friendly controls and displays and a better understanding of the relative
strengths of humans and machines provided a platform for reducing error
rates considerably. Alarm systems were also provided to keep operations
within the established parameters.

(g) Liveware-Software: This encompasses the interface between humans and

the non-physical aspects of the system such as procedures, manual and
checklist layout, symbology, and computer programs. The problems may be
less tangible than those involving the L-H interface and consequently more
difficult to detect and resolve (e.g. misinterpretation/misunderstanding of
technical literature or symbology). Many of the manuals engineers were
expected to use were not user friendly, policies were interpreted differently by
different supervisors and rules were often ignored because they conflicted
with common sense.

A real need existed to improve communication and publications as well as to

put in checks and balances to pick up errors before they left the workshop.

(h) Liveware-Environment: The human-environment interface was one of the

earliest recognized in flying. Initially, measures taken were aimed at adapting
the human to the environment (e.g. by using helmets, flying suits, oxygen
masks and G suits). Later, attempts were made to alter the environment to
match human requirements (e.g. by applying pressurization, air-conditioning,
and soundproofing). Today, new challenges have raised, notably ozone

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concentrations and radiation hazards at high flight levels, and the problems
associated with disturbed biological rhythms and sleep due to high-speed
transmeridian travel. Since illusions and disorientation are involved in many
aviation occurrences, the L-E interface must also consider perceptual errors
induced by environmental conditions (e.g. illusions occurring during approach
and landing).

In the maintenance of aircraft, Engineers are often asked to work in hostile

physical conditions without satisfactory protective equipment and asked to
take responsibility for safety aspects that are compromised by lack of funding
for the right equipment.

The aviation system operates within the context of broad managerial, political,
and economic constraints. These aspects of the environment interact with the
human via this interface. Although modifications to these factors are generally
beyond the function of Human Factors practitioners, they should be
considered and addressed by those in management with the ability to do so.

In many cases, errors were significantly reduced just by providing the right
safety wear. For example ramp staff, which was often distracted by high noise
levels, could concentrate on their responsibilities much more effectively while
wearing the right grading of ear protection. Occupational health and safety
legislation has been enacted in many countries now to reduce error (and
injury) rates at the interaction between Liveware and the Environment.

The SHELL Model

(a) In 1984, Frank Hawkins proposed that the interactions between people were
also a significant arena for error generation. He proposed the addition of
another Liveware to the model to take account of the interactions between
people at both the macro and micro level. This became the SHELL Model.
(Figure 1.2)

Figure 1.2 SCHELL Model

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(b) Liveware-Liveware: This is the interface between people. Maintenance and

aircrew training and proficiency testing have traditionally been conducted on
individual basis. If each individual engineer/air crewmember was proficient,
then it was assumed that the team of maintenance/operation team comprising
those individuals would also be effective. This is not always the case. So,
attention has been increasingly tuned to breakdown of teamwork. Function as
groups and group interactions play a role in determining behavior and
performance. Through this L-L, Human Factors concentrates on errors
caused by miscommunication between individuals, poor teamwork in small
group situations, and ineffective leadership by supervisors and managers that
generates errors on the workshop floor. Staff management relationships are
also within the scope of this interface.

(c) Training and recognition of individual capabilities within the work environment
were coupled with redundancy systems to pick up on errors caused by
misunderstandings became a significant part of the human factors research
efforts to improve safety, effectiveness and efficiency.
(d) For the cockpit environment, Human Factors Digest No. @ describes current
industry approaches to deal with issues associated with this interface. (i.e.
CRM program)

The SCHELL Model

In 1994, Professor Graham Hunt from Massey University in New Zealand proposed
that all of these interactions necessarily take place within a cultural context. While
many commentators see this aspect as part of the environment, Professor Hunt
believes that the organisational, national and ethnic backgrounds of individuals play
a profound part in the interactions of the SHELL model and are currently not
addressed satisfactorily in most cases. He has proposed the SCHELL (pronounced
skell) model. This is still a debatable point. (Figure 1.3)

Figure 1.3 SHELL model

HUMAN FACTORS IN AVIATION

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(a) In the early days of powered flight, the design, construction and control of
aircraft predominated. The main attributes of the first pilots were courage and
the mastery of a whole new set of skills in the struggle to control the new
flying machines. As the technical aspects of flight were overcome bit by bit,
the role of the people associated with aircraft began to come to the fore. Pilots
were supported initially with mechanisms to help them stabilize the aircraft
and later with automated systems to assist the crew with tasks such as
navigation and communication. With such interventions to complement the
abilities of pilots, aviation human factors were born.

(b) The term "human factors" is used in many different ways in the aviation
industry. The term is, perhaps, best known in the context of aircraft cockpit
design and Crew Resource Management (CRM). However, those activities
constitute only a small percentage of aviation-related human factors as
broadly speaking it concerns any consideration of human involvement in
aviation.

(c) The use of the term "human factors" in the context of aviation maintenance
engineering is relatively new. Aircraft accidents such as that to the Aloha
aircraft in the USA in 1988 1 and the BAC 1-11 windscreen accident in the UK
in June 1990 brought the need to address human factors issues in this
environment into sharp `focus. This does not imply that human factors issues
were not present before these dates nor that human error did not contribute to
other incidents; merely that it took an accident to draw attention to human
factors problems and potential solutions.

ORIGINS OF HUMAN FACTORS IN AVIATION

GENERAL

(a) Many people would argue that the development of Human Factors is
necessarily as old as the development of aviation. This is because Human
Factors are part and parcel of any development in aviation and therefore their
development would be considered parallel. This is, however, a fairly simplistic
view and it would be fair to say that Human Factors, as a discipline is a
reasonably modern initiative. That is not to say that elements of Human
Factors such as those coming under the headings of Anthropometrics or
Biomechanics have not been taken into account well before the term "Human
Factors" was associated with them.

(b) World War II: World War II probably provided the genesis of subject areas
that we now consider to be part of Human Factors. By that we mean that
specific research was conducted on aeroplane operations and maintenance
with the prime intention of reducing accident and incident rates. In 1939, Sir
Frederick Bartlett in his Cambridge University laboratories was the first to

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build aircraft cockpit mockups and simulators for the prime purpose of
conducting experiments that would reduce pilot error during training as well as
war operations. Early researchers made significant safety advances through
Human Factor applications, though these were primarily in the fields of
anthropometrics, biomechanics and biophysiology.

(c) Post War Developments: Shortly after the war, in 1949, the Ergonomics
Research Society was founded in England. This Society was the foundation of
what later became the Ergonomic Society and the prime repository of Human
Factors research from all over Europe. Meanwhile, a similar body was
undertaking work in the United States. This body first took on the name
"Human Factors Society" in 1957 and became the centre of research for
Human Factors throughout North America. In many respects, these two
organizations developed in parallel and even replicated each other's work. It
wasn't until recently that they joined into a single entity that we now know as
"The Human Factors and Ergonomic Society".

(d) Human Factors really started to get the attention of decision makers in
aviation following the major disaster at Tenerife in 1977 when a KLM 747 ran
into a Pan American 747 during takeoff at Los Rodeos airport. This accident
was the catalyst for KLM to engage a number of academics under the
direction of Captain Frank Hawkins to put together the first course ("KHUFAC"
standing for KLM Human Hawkins aimed at educating flight crew on reducing
and managing errors through knowledge of Human Factors concepts. Also in
the late 70's, there were a number of accidents and incidents to US carriers
that resulted in insurance companies asking for the airlines to rethink their
educational strategies of flight crew. Cockpit Resource Management (CRM)
courses were the result of these deliberations and they were actively taken up
by most airlines in the world who could see a tangible benefit in educating
their flight crew in Human Factors concepts.

(e) Modern Focus: Following two significant mishaps in England, Cockpit

Resource Management transformed into Crew Resource Management. The
two specific incidents involved scenarios in which the cabin crew had
information that could well have averted disaster but it was not passed on to
the captain in time to do so. Cabin crew then became an integral part of the
safety equation on modern airliners and they too were required to attend
Human Factors courses with the express intention of reducing and managing
human error. It did not take long for senior management personnel in airlines
to realize that in fact these Human Factors elements played a significant role
in the success or failure of their entire organization. The term "Corporate
Resource Management" or "Company Resource Management" was coined by
some to reflect the fact that these Human Factors skills should be taught to
everyone in the organization. This is in effect what have become Human
Factors and Error Management today. Many regulatory authorities have also

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gone so far as to require such courses to be taken for licensing purposes. You
are attending one of those courses now.

Who is promoting Human Factors?

(a) It is important to note that Human Factors is evolving on a daily basis. At

present, ICAO has led the requirement for including Human Factors amongst
the professional licensing examinations by providing syllabi of training in
Human Factors. Most of the leading aviation nations have now included
Human Factors in their licensing examinations.

(b) Universities around the world are also continually conducting research studies
specifically aimed at reducing errors in aviation. This includes improved
aerodynamics and better engine performance, but in many cases, specifically
targets Human Factor elements that they perceive as having a major impact
on safety. The reason for this is fairly obvious when we consider that human
error is variously reported as being the primary causes of between 70% and
86% of all aviation accidents. It makes sense then to suggest that an
improvement in Human Factor disciplines should lead to a reduced error rate.

(c) Major aviation training organizations, whether flight crew, engineering or air
traffic control, have also taken the 'read by including Human Factors in their
training syllabi. One of the major advantages of this development is a
transition of the teaching of Human Factors from the university academicians
who generally conducted the research, to practitioners who work in the field
every day. This is seen as making the Human Factors concepts much more
accessible and with direct application to the engineer in the workshop.

(d) Human Factors as a discipline is now being discovered outside the aviation
arena as well. Many of the principles that you will cover during this course are
now also starting to be applied to such various professions as anesthetists, oil
rig workers and nuclear power plant employees. Again, we expect these
developments will have positive spin off effects for those of us in the aviation
industry.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HUMAN FACTORS AND ERGONOMICS.

(a) The term ergonomics was derived from the Greek words ergon (work) and
nomos (natural law), and was coined in 1949 by Professor Hywell Murrel who
defined it as "the study of man in his working environment". This definition
comes very close to the definition of Human Factors proposed by Professor
Elwyn Edwards (mentioned earlier).

(b) While in many countries the terms ergonomics and Human Factors are used
interchangeably, there is a small difference in emphasis. Human Factors has

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acquired a wider meaning, including aspects of human performance and

system interfaces which are not generally considered in the mainstream of
ergonomics. ICAO Digest No. 1 proposes that the two terms be considered
synonymous, to preclude dwelling on academic or semantic considerations
and to avoid confusion; however, it indicates that the term ergonomics is used
in many States to refer strictly to the study of Hunan-machine system design
issues. From this perspective, ergonomics is the study of the principles of
interaction between human and equipment, for the purpose of applying them
in design. Ergonomics studies human attributes, determining what
requirements in hardware and software result from the characteristics of the
activities involved. It attempts to solve the problem of adapting technology and
working conditions to humans.

(c) In terms of maintenance engineering, separating the two definitions is not

really appropriate. This is because in aviation as distinct from other contexts,
the work that was done in the United States under the banner of Human
Factors and the work that has been done in Europe under the banner of
Ergonomics covers the same subject areas.

(d) In aviation maintenance engineering, we now use the terms interchangeably.

That is, they are synonymous or mean the same thing.

THE IMPORTANCE OF HUMAN INPUT INTO AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE

ACTIVITIES

(a) Humans and machines have different strengths and weaknesses and
recognition of these differences goes a long way to giving the right jobs to
people and the right jobs to machines thereby reducing the chance of errors.
McCormick (1976) proposed the following lists for consideration:

(b) Humans are better in their ability to:

 Sense very low levels of certain kinds of stimuli: visual, auditory, tactile,
olfactory, and taste.
 Detect stimuli against high-noise-level background, such as blips on a
cathode-ray-tube radar display with poor reception.
 Recognize patterns of complex stimuli that may vary from situation to
situation, such as objects in aerial photographs and speech sounds.
 Sense unusual and unexpected events in the environment.
 Store (remember) large amounts of information over long periods of time
(better for remembering principles and strategies than masses of detailed
information).
 Retrieve pertinent information from storage (recall), frequently retrieving
many related items of information; but reliability of recall is low.
 Draw upon varied experience in making decisions; adapt decisions to

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situation requirements; act in emergencies. (Does not require previous

"Programming" for all situations.)
 Select alternative modes of operation, if certain modes fail.
 Reason inductively, generalizing from observations.
 Apply principles to solutions of varied problems.
 Make subjective estimates and evaluations.
 Develop entirely new solutions.
 Concentrate on most important activities, when overload conditions require.
 Adapt physical response (within reason) to variations in operational
requirements.

(c) Machines are generally better in their abilities to:

 Sense stimuli that are outside the human's normal range of sensitivity, such
as x-rays, radar wavelengths, and ultrasonic vibrations.
 Apply deductive reasoning, such as recognizing stimuli as belonging to a
general class (but the characteristics of the class need to be specified)
 Monitor the pre-specified events, especially when infrequent (but machines
cannot improvise in case of unanticipated types of events).
 Store coded information quickly and in substantial quantity (for example, large
sets of numerical values can be stored very quickly).
 Retrieve coded information quickly and accurately when specifically
requested (although specific instructions need to be provided on the type of
information that is to be recalled).
 Process quantitative information following specified programs.
 Make rapid and consistent responses to input signals.
 Perform repetitive activities reliably.
 Exert considerable physical force in a highly controlled manner.
 Maintain performance over extended periods of time (Machines typically do
not "fatigue" as rapidly as humans).
 Count or measure physical quantities.
 Perform several Programmed activities simultaneously.
 Maintain efficient operations under conditions of heavy load (humans have a
relatively limited channel capacity).
 Maintain efficient operations under distractions.

(d) The point is that the system needs both humans and machines to interact in
synergy each utilizing the strengths of the other to provide total system safety.
The human is an integral part of the system.

THE IMPORTANCE OF AN EFFECTIVE HUMAN FACTORS PROGRAM IN A

MAINTENANCE ORGANISATION.

(a) Humans have performance limitations, therefore they make errors. Effective
Human Factors Programs train staff and put systems in place to pick up those

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errors therefore; those errors don't result in delays, incidents or accidents.

(b) Fewer errors by engineer’s means reduced delays, incidents and accidents.
Therefore, the company is safer and more cost efficient.

(c) A safer, more cost efficient, company means:

- Fewer delays
- Fewer injuries
- Better company performance
- And therefore, better job security for its workers.

AN INTEGRATED APPROACH TO HUMAN FACTORS AND SAFETY

Integrated Approach

(a) Human factors initiatives will be more effective if they are integrated within
existing company processes, and not treated as something additional or
separate or short-term. Human factors initiatives have sometimes failed in the
past because they have been marginalized and regarded as a temporary
'fashion'. Much of human factors, in the context of maintenance organizations
and JAR145 requirements, are common sense, professionalism, quality
management, safety management i.e. what organizations should already
have been doing all along.

(b) The "human factors" initiatives in the context of JAR145 are really "safety and
airworthiness" initiatives, the aim being to ensure that maintenance is
conducted in a way that ensures that aircraft are released to service in a safe
condition. The organization should have a safety management system in
place, many of the elements of which will need to take into account human
factors in order to be effective.

(c) Ideally, human factors best practice should be seamlessly and invisibly
integrated within existing company processes, such as training, quality
management, occurrence reporting and investigation, etc. Sometimes it is a
good idea to re-invent an initiative under a new name if it has failed in the
past, but you should be cautious about unnecessarily duplicating functions
which may already exist (e.g. occurrence reporting schemes / quality
discrepancy reporting etc.). It may only be necessary to slightly modify
existing processes to meet the JAR145 human factors requirements.

(d) Human factors training is probably an exception to the advice given above, in
that it is usually so new and different to any existing training that it warrants
being treated as a separate entity, at least for initial training. Recurrent
training, however, is probably better integrated within existing recurrent
training.

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(e) Having stated that it doesn't matter what you call the initiatives, as long as
they are done, this report will go on to refer to a "human factors program" only
in as far as it is a useful term to cover the elements which need to be
established within an organization to address human factors issues. The
majority of these elements are addressed by JAR145 or the JAA MHFWG
report.

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Elements of a Human Factors Program

(a) Figure 1.4 (adapted from ATA Specification 113: Maintenance Human Factors
Program Guidelines) shows how the various elements of a human factors
program should interact:

(b) The key elements of human factors programmed are:

 Top level commitment to safety and human factors.

 A company policy on human factors.
 Human factors training (of all appropriate personnel, including managers - not
just certifying staff).
 Reporting, investigation and analysis scheme(s) which will allow reporting of
errors, actual & potential safety risks, inaccuracies and ambiguities with
Maintenance Manuals, procedures or job cards (not just those which have to
be reported as Mandatory Occurrence Reporting (MOR)s).
 A clear disciplinary policy stressing those genuine errors will not result in
punishment.
 Human factors and ergonomics audits, Line Operations Safety Audits (LOSA)
(of workplaces, lighting, noise, tooling, adequacy of procedures, actual
compliance with procedures, manpower, adequacy of planning, etc.).
 The resources and willingness to act upon the findings arising from
occurrence reports and audits, and to provide fixes where appropriate.
 A mechanism for reporting problems to the Type Certificate Holder.
 A mechanism for ensuring that internal procedures and work instructions are
well designed and follow best practice.
 A means of providing feedback to staff on problems and fixes.
 Abolition of any 'double standards' concerning procedural violations.
 A policy for management of fatigue.
 Motivation of staff to support the initiatives.

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Figure 1.4

(c) Health and safety would normally be considered separate to human factors, at
least in the UK, although there are areas of overlap.

THE COST EFFECTIVENESS OF IMPLEMENTING HF ROGRAMS IN

ORGANISATIONS.

(a) There are two primary reasons for including Human Factor programs in
organizations. They are Safety and Cost.

(b) Safety has two aspects to it.

(i) First and foremost is public safety. Organizations that are better trained
and present fewer errors in their routine and emergency work present a
safer option to the travelling public. Passengers prefer to travel with a
safer airline.
(ii) And second is on-the-job safety for maintenance workers reduced error
rates are reflected in the injury rates amongst staff and less down time
for workers. It is worth noting here that those injuries aren't always
physical. More on that subject is given later in the course.
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Cost savings are a bit more tangible than safety as a reason to implement HF
programs and therefore easier to identify with. It is very difficult to prove to an
accountant that you saved an accident from occurring but it is easier to show
book figures that show definitive cost savings. Ironically, the biggest cost
savings are in reduced accident rates, it is just that in ultra-safe systems such as
aviation, the accident rates are so small that they become statistically
insignificant.
- There are cost savings through fewer operational delays and quicker
turnaround times for equipment.
- And there are reduced costs through less downtime on equipment
and workers caused by errors.

(c) In summary, the overall cost of maintenance is reduced by implementing HF

programs in organizations. Many airlines (as for example SIAEC and its
parent company, SIA) run many Human Factor programs within the different
branches of the organization with justified cost effectiveness.

REGULATORY ASPECTS OF HUMAN FACTORS IN AVIATION

ENGINEERING

Human performance and Limitations (i.e. Human Factors) relevant to the

duties of aircraft maintenance is a new subject of knowledge mandated by the
ICAO in Annex 1 and by the CAAB in ANO.

THE IMPORTANCE OF TRAINING IN REDUCING MAINTENANCE

ERRORS

(a) Public and personal safety relies on competent individuals and systems
working together to meet specific safety standards. It is difficult to
overestimate the importance of training in this process. In many respects
individuals are a product of the training they receive and apart from a few
innate abilities and a large number of experiences, what the individuals learn
through training reflects their capability and their competence.

(b) For example, it would not be cost effective of an organization to purchase

expensive, highly specialized equipment (a common requirement in aviation),
if they didn't get their personnel trained appropriately on that machinery.
Further, these personnel can risk serious injury to themselves or to airline
passengers if they are not competent in operating the machinery.

(c) In the same way, all training is primarily aimed at reducing errors of one form
or another. This Human Factors course is just another example of the
company providing training to you with the intention of reducing maintenance
errors that may have occurred if you had not undertaken this training.

(d) Time will tell whether it has been successful.

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