HUMAN PERFORMANCE &

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TRAINING NOTES

CHAPTER 5

FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE

INTRODUCTION

FITNESS AND HEALTH

STRESS: DOMESTIC AND WORK RELATED

TIME PRESSURE AND DEADLINES

WORKLOAD-OVERLOAD AND UNDERLOAD

SLEEP, FATIGUE AND SHIFT WORK

ALCOHOL, MEDICATION AND DRUG ABUSE

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INTRODUCTION

(a) This chapter will examine factors that influence humans and their
performance in the workplace.

(b) There are many significant Human Factors elements that affect performance
Research suggests that an understanding of the factors that affect
performance provides maintenance engineers with strategies that enable
them to reduce the number of errors associated with their work. Shift work, for
example, has been part and parcel of the aviation maintenance trade since its
inception. Over the years, engineers have accepted the rosters given to them
unquestioningly. New evidence suggests that management of roster systems
can have a marked affect on the performance of engineers, both in terms of
productivity and reduced error rates.

(c) Similarly, issues about health and fitness: sleep and fatigue, workload, stress,
and alcohol and drug abuse have benefited markedly from the research
fraternity. Their application is only just starting to be applied to the discipline of
maintenance engineering and this is primarily done through the application of
Human Factors in the workplace.

FITNESS AND HEALTH

General

(a) The job of an aircraft maintenance engineer can be physically demanding. In

addition, his work may have to be carried out in widely varying physical
environments, including cramped spaces, extremes of temperature, etc. (as
discussed in the next chapter). There are at present no defined requirements
for physical or mental fitness for engineers or maintenance staff. ICAO Annex
1 states: "An applicant shall, before being issued with any licence or rating [for
personnel other than flight crew members, meet such requirements in respect
of age, knowledge, experience and, where appropriate, medical fitness and
skill, as specified for that licence or rating."

(b) In the UK, the ICAO requirements are enforced through the provision of
Article 13 (paragraph 7) of the Air Navigation order (ANO). This states: "The
holder of an aircraft maintenance engineer's licence shall not exercise the
privileges of such a licence if he knows or suspects that his physical or mental
condition renders him unfit to exercise such privileges."

(c) There are two aspects to fitness and health: the disposition of the engineer
prior to taking on employment and the day-to-day well being of the engineer
once employed.

Pre-Employment Disposition

Some employers may require a medical upon commencement of employment. This

allows them to judge the fitness and health of an applicant (and this may also satisfy
some pension or insurance related need). There is an obvious effect upon an
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engineer's ability to perform maintenance or carry out inspections if through poor

physical fitness or health he is constrained in some way (such as his freedom of
movement, or his sight). In addition, an airworthiness authority, when considering
issuing a licence, will consider these factors and may judge the condition to be of
such significance that a licence could not be issued. This would not, however, affect
the individual's possibility of obtaining employment in an alternative post within the
industry where fitness and health requirements are less stringent.

Day-to-Day Fitness and Health

(a) Fitness and health can have a significant affect upon job performance (both
physical and cognitive). Day-to-day fitness and health can be reduced through
illness (physical or mental) or injury.

[JAR 66.50 imposes a requirement that "certifying staff must not exercise the
privileges of their certification authorization if they know or suspect that their
physical or mental condition renders them unfit.]

(b) Responsibility falls upon the individual aircraft maintenance engineer to

determine whether he is not well enough to work on a particular day.
Alternatively, his colleagues or supervisor may persuade or advise him to
absent himself until he feels better. In fact, as the CAA 's Airworthiness Notice
No.47 (AWN47) points out, it is a legal requirement for aircraft maintenance
engineers to make sure they are fit for work: "Fitness: In most professions
there is a duty of care by the individual to assess his or her own fitness to
carry out professional duties. This has been a legal requirement for some time
for doctors, flight crew members and air traffic controllers. Licensed aircraft
maintenance engineers are also now required by law to take a similar
professional attitude. Cases of subtle physical or mental illness may not
always be apparent to the individual but as engineers often work as a member
of a team any sub-standard performance or unusual behavior should be
quickly noticed by colleagues or supervisors who should notify management
so that appropriate support and counseling action can be taken."

(c) Many conditions can impact on the health and fitness of an engineer and
there is not space here to offer a complete list. However, such a list would
include:

 Minor physical illness (such as colds, 'flu, etc.);

 More major physical illness (such as HIV, malaria, etc.);
 Mental illness (such as depression, etc.);
 Minor injury (such as a sprained wrist, etc.);
 Major injury (such as a broken arm, etc.);
 Ongoing deterioration in physical condition, possibly associated with the
aging process (such as hearing loss, visual defects, obesity, heart
problems, etc.);
 Affects of toxins and other foreign substances (such as carbon monoxide
poisoning, alcohol, illicit drugs, etc.).
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(d) This document does not attempt to give hard and fast guidelines as to what
constitutes 'unfit for work ';this is a complex issue dependent upon the nature
of the illness or condition, its effect upon the individual, the type of work to be
done, environmental conditions, etc. Instead, it is important that the engineer
is aware that his performance, and consequently the safety of aircraft he
works on, might be affected adversely by illness or lack of fitness.

(e) An engineer may consider that he is letting down his colleagues by not going
to work through illness, especially if there are ongoing manpower shortages.
However, he should remind himself that in theory, management should
generally allow for contingency for illness. Hence the burden should not be
placed upon an individual to turn up to work when unfit if no such contingency
is available. Also, if the individual has a contagious illness (e.g. 'flu), he may
pass this on to his colleagues if he does not absent himself from work and
worsen the manpower problem in the long run. There can be a particular
problem with some contract staff due to loss of earnings or even loss of
contract if absent from work due to illness. They may be tempted to disguise
their illness, or may not wish to admit to themselves or others that they are ill.
This is of course irresponsible, as the illness may well adversely affect the
contractor's standard of work.

Positive Measures

(a) Aircraft maintenance engineers can take common sense steps to maintain
their fitness and health. These include:
 Eating regular meals and a well-balanced diet;
 Taking regular exercise (exercise sufficient to double the resting pulse rate
for 20 minutes, three times a week is often recommended);
 Stopping smoking;
 Sensible alcohol intake (for men, this is no more than 3 - 4 units a day or
28 per week, where a unit is equivalent to half a pint of beer or a glass of
wine or spirit);
(b) Finally, day-to-day health and fitness can be influenced by the use of
medication, alcohol and illicit drugs. These are covered later in Section 6.

STRESS: DOMESTIC AND WORK RELATED

General

(a) Stress is an inescapable part of life for all of us. Stress can be defined “as any
force, that when applied to a system, causes some significant modification of
its form, where forces can be physical, psychological or due to social
pressures”.

(b) From a human viewpoint, stress results from the imposition of any demand or
set of demands which require us to react, adapt or behave in a particular
manner in order to cope with or satisfy them. Up to a point, such demands are
stimulating and useful, but if the demands are beyond our personal capacity
to deal with them, the resulting stress is a problem.
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Causes and Symptoms

(a) Stress is usually something experienced due to the presence of some form of
stress, which might be a one-off stimulus (such as a challenging problem or a
punch on the nose),or an on-going factor (such as an extremely hot hangar or
an acrimonious divorce).From these, we get acute stress (typically intense
but of short duration)and chronic stress (frequent recurrence or of long
duration)respectively.

b) Different stressors affect different people to varying extents. Stressors may

be:

 Physical: such as heat, cold, noise, vibration, presence of something

damaging to health (e.g. carbon monoxide);

 Psychological: such as emotional upset (e.g. due to bereavements,

domestic problems, etc.), worries about real or imagined problems (e.g.
due to financial problems, ill health, etc.);

 Reactive: such as events occurring in everyday life (e.g. working under

time pressure, encountering unexpected situations, etc.).

(c) AWN47 points out that:

"A stress problem can manifest itself by signs of irritability, forgetfulness,

sickness, absence, mistakes, or alcohol or drug abuse. Management has a
duty to identify individuals who may be suffering from stress and to minimize
workplace stresses, Individual cases can be helped by sympathetic and skilful
counseling which allows a return to effective work and licensed duties."

(d) In brief, the possible signs of stress can include:

 Physiological symptoms: such as sweating, dryness of the mouth, etc.;

 Health effects: such as nausea, headaches, sleep problems, diarrhea,
ulcers, etc.;
 Behavioral symptoms: such as restlessness, shaking, nervous laughter,
taking longer over tasks, changes to appetite, excessive drinking, etc, ;
 Cognitive effects: such as poor concentration, indecision, forgetfulness,
etc.;
 Subjective effects: such as anxiety, irritability, depression, moodiness,
aggression, etc.

Domestic Stress
.
(a) When aircraft maintenance engineers go to work, they cannot leave stresses
associated with home behind. Pre-occupation with a source of domestic
stress can play on one’s mind during the working day, distracting from the
working task. Inability to concentrate fully may impact on the engineer’s task
performance and ability to pay due attention to safety.
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(b) Domestic stress typically results from major life changes at home, such as
marriage, birth of a child, a son or daughter leaving home, bereavement of a
close family member or friend, marital problems, or divorce. It should be noted
that individuals respond to stressful situations in very different ways.
Generally speaking though, people tend to regard situations with negative
consequences as being more stressful than when the outcome of the stress
will be positive (e.g. the difference between being made redundant from work
and being present at the birth of a son or daughter).

Work Related Stress

(a) Aircraft maintenance engineers can experience stress for two reasons at work
because of the task or job they are undertaking at that moment, or because of
the general organizational environment tress can be felt when carrying out
certain tasks that are particularly challenging or difficult. This stress can be
increased by lack of guidance in this situation, or time pressures to complete
the task or job (covered later in this chapter).This type of stress can be
reduced by careful management, good training, etc.

(b) Within the organization, the social and managerial aspects of work can be
stressful. Chapter 3 discussed the- impact on the individual of peer pressure,
organizational culture and management, all of which can be stressors. In the
commercial world that aircraft maintenance engineers work in, shift patterns,
lack of control over own workload, company reorganization and job
uncertainty can also be sources of stress:

Stress Management

(a) Once we become aware of stress, we generally response to it by using one of

two strategies defense or coping.

(b) Coping strategies involve dealing with the source of the stress rather than just
the symptoms (e.g. delegating workload, prioritizing tasks, sorting out the
problem, etc.).

(c) Unfortunately, it is not always possible to deal with the problem if this is
outside the control of the individual (such as during an emergency), but there
are well-published techniques for helping individuals to cope with stress 2
.Good stress management techniques include:

 Relaxation techniques;
 Careful regulation of sleep and diet;
 A regime of regular physical exercise;
 Counseling: ranging from talking to a supportive friend or colleague to
seeking professional advice.

(d) There is no magic formula to cure stress and anxiety, merely common sense
and practical advice.
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TIME PRESSURE AND DEADLINES

General

(a) There is probably no industry in the commercial environment that does not
impose some form of deadline, and consequently time pressure, on its
employees. Aircraft maintenance is no exception. It was highlighted in the
previous section that one of the potential stressors in maintenance is time
pressure. This might be actual pressure where clearly specified deadlines are
imposed by an external source (e.g. management or supervisors) and passed
on to engineers, or perceived where engineers feel that there are time
pressures when carrying out tasks, even when no definitive deadlines have
been set in stone. In addition, time pressure may be self-imposed, in which
case engineers set themselves deadlines to complete work (e.g. completing a
task before a break or before the end of a shift).

(b) Management have contractual pressures associated with ensuring an aircraft

is released to service within the time frame specified' by their customers.
Striving for higher aircraft utilization means that more maintenance must be
accomplished in fewer hours, with these hours frequently being at night.
Failure to do so can impact on flight punctuality and passenger satisfaction.
Thus, aircraft maintenance engineers have two driving forces: the deadlines
handed down to them and their responsibilities to carry out a safe job. The
potential conflict between these two driving pressures can cause problems.
The Effects of Time Pressure and Deadlines

(a) As with stress, it is generally thought that some time pressure is stimulating
and may actually improve task performance. However, it is almost certainly
true that excessive time pressure (either actual or perceived, external or self-
imposed), is likely to mean that due care and attention when carrying out
tasks diminishes and more errors will be made. Ultimately, these errors can
lead to aircraft incidents and accidents.

(b) It is possible that perceived time pressure would appear to have been a
contributory factor in the BAC 1-11 accident described in Chapter [Link]
the aircraft was not required the following morning for operational use, it was
booked for a wash. The wash team had been booked the previous week and
an aircraft had not been ready. This would have happened again, due to short-
staffing, so the Shift Manager decided to carry out the windscreen replacement
task himself so that the aircraft would be ready in time.
(c) An extract from the NTSB report on the Aloha accident refers to time pressure
as a possible contributory factor in the accident: "The majority of Aloha's
maintenance was normally conducted only during the night. It was considered
important that the airplanes be available again for the next day's flying
schedule. Such aircraft utilization tends to drive the scheduling, and indeed,
the completion of required maintenance work. Mechanics and inspectors are
forced to perform under time pressure. Further, the intense effort to keep the
airplanes flying may have been so strong that the maintenance personnel
were reluctant to keep airplanes in the hangar any longer than absolutely
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Managing Time Pressure and Deadlines

(a) One potential method of managing time pressures exerted on engineers is

through regulation. For example, FAA research has highlighted the need to
insulate aircraft maintenance engineers from commercial pressures. They
consider this would help to ensure that airworthiness issues will always take
precedence over commercial and time pressures. Time pressures can make
'corner-cutting' a cultural norm in an organization. Sometimes, only an
incident or accident reveals such norms (the extract from the Aloha accident
above exemplifies this).

(b) Those responsible for setting deadlines and allocating tasks should consider:

 Prioritizing various pieces of work that need to be done;

 The actual time available to carry out work (considering breaks, shift
handovers, etc.);
 The personnel available throughout the whole job (allowing a contingency
for illness);
 The most appropriate utilization of staff (considering an engineer's
specialization, and strengths and limitations);
 Availability of parts and spares.

(c) It is important that engineering staff at all levels are not afraid to voice
concerns over inappropriate deadlines, and if necessary, cite the need to do a
safe job to support this. As highlighted in Chapter 3, within aircraft
maintenance, responsibility should be spread across all those who play a part.
Thus, the aircraft maintenance engineer should not feel that the 'buck stops
here '.
WORKLOAD-OVERLOAD AND UNDERLOAD
General

(a) The preceding sections on stress and time pressure have both indicated that
a certain amount of stimulation is beneficial to an aircraft maintenance
engineer, but that too much stimulation can lead to stress or over-commitment
in terms of time. It is noteworthy that too little stimulation can also be a
problem.

(b) Before going on to discuss workload, it is important to consider this optimum

level of stimulation or arousal

Arousal
(a) Arousal in its most general sense refers to readiness of a person for
performing work. To achieve an optimum level of task performance, it is
necessary to have a certain level of stimulation or arousal. This level of
stimulation or arousal varies from person to person. There are people who are
overloaded by having to do more than one task at a time; on the other hand
there are people who appear to thrive on stress, being happy to take on more
and more work or challenges. Figure 5.1 shows the general relationship
between arousalCourse
andTitle
task performance.
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(b) At low levels of arousal, our attention mechanisms will not be particularly
active and our performance capability will be low (complacency and boredom
can result). At the other end of the curve, performance deteriorates when
arousal becomes too high. To a certain extent, this is because we are forced
to shed tasks and focus on key information only (called narrowing of
attention). Best task performance occurs somewhere in the middle.

(c) In the work place, arousal is mainly influenced by stimulation due to work
tasks. However, surrounding environmental factors such as noise may also
influence the level of arousal. Figure 5.1 Optimum arousal leads to best task
performance

Factors Determining Workload

(a) An individual aircraft maintenance engineer can usually identify what work he
has to do quite easily. It is more difficult to assess how that work translates
into workload.

[The degree of stimulation exerted on an individual caused by a task is

generally referred to as workload, and can be separated into physical
workload and mental workload.]

(b) As noted in the section on information processing in Chapter 3, humans have

limited mental capacity to deal with information. We are also limited
physically, in terms of visual acuity, strength, dexterity and so on. Thus,
workload reflects the degree etc which the demands of the work we have to
do it into our mental and physical capacities. Workload is subjective (i.e.
experienced differently by different people) and is affected by:
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 the nature of the task, such as the:

 physical demands it requires (e.g. strength required, etc.);
 mental demands it requires (e.g. complexity of decisions to be made, etc.).
 the circumstances under which the task is performed, such as the:
 standard of performance required (i.e. degree of accuracy);
 time available to accomplish the task (and thus the speed at which the
task must be carried out);
 requirement to carry out the task at the same time as doing something
else;
 perceived control of the task (i.e. is it imposed by others or under your
control, etc.);
 environmental factors existing at time (e.g. extremes of temperature, etc.).
 the person and his state, such as his:
 skills (both physical and mental);
 his experience (particularly familiarity with the task in question);
 his current health and fitness levels;
 his emotional state (e.g. stress level, mood, etc.).

(c) As the workload of the engineer may vary, he may experience periods of
overload and underload. This is a particular feature of some areas of the
industry such as line maintenance.

Overload

Overload occurs at very high levels of workload (when the engineer becomes over
aroused). As highlighted previously, performance deteriorates when arousal
becomes too high and we are forced to shed tasks and focus on key information.
Error rates may also increase. Overload can occur for a wide range of reasons
based on the factors highlighted above. It may happen suddenly (e.g. if asked to
remember one further piece of information whilst already trying to remember a large
amount of data), or gradually. Although JAR145 states that "The JAR145 approved
maintenance organization must employ sufficient personnel to plan, perform,
supervise and inspect the work in accordance with the approval", and "the JAR145
organization should have a production man hours plan showing that it has sufficient
man hours for the work that is intended to be carried out", this does not prevent
individuals from becoming overloaded. As noted earlier in this section, it can be
difficult to determine how work translates into workload, both for the individual
concerned, and for those allocating tasks.

Underload

Underload occurs at low levels of workload (when the engineer becomes under
aroused),It can be just as problematic to an engineer as overload, as it too causes a
deterioration in performance and an increase in errors, such as missed information.
Underload can result from a task an engineer finds boring, very easy, or indeed a
lack of tasks. The nature of the aircraft maintenance industry means that available
work fluctuates, depending on time of day, maintenance schedules, and so forth.
Hence, unless stimulating 'housekeeping' tasks can be found, underload can be
difficult to avoid at times.
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Workload Management

(a) Unfortunately, in a commercial environment, it is seldom possible to make

large amendments to maintenance schedules, nor eliminate time pressures.
The essence of workload management in aircraft maintenance should include:

 ensuring that staff has the skills needed to do the tasks they have been
asked to do and the proficiency and experience to do the tasks within the
timescales they have been asked to work within;
 making sure that staff have the tools and spares they need to do the tasks;
 allocating tasks to teams or individual engineers that are accomplishable
(without cutting corners) in the time available;
 providing human factors training to those responsible for planning so that
the performance and limitations of their staff are taken into account;
 encouraging individual engineers, supervisors and managers to recognize
when an overload situation is building up.

(b) If an overload situation is developing, methods to help relieve this include:

 seeking a simpler method of carrying out the work (that is just as effective
and still legitimate);
 delegating certain activities to others to avoid an individual engineer
becoming overloaded;
 securing further time in order to carry out the work safely;
 postponing, delaying tasks/deadlines and refusing additional work.

(c) Thus, although workload varies in aircraft maintenance engineering, the

workload of engineers can be moderated. Much of this can be done by careful
forward planning of tasks, manpower, spares, tools and training of staff.

SLEEP, FATIGUE AND SHIFT WORK

What is Sleep?

(a) Man, like all living creatures has to have sleep. Despite a great deal of
research, the purpose of sleep is not fully understood.

(b) Sleep can be resisted for a short time, but various parts of the brain ensure
that sooner or later, sleep occurs. When it does, it is characterized by five
stages of sleep:

 Stage 1: This is a transitional phase between waking and sleeping. The

heart rate slows and muscles relax. It is easy to wake someone up.
 Stage 2: This is a deeper level of sleep, but it is still fairly easy to wake
someone.
 Stage 3: Sleep is even deeper and the sleeper is now quite unresponsive
to external stimuli and so is difficult to wake. Heart rate, blood pressure
and body temperature continues to drop.
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 Stage 4: This is the deepest stage of sleep and it is very difficult to wake
someone up.
 Rapid Eye Movement or REM Sleep: Even though this stage is
characterized by brain activity similar to a person who is awake, the
person is even more difficult to awaken than stage [Link] is therefore also
known as paradoxical sleep. Muscles become totally relaxed and the
eyes rapidly dart back and forth under the eyelids. It is thought that
dreaming occurs during REM sleep.

(c) Stages 1 to 4 are collectively known as non-REM (NREM) sleep. Stages 2-4
are categorized as slow-wave sleep and appear to relate to body restoration,
whereas REM sleep seems to aid the strengthening and organization of
memories. Sleep deprivation experiments suggest that if a person is deprived
of stage 1-4 sleep or REM sleep he will show rebound effects .This means
that in subsequent sleep, he will make up the deficit in that particular type of
sleep. This shows the importance of both types of sleep.
.

Figure-5.2: Different Types of Sleep

(d) As can be seen from Figure 5.2, sleep occurs in cycles. Typically, the first
REM sleep will occur about 90 minutes after the onset of sleep. The cycle of stage 1
to 4 sleep and REM sleep repeats during the night about every 90 minutes. Most
deep sleep occurs earlier in the night and REM sleep becomes greater as the night
goes on. Sleep is a natural state of reduced consciousness involving changes in
body and brain physiology which is necessary to man to restore and replenish the
body and brain
Circadian Rhythms

(a) Apart from the alternation between wakefulness and sleep, men have other
internal cycles, such as body temperature and hunger/eating. These are
known as circadian rhythms as they are related to the length of the day.

Circadian rhythms are Course

physiological
Title and behavioral functions and processes in the
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body that have a regular cycle of approximately a day (actually about 25 hours in
man).

(b) Although, circadian rhythms are controlled by the brain, they are influenced
and synchronized by external (environmental) factors such as light.

An example of disrupting circadian rhythms would be taking a flight that crosses time
zones. This will interfere with the normal synchronization with the light and dark (day/
night). This throws out the natural link between daylight and the body is internal
clock, causing jet lag, resulting in sleepiness during the day, etc. Eventually
however, the circadian rhythm readjusts to the revised environmental cues.

(c) Figure 5.3 shows the circadian rhythm for body temperature. This pattern is
very robust, meaning that even if the normal pattern of wakefulness and sleep
is disrupted (by shift work for example), the temperature cycle remains
unchanged. Hence, it can be seen that if you are awake at 2-4 O'clock in the
morning, your body temperature is in a trough and it is at this time that is
hardest to stay awake. Research has shown that this drop in body
temperature appears to be linked to a drop in alertness and performance in
man.

(d) The engineer's performance at this 'low point' will be improved if he is well
rested, feeling well, highly motivated and well practiced in the skills being
used at that point. Although there are many contributory factors, it is
noteworthy that a number of major incidents and accidents involving human
error have either occurred or were initiated in the pre-dawn hours, when body
temperature and performance capability are both at their lowest. These
include Three Mile Island, Chernobyl, and Bhopal, as well as the BAC1-11,
A320, and B737 incidents summarized in Chapter 2
Fatigue

(a) Fatigue can be either physiological or subjective. Physiological fatigue reflects

the body’s need for replenishment and restoration. It is tied in with factors
such as recent physical activity, current health, consumption of alcohol, and
with circadian rhythms. It can only be satisfied by rest and eventually, a period
of sleep. Subjective fatigue is an individual’s perception of how sleepy they
feel. This is not only affected by when they last slept and how good the sleep
was but also other factors, such as degree of motivation.

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Figure 5.3: The Circadian Rhythm for Internal Body Temperature

(b) Fatigue is typically caused by delayed sleep, sleep loss, resynchronization of

normal circadian rhythms and concentrated periods of physical or mental
stress or exertion. In the workplace, working long hours, working during
normal sleep hours and working on rotating shift schedules all produce fatigue
to some extent.

(c) Symptoms of fatigue (in no particular order) may include:

 diminished perception (vision, hearing, etc.)and a general lack of

awareness;
 diminished motor skills and slow reactions;
 problems with short-term memory;
 channeled concentration -fixation on a single possibly unimportant issue,
to the neglect of others and failing to maintain an overview;
 being easily distracted by unimportant matters;
 poor judgment and decision making leading to increased mistakes;
 abnormal moods -erratic changes in mood, depressed, periodically elated
and energetic;
 diminished standards of own work.

(d) AWN47 highlights the potential for fatigue in aircraft maintenance engineering:
"Tiredness and fatigue can adversely affect performance. Excessive hours of
duty and shift working, particularly with multiple shift periods or additional
overtime, can lead to problems. Individuals should be fully aware of the
dangers of impaired performance due to these factors and of their personal
responsibilities".

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Shift Work

(a) Most aircraft movements occur between 6 a.m. and 10 p.m. to fit in with the
requirements of passengers. Aircraft maintenance engineers are required
whenever aircraft are on the ground, such as during turn around. However,
this scheduling means that aircraft are often available for more significant
maintenance during the night. Thus, aircraft maintenance engineering is
clearly a 24 hour business and it is inevitable that, to fulfill commercial
obligations, aircraft maintenance engineers usually work shifts. Some
engineers permanently work the same shift, but the majority cycle through
different shifts. These typically comprise an 'early shift ', a 'late shift' or a 'night
shift', or a 'day shift' and a 'night shift' depending on the maintenance
organization.

(b) Advantages and Disadvantages of Shift Work: There are pros and cons to
working shifts. Some people welcome the variety of working different times
associated with regular shift work patterns. Advantages may include more
days off and avoiding peak traffic times when travelling to work. The
disadvantages of shift working are mainly associated with:

 working 'unsociable hours ',meaning that time available with friends,

family, etc. will be disrupted;
 working when human performance is known to be poorer (i.e. between 2
a.m. and 4 a.m.);
 problems associated with general resynchronization and disturbance of
the body’s various rhythms (principally sleeping patterns).

(c) Working at Night: Shift work means that engineers will usually have to work
at night, either permanently or as part of a rolling shift pattern. As discussed
earlier in this chapter, this introduces the inherent possibility of increased
human errors. Working nights can also lead to problems sleeping during the
day, due to the interference of daylight and environmental noise. Blackout
curtains and use of ear plugs can help, as well as avoidance of caffeine
before sleep.

In the 8737 double engine oil loss incident, the error occurred during the night shift.
The accident investigation report commented that: "It is under these circumstances
that the fragility of the self monitoring system is most exposed because the safety
system can be jeopardized by poor judgment on the part of one person and it is also
the time at which people are most likely to suffer impaired judgment ".

(d) Rolling Shift Patterns: When an engineer works rolling shifts and changes
from one shift to another (e.g. 'day shift' to 'night shift'), the body's internal
clock is not immediately reset. It continues on its old wake-sleep cycle for
several days, even though it is no longer possible for the person to sleep
when the body thinks it is appropriate, and is only gradually resynchronized.
However, by this time, the engineer may have moved onto the next shift.
Generally, it is now accepted that shift rotation should be to later shifts (i.e.
early shift _ late shift _ night shift or day shift _ night shift) instead of rotation
towards earlier shifts (night shift _ late shift _ early shift).
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(e) Continuity of Tasks and Shift Handovers: Many maintenance tasks often
span more than one shift, requiring tasks to be passed from one shift to the
next. The outgoing personnel are at the end of anything up to a twelve hour
shift and are consequently tired and eager to go home. Therefore, shift
Hanover is potentially an area where human errors can occur. Whilst longer
shifts may result in greater fatigue, the disadvantages may be offset by the
fact that fewer shift changeovers are required (i.e. only 2 handovers with 2
twelve hour shifts, as opposed to 3 handovers with 3 eight hour shifts).Shift
Hanover is discussed further in Chapter 8 when looking at 'work logging and
recording'.

Sleep, Fatigue, Shift Work and the Aircraft Maintenance Engineer

(a) Most individuals need approximately 8 hours sleep in a 24 hour period,

although this varies between individuals, some needing more and some
happy with less than this to be fully refreshed. They can usually perform
adequately with less that this for a few days, building up a temporary sleep
'deficit'. However, any sleep deficit will need to be made up, otherwise
performance will start to suffer.

(b) As previously noted, fatigue is best tackled by ensuring adequate rest and
good quality sleep is obtained. The use of blackout curtains if having to sleep
during daylight has already been mentioned. It is also best not to eat a large
meal shortly before trying to sleep, but on the other hand, the engineer should
avoid going to bed hungry. As fatigue is also influenced by illness, alcohol,
etc., it is very important to get more sleep if feeling a little unwell and drink
only in moderation between duties (discussed further in the next
section).Taking over-the-counter drugs to help sleep should only be used as a
last resort.

(c) When rotating shifts are worked, it is important that the engineer is disciplined
with his eating and sleeping times. Moreover, out of work activities have to be
carefully planned. For example, it is obvious that an individual who has been
out night-clubbing until the early hours of the morning will not be adequately
rested if rostered on an early shift.

(d) Shift working patterns encountered by aircraft maintenance engineers may

include three or four days off after the last night shift. It can be tempting to
work additional hours, taking voluntary overtime, or another job, in one or
more of these days off. This is especially the case when first starting a career
in aircraft maintenance engineering when financial pressures may be higher.
Engineers should be aware that their vulnerability to error is likely to be
increased if they are tired or fatigued, and they should try to ensure that any
extra hours worked are kept within reason.

It is always sensible to monitor ones performance, especially when working

additional hours. Performance decrements can be gradual, and first signs of chronic
fatigue may be moodiness, headaches or finding that familiar tasks (such as
programming the videoCourse
recorder)
Title seem more complicated than usual.
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(e) Finally, it is worth noting that, although most engineers adapt to shift working,
it becomes harder to work rotating shifts as one gets older.

ALCOHOL, MEDICATION AND DRUG ABUSE

General

(a) It should come as no surprise to the aircraft maintenance engineer that his
performance will be affected by alcohol, medication or illicit drugs. Under both
UK and JAA legislation it is an offence for safety critical personnel to carry out
their duties whilst under the influence of alcohol or drugs. Article 13
(paragraph 8) of the UK ANO, states:

"The holder of an aircraft maintenance engineer's licence shall not, when

exercising the privileges of such a licence, be under the influence of drink or a
drug to such an extent as to impair his capacity to exercise such privileges."

(b) The current law which does not prescribe a blood/alcohol limit is soon to
change. There will be new legislation permitting police to test for drink or
drugs where there is reasonable cause, and the introduction of a
blood/alcohol limit of 20 milligrams of alcohol per 100 milliliters of blood for
anyone performing a safety critical role in UK civil aviation (which includes
aircraft maintenance engineers).

Alcohol

(a) Alcohol acts as a depressant on the central nervous system, dulling the
senses and increasing mental and physical reaction times. It is known that
even a small amount of alcohol leads to a decline in an individual ' s
performance and may cause his judgment (i.e. ability to gauge his
performance)to be hindered.

(b) Alcohol is removed from the blood at a fixed rate and this cannot be speeded
up in any way (e.g. by drinking strong coffee),In fact, sleeping after drinking
alcohol can slow down the removal process, as the body's metabolic systems
are slower.

(c) AWN47 provides the following advice concerning alcohol:

"Alcohol has similar effects to tranquilizers and sleeping tablets and may
remain circulating in the blood for a considerable time, especially if taken with
food. It may be borne in mind that a person may not be fit to go on duty even
8 hours after drinking large amounts of alcohol. Individuals should therefore
anticipate such effects upon their next duty period. Special note should be
taken of the fact that combinations of alcohol and sleeping tablets, or anti-
histamines, can form a highly dangerous and even lethal combination."

As a general rule, aircraft maintenance engineers should not work for at least eight
hours after drinking even small quantities of alcohol and increase this time if more
has been drunk.
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(d) The affects of alcohol can be made considerably worse if the individual is
fatigued, ill or using medication.

Medication

(a) Any medication, no matter how common, can possibly have direct effects or
side effects that may impair an engineer's performance in the workplace.

(b) There is a risk that these effects can be amplified if an individual has a
particular sensitivity to the medication or one of its ingredients. Hence, an
aircraft maintenance engineer should be particularly careful when taking a
medicine for the first time, and should ask his doctor whether any prescribed
drug will affect his work performance. It is also wise with any medication to
take the first dose at least 24 hours before any duty to ensure that it does not
have any adverse effects.

Medication can be regarded as any over-the-counter or prescribed drug used for

therapeutic purposes. Medication is usually taken to relieve symptoms of an illness.
Even if the drugs taken do not affect the engineer's performance, he should still ask
himself whether the illness has made him temporarily unfit for work.

(c) Various publications and especially AWN47 gives advice relevant to the
aircraft maintenance engineer on some of the more common medications.
This information is summarized below, however the engineer must use this
with caution and should seek further clarification from a pharmacist, doctor or
their company occupational health advisor if at all unsure of the impact on
work performance.

 Analgesics are used for pain relief and to counter the symptoms of colds and
'flu. In the UK, paracetamol, aspirin and ibuprofen are the most common, and
are generally considered safe if used as directed. They can be taken alone
but are often used as an ingredient of a 'cold relief' medicine. It is always
worth bearing in mind that the pain or discomfort that you are attempting to
treat with an analgesic (e.g. headache, sore throat, etc.) may be the symptom
of some underlying illness that needs proper medical attention.
 Antibiotics (such as Penicillin and the various mycins and cyclines) may
have short term or delayed effects which affect work performance. Their use
indicates that a fairly severe infection may well be present and apart from the
effects of these substances themselves, the side-effects of the infection will
almost always render an individual unfit for work.
 Anti-histamines are used widely in 'cold cures ' and in the treatment of
allergies (e.g. hayfever).Most of this group of medicines tend to make the user
feel drowsy, meaning that the use of medicines containing anti-histamines is
likely to be unacceptable when working as an aircraft maintenance engineer.
 Cough suppressants are generally safe in normal use, but if an over-the-
counter product contains anti-histamine, decongestant, etc., the engineer
should exercise caution about its use when working.
 Decongestants (i.e. treatments for nasal congestion) may contain chemicals
such as pseudo-ephedrine hydrochloride (e.g. 'Sudafed') and phenylphrine.
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forbids the use of medications containing this ingredient to aircraft

maintenance engineers when working, as the effects compromise skilled
performance.
 'Pep' pills are used to maintain wakefulness. They often contain caffeine,
dexedrine or benzedrine. Their use is often habit forming. Over-dosage may
cause headaches, dizziness and mental disturbances.AWN47 states that "the
use of 'pep ' pills whilst working cannot be permitted. If coffee is insufficient,
you are not fit for work."
 Sleeping tablets (often anti-histamine based) tend to slow reaction times and
generally dull the senses. The duration of effect is variable from person to
person. Individuals should obtain expert medical advice before taking them.

(d) Melatonin (a natural hormone) deserves a special mention. Although not

available without a prescription in the UK, it is classed as a food supplement
in the USA (and is readily available in health food shops). It has been claimed
to be effective as a sleep aid, and to help promote the resynchronization of
disturbed circadian rhythms. Its effectiveness and safety are still yet to be
proven and current best advice is to avoid this product.

If the aircraft maintenance engineer has any doubts about the suitability of working
whilst taking medication, he must seek appropriate professional advice.

Drugs

(a) Illicit drugs such as ecstasy, cocaine and heroin all affect the central nervous
system and impair mental function. They are known to have significant effects
upon performance and have no place within the aviation maintenance
environment. Of course, their possession and use are also illegal in the UK.

(b) Smoking cannabis can subtly impair performance for up to 24 hours. In

particular, it affects the ability to concentrate, retain information and make
reasoned judgments, especially on difficult tasks.

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