Introduction to Materials Science

and
Engineering(MScE2081

By: Sefu Taye

 Chapter 3
Introduction to Metals, Ceramics and Polymers

➢ Introduction to:- Metals

• Ceramics Discussed in chapter One
• Polymers
Applications and Processing of Metal Alloys
✓ Introductions
✓ Ferrous alloy nonferrous alloy
✓ Forming operations
✓ Casting
✓ Miscellaneous Techniques
✓ Annealing process
✓ Heat treatment of steels
✓ Precipitation hardening
• WHY STUDY Applications and Processing of Metal Alloys?
INTRODUCTIONS
➢ Often a materials problem is really one of selecting the material that has
the right combination of characteristics for a specific application.
➢Therefore, the people who are involved in the decision making should have
some knowledge of the available options.
➢ Materials selection decisions may also be influenced by the ease with
which metal alloys may be formed or manufactured into useful components.
➢ Alloy properties are altered by fabrication processes, and, in addition,
further property alterations may be induced by the employment of
appropriate heat treatments.
Types of Metal Alloys
➢ Metal alloys, by virtue of composition, are often grouped into two classes:-
ferrous and nonferrous.
➢ Ferrous alloys, those in which iron is the principal constituent, include
steels and cast irons.
➢ The nonferrous ones-all alloys that are not iron based.
FERROUS ALLOYS:- those in which iron is the prime constituent-are produced
in larger quantities than any other metal type.
➢ They are especially important as engineering construction materials.
➢ Their widespread use is accounted for by three factors:
(1) iron-containing compounds exist in abundant quantities within the Earth’s
crust;
(2) metallic iron and steel alloys may be produced using relatively
economical extraction, refining, alloying, and fabrication techniques; and
(3) ferrous alloys are extremely versatile, in that they may be tailored to have
a wide range of mechanical and physical properties.
But, the principal disadvantage of many ferrous alloys is their susceptibility
to corrosion.
A taxonomic classification scheme for the various ferrous alloys is presented in
Figure below
Steels:- are iron-carbon alloys that may contain appreciable concentrations of other
alloying elements; there are thousands of alloys that have different compositions
and/or heat treatments.
➢ The mechanical properties are sensitive to the content of carbon, which is
normally less than 1.0 wt%.
➢ Some of the more common steels are classified according to carbon concentration
into low-, medium-, and high-carbon types.
➢ Subclasses also exist within each group according to the concentration of other
alloying elements.
➢ Plain carbon steels contain only residual concentrations of impurities other than
carbon and a little manganese.
➢ For alloy steels, more alloying elements are intentionally added in specific
concentrations.
Low-Carbon Steels:- Of the different steels, those produced in the greatest
quantities fall within the low-carbon classification.
➢ These generally contain less than about 0.25 wt% C and are unresponsive
to heat treatments intended to form martensite; strengthening is
accomplished by coldwork.
➢ Microstructures consist of ferrite and pearlite constituents.
➢ As a consequence, these alloys are relatively soft and weak but have
outstanding ductility and toughness; in addition, they are machinable,
weldable, and, of all steels, are the least expensive to produce.
➢Typical applications include automobile body components, structural
shapes (e.g., I-beams, channel and angle iron), and sheets that are used in
pipelines, buildings, bridges, and tin cans.
➢ plain low-carbon steels- typically have a yield strength of 275 MPa (40,000
psi), tensile strengths between 415 and 550 MPa (60,000 and 80,000 psi),
and a ductility of 25%EL.
➢ Another group of low-carbon alloys are the high-strength, low-alloy
(HSLA) steels.
➢ They contain other alloying elements such as copper, vanadium, nickel,
and molybdenum in combined concentrations as high as 10 wt%, and they
possess higher strengths than the plain low-carbon steels.
➢ Most may be strengthened by heat treatment, giving tensile strengths in
excess of 480 MPa (70,000 psi); in addition, they are ductile, formable, and
machinable.
• Compositions of Four Plain Low-Carbon Steels and Three High Strength, Low-
Alloy Steels
Mechanical Characteristics of Hot-Rolled Material and Typical Applications
for Various Plain Low-Carbon and High-Strength, Low Alloy Steels
Medium-Carbon Steels:-have carbon concentrations between about 0.25
and 0.60 wt%. These alloys may be heat-treated by austenitizing, quenching,
and then tempering to improve their mechanical properties
➢ They are most often utilized in the tempered condition, having
microstructures of tempered martensite.
➢ The plain medium-carbon steels have low hardenabilities and can be
successfully heat-treated only in very thin sections and with very rapid
quenching rates.
➢ Additions of chromium, nickel, and molybdenum improve the capacity of
these alloys to be heat-treated giving rise to a variety of strength-ductility
combinations.
➢These heat-treated alloys are stronger than the low-carbon steels, but at a
sacrifice of ductility and toughness.
➢ Applications include railway wheels and tracks, gears, crankshafts, and
other machine parts and high-strength structural components calling for a
combination of high strength, wear resistance, and toughness.
High-Carbon Steels:-Have carbon contents between 0.60 and 1.4 wt%,
are the hardest, strongest, and yet least ductile of the carbon steels.
➢ They are almost always used in a hardened and tempered condition and, as
such, are especially wear resistant and capable of holding a sharp cutting
edge.
➢The tool and die steels are high-carbon alloys, usually containing
chromium, vanadium, tungsten, and molybdenum.
➢ These alloying elements combine with carbon to form very hard and wear-
resistant carbide compounds (e.g., Cr 23C 6, V 4 C3 , and WC).
➢ These steels are used as cutting tools and dies for forming and shaping
materials, as well as in knives, razors, hacksaw blades, springs, and high-
strength wire.
Typical Applications and Mechanical Property Ranges for Oil-Quenched and
Tempered Plain Carbon and Alloy Steels
Stainless Steels:-are highly resistant to corrosion (rusting) in a variety of
environments, especially the ambient atmosphere.
➢ Their predominant alloying element is chromium; a concentration of at
least 11 wt% Cr is required. Corrosion resistance may also be enhanced by
nickel and molybdenum additions.
➢ Stainless steels are divided into three classes on the basis of the
predominant phase constituent of the microstructure-martensitic, ferritic, or
austenitic.
Designations, Compositions, Mechanical Properties, and Typical Applications
for Austenitic, Ferritic, Martensitic, and Precipitation-Hardenable Stainless
Steels.
➢ A wide range of mechanical properties combined with excellent resistance to
corrosion make stainless steels very versatile in their applicability.
➢ Martensitic stainless steels are capable of being heat-treated in such a way that
martensite is the prime microconstituent.
➢ For austenitic stainless steels, the austenite (or g) phase field is extended to room
temperature.
➢ Ferritic stainless steels are composed of the a-ferrite (BCC) phase. Austenitic and
ferritic stainless steels are hardened and strengthened by cold work because they
are not heat-treatable.
➢The austenitic stainless steels are the most corrosion resistant because of the high
chromium contents and also the nickel additions; they are produced in the largest
quantities. Both martensitic and ferritic stainless steels are magnetic; the austenitic
stainlesses are not.
➢ Some stainless steels are frequently used at elevated temperatures and in
severe environments because they resist oxidation and maintain their
mechanical integrity under such conditions; the upper temperature limit in
oxidizing atmospheres is about 1000 oC (1800 oF).
➢ Equipment employing these steels includes gas turbines, high-temperature
steam boilers, heat-treating furnaces, aircraft, missiles, and nuclear power-
generating units.
Cast Irons:-are a class of ferrous alloys with carbon contents above 2.14
wt%; in practice, however, most cast irons contain between 3.0 and 4.5 wt%
C and, in addition, other alloying elements.
➢ A reexamination of the iron–iron carbide phase diagram reveals that alloys
within this composition range become completely liquid at temperatures
between approximately 1150 oC and 1300 oC , which is considerably lower
than for steels.
➢Thus, they are easily melted and amenable to casting. Furthermore, some
cast irons are very brittle, and casting is the most convenient fabrication
technique.
➢ Cementite (Fe 3 C) is a metastable compound, and under some
circumstances it can be made to dissociate or decompose to form a-
ferrite and graphite, according to the reaction

➢ Graphite formation is promoted by the presence of silicon in

concentrations greater than about 1 wt%.
➢ Also, slower cooling rates during solidification favor graphitization (the
formation of graphite).
➢ For most cast irons, the carbon exists as graphite, and both microstructure
and mechanical behavior depend on composition and heat treatment.
➢ The most common cast iron types are gray, nodular, white, malleable, and
compacted graphite.
Gray Iron:-The carbon and silicon contents of gray cast irons vary between
2.5 and 4.0 wt% and 1.0 and 3.0 wt%, respectively.
➢ For most of these cast irons, the graphite exists in the form of flakes
(similar to corn flakes), which are normally surrounded by an a-ferrite or
pearlite matrix.
➢Because of these graphite flakes, a fractured surface takes on a gray
appearance-hence its name.
➢ Mechanically, gray iron is comparatively weak and brittle in tension as a
consequence of its microstructure; the tips of the graphite flakes are sharp
and pointed and may serve as points of stress concentration when an
external tensile stress is applied.
➢ Strength and ductility are much higher under compressive loads.
➢ Gray irons have some desirable characteristics and are used extensively.
They are very effective in damping vibrational energy, which compares the
relative damping capacities of steel and gray iron.
➢ Base structures for machines and heavy equipment that are exposed to
vibrations are frequently constructed of this material.
➢ In addition, gray irons exhibit a high resistance to wear.
➢ Furthermore, in the molten state they have a high fluidity at casting
temperature, which permits casting pieces that have intricate shapes; also,
casting shrinkage is low.
➢ Finally, and perhaps most important, gray cast irons are among the least
expensive of all metallic materials.
Gray iron: the dark graphite flakes are embedded in an a-ferrite
matrix.
Ductile (or Nodular) Iron:- Adding a small amount of magnesium and/or
cerium to the gray iron before casting produces a distinctly different
microstructure and set of mechanical properties.
➢ Graphite still forms, but as nodules or spherelike particles instead of flakes.
➢ The resulting alloy is called ductile or nodular iron-matrix phase
surrounding these particles is either pearlite or ferrite, depending on heat
treatment, it is normally pearlite for an as-cast piece.
➢ However, a heat treatment for several hours at about 700 oC yields a
ferrite matrix, as in the below photomicrograph.
➢ Castings are stronger and much more ductile than gray iron. In fact, ductile
iron has mechanical characteristics approaching those of steel.
➢ For example, ferritic ductile irons have tensile strengths between 380 and
480 MPa (55,000 and 70,000 psi) and ductilities (as percent elongation)
from 10% to 20%.
➢ Typical applications for this material include valves, pump bodies,
crankshafts, gears, and other automotive and machine components.
Nodular (ductile) iron: the dark graphite nodules are surrounded by an
a-ferrite matrix.
White Iron and Malleable Iron:-For low-silicon cast irons (containing less
than 1.0 wt% Si) and rapid cooling rates, most of the carbon exists as
cementite instead of graphite.
➢ A fracture surface of this alloy has a white appearance, and thus it is termed
white cast iron.
➢ As a consequence of large amounts of the cementite phase, white iron is
extremely hard but also very brittle, to the point of being virtually
unmachinable.
➢ Its use is limited to applications that necessitate a very hard and wear-
resistant surface, without a high degree of ductility.
➢ For example, as rollers in rolling mills. Generally, white iron is used as an
intermediary in the production of yet another cast iron, malleable iron.
➢ Heating white iron at temperatures between 800 oC and 900 oC (1470 oF
and 1650 oF) for a prolonged time period and in a neutral atmosphere (to
prevent oxidation) causes a decomposition of the cementite, forming
graphite, which exists in the form of clusters or rosettes surrounded by a
ferrite or pearlite matrix, depending on cooling rate,
➢ Representative applications include connecting rods, transmission
gears, and differential cases for the automotive industry, and also
flanges, pipe fittings, and valve parts for railroad, marine, and other
heavy-duty service.
➢ Gray and ductile cast irons are produced in approximately the same
amounts; however, white and malleable cast irons are produced in smaller
quantities.
Compacted Graphite Iron:-A relatively recent addition to the family of cast
irons is compacted graphite iron (abbreviated CGI).
➢ As with gray, ductile, and malleable irons, carbon exists as graphite, whose
formation is promoted by the presence of silicon. Silicon content ranges
between 1.7 and 3.0 wt%, whereas carbon concentration is normally
between 3.1 and 4.0 wt%.
➢ The chemistries of CGIs are more complex than for the other cast iron
types; compositions of magnesium, cerium, and other additives must be
controlled so as to produce a microstructure that consists of the wormlike
graphite particles while at the same time limiting the degree of graphite
nodularity, and preventing the formation of graphite flakes. Furthermore,
depending on heat treatment, the matrix phase will be pearlite and/or ferrite.
➢ As with the other types of cast irons, the mechanical properties of CGIs are
related to microstructure: graphite particle shape, as well as the matrix
phase/microconstituent.
➢An increase in degree of nodularity of the graphite particles leads to
enhancements of both strength and ductility.
➢ Furthermore, CGIs with ferritic matrices have lower strengths and higher
ductilities than those with pearlitic matrices.
➢ Tensile and yield strengths for compacted graphite irons are comparable to
values for ductile and malleable irons, yet are greater than those observed
for the higher-strength gray irons
➢Compared to the other cast iron types, desirable characteristics of CGIs
include the following:
• Higher thermal conductivity
• Better resistance to thermal shock (i.e., fracture resulting from rapid
temperature changes)
• Lower oxidation at elevated temperatures
➢ Compacted graphite irons are now being used in a number of important
applications, including diesel engine blocks, exhaust manifolds, gearbox
housings, brake discs for high-speed trains, and flywheels.
 NONFERROUS ALLOYS
➢ Non-ferrous alloys are metal mixtures that do not contain iron.
➢ Alloy systems are classified either according to the base metal or according
to some specific characteristic that a group of alloys share.
➢ Copper, aluminum, magnesium, and titanium alloys; the refractory metals;
the superalloys; the noble metals; and miscellaneous alloys, including those
that have nickel, lead, tin, zirconium, and zinc as base metals are classified
under nonferrous alloys.
➢ Alloys that are so brittle that forming or shaping by appreciable
deformation is not possible typically are cast; these are classified as cast
alloys. However, those that are amenable to mechanical deformation are
termed wrought alloys.
 Copper and Its Alloys
➢ Unalloyed copper is so soft and ductile that it is difficult to machine;
also, it has an almost unlimited capacity to be cold worked.
➢ Furthermore, it is highly resistant to corrosion in diverse
environments including the ambient atmosphere, seawater, and some
industrial chemicals.
➢ The mechanical and corrosion-resistance properties of copper may be
improved by alloying. Most copper alloys cannot be hardened or
strengthened by heat-treating procedures; consequently, cold working
and/or solid-solution alloying must be used to improve these
mechanical properties
➢ The most common copper alloys are the brasses, for which zinc, as a
substitutional impurity, is the predominant alloying element.
➢ Brass alloys having a higher zinc content contain both Alpha and
Beta phases at room temperature.
➢ Alpha phase has an FCC crystal structure, and a-brasses are relatively
soft, ductile, and easily cold worked.
➢ The Beta phase has an ordered BCC crystal structure and is harder
and stronger than the Alpha phase.
➢ Some of the common brasses are yellow, naval, and cartridge brass;
muntz metal; and gilding metal. Some of the common uses for brass
alloys include costume jewelry, cartridge casings, automotive
radiators, musical instruments, electronic packaging, and coins
➢ The bronzes are alloys of copper and several other elements,
including tin, aluminum, silicon, and nickel. These alloys are
somewhat stronger than the brasses, yet they still have a high degree
of corrosion resistance.
➢ They are used when, in addition to corrosion resistance, good tensile
properties are required.
➢ The most common heat-treatable copper alloys are the beryllium
coppers. They possess a remarkable combination of properties: tensile
strengths as high as 1400 MPa (200,000 psi), excellent electrical and
corrosion properties, and wear resistance when properly lubricated;
they may be cast, hot worked, or cold worked. High strengths are
attained by precipitation-hardening heat treatments.
 Aluminum and Its Alloys
➢ Aluminum and its alloys are characterized by a relatively low density
(2.7 g/cm3 as compared to 7.9 g/cm3 for steel), high electrical and
thermal conductivities, and a resistance to corrosion in some common
environments, including the ambient atmosphere.
➢ Many of these alloys are easily formed by virtue of high ductility.
Because aluminum has an FCC crystal structure, its ductility is
retained even at very low temperatures.
➢ The chief limitation of aluminum is its low melting temperature
[660C (1220F)], which restricts the maximum temperature at which it
can be used.
➢ The mechanical strength of aluminum may be enhanced by cold work
and by alloying; however, both processes tend to decrease resistance to
corrosion.
➢ Principal alloying elements include copper, magnesium, silicon,
manganese, and zinc.
➢ Aluminum alloys are classified as either cast or wrought.
 Magnesium and Its Alloys
➢ The most outstanding characteristic of magnesium is its density, 1.7 g/cm3, which
is the lowest of all the structural metals; therefore, its alloys are used where light
weight is an important consideration (e.g., in aircraft components).
➢ Magnesium has an HCP crystal structure, is relatively soft, and has a low elastic
modulus: 45 GPa (6.5*106 psi).
➢ At room temperature, magnesium and its alloys are difficult to deform; in fact,
only small degrees of cold work may be imposed without annealing.
➢ Most fabrication is by casting or hot working at temperatures between 200C and
350C (400F and 650F).
➢ Chemically, magnesium alloys are relatively unstable and especially susceptible
to corrosion in marine environments.
➢ These alloys are also classified as either cast or wrought, and some of them are
heat-treatable. Aluminum, zinc, manganese, and some of the rare earths are the
major alloying elements
 Refractory Metals
➢ Metals that have extremely high melting temperatures are classified as
refractory metals. Included in this group are niobium (Nb), molybdenum
(Mo), tungsten (W), and tantalum (Ta).
➢Melting temperatures range between 2468C (4474F) for niobium and
3410C (6170F), the highest melting temperature of any metal, for tungsten.
• The applications of these metals are varied.
➢ For example, tantalum and molybdenum are alloyed with stainless steel to
improve its corrosion resistance.
➢ Molybdenum alloys are used for extrusion dies and structural parts in space
vehicles; incandescent light filaments, x-ray tubes, and welding electrodes
employ tungsten alloys.
➢ Tantalum is immune to chemical attack by virtually all environments at
temperatures below 150C and is frequently used in applications requiring
such a corrosion-resistant material.
 Superalloys
➢ The superalloys have superlative combinations of properties. Most
are used in aircraft turbine components, which must withstand
exposure to severely oxidizing environments and high temperatures
for reasonable time periods.
➢ These materials are classified according to the predominant metal(s)
in the alloy, of which there are three groups:- iron–nickel, nickel, and
cobalt. Other alloying elements include the refractory metals (Nb, Mo,
W, Ta), chromium, and titanium. Furthermore, these alloys are also
categorized as wrought or cast.
• In addition to turbine applications, superalloys are used in nuclear
reactors and petrochemical equipment
 Fabrication of Metals
➢The fabrication techniques include various metal-forming methods,
casting, powder metallurgy, welding, and machining; often two or
more must be used before a piece is finished.
➢The methods chosen depend on several factors; the most important are
the properties of the metal, the size and shape of the finished piece,
and the cost.
 FORMING OPERATION
➢ Forming operations are changing the shape of metal piece by plastic
deformation or example, forging, rolling, extrusion, and drawing.
➢ The deformation must be induced by an external force or stress, the
magnitude of which must exceed the yield strength of the material.
➢ When deformation is achieved at a temperature above that at which
recrystallization occurs, the process is termed hot working, otherwise, it is
cold working.
➢ For hot-working operations, large deformations are possible, which may be
successively repeated because the metal remains soft and ductile. Also,
deformation energy requirements are less energy than for cold working.
➢ Cold working produces an increase in strength with the attendant
decrease in ductility because the metal strain hardens; advantages over
hot working include a higher-quality surface finish, better mechanical
properties and a greater variety of them, and closer dimensional
control of the finished piece
➢ Forging:- is mechanically working or deforming a single piece of a
usually hot metal; this may be accomplished by the application of
successive blows or by continuous squeezing.
➢ Forgings are classified as either closed or open die.
➢ For closed die, a force is brought to bear on two or more die halves
having the finished shape such that the metal is deformed in the cavity
between them.
➢ For open die, two dies having simple geometric shapes (e.g., parallel
flat, semicircular) are employed, normally on large workpieces.
➢ Forged articles have outstanding grain structures and the best
combination of mechanical properties. Wrenches, automotive
crankshafts, and piston connecting rods are typical articles formed
using this technique.
➢ Rolling, the most widely used deformation process, consists of
passing a piece of metal between two rolls; a reduction in thickness
results from compressive stresses exerted by the rolls.
➢ Cold rolling may be used in the production of sheet, strip, and foil
with a high-quality surface finish. Circular shapes, as well as I-beams
and railroad rails, are fabricated using grooved rolls.
➢ Extrusion, a bar of metal is forced through a die orifice by a
compressive force that is applied to a ram; the extruded piece that
emerges has the desired shape and a reduced cross-sectional area.
➢ Extrusion products include rods and tubing that have rather
complicated cross-sectional geometries; seamless tubing may also be
extruded
➢ Drawing is the pulling of a metal piece through a die having a
tapered bore by means of a tensile force that is applied on the exit side.
• A reduction in cross section results, with a corresponding increase in
length. The total drawing operation may consist of a number of dies in
a series sequence. Rod, wire, and tubing products are commonly
fabricated in this way.
• Casting is a fabrication process in which a completely molten metal is
poured into a mold cavity having the desired shape; upon
solidification, the metal assumes the shape of the mold but experiences
some shrinkage.
• Sand Casting With sand casting, probably the most common method,
ordinary sand is used as the mold material. A two-piece mold is
formed by packing sand around a pattern that has the shape of the
intended casting. A gating system is usually incorporated into the mold
to expedite the flow of molten metal into the cavity and to minimize
internal casting defects. Sand-cast parts include automotive cylinder
blocks, fire hydrants, and large pipe fittings
➢Die Casting
➢ In die casting, the liquid metal is forced into a mold under pressure
and at a relatively high velocity and allowed to solidify with the
pressure maintained. A two-piece permanent steel mold or die is
employed; when clamped together, the two pieces form the desired
shape.
➢ When the metal has solidified completely, the die pieces are opened
and the cast piece is ejected.
➢ Investment Casting
➢ For investment (sometimes called lost-wax) casting, the pattern is
made from a wax or plastic that has a low melting temperature.
Around the pattern a fluid slurry is poured that sets up to form a solid
mold or investment.
➢The mold is then heated, such that the pattern melts and is burned out,
leaving behind a mold cavity having the desired shape.
➢ Powder Metallurgy technique involves the compaction of powdered
metal followed by a heat treatment to produce a denser piece
➢ Powder metallurgy makes it possible to produce a virtually
nonporous piece having properties almost equivalent to those of the
fully dense parent material.
➢ This method is especially suitable for metals having low ductilities,
because only small plastic deformation of the powder particles need
occur. Metals with high melting temperatures are difficult to melt and
cast, and fabrication is expedited using P/M.
➢ Welding, two or more metal parts are joined to form a single piece
when one-part fabrication is expensive or inconvenient. Both similar
and dissimilar metals may be welded.
➢ The joining bond is metallurgical (involving some diffusion) rather
than just mechanical, as with riveting and bolting.
➢ variety of welding methods exist, including arc and gas welding, as
well as brazing and soldering.
➢ During arc and gas welding, the workpieces to be joined and the filler
material (i.e., welding rod) are heated to a sufficiently high
temperature to cause both to melt; upon solidification, the filler
material forms a fusion joint between the workpieces
 Introduction to Ceramic Materials
➢ Ceramic materials are a group of inorganic, non-metallic solids that
are characterized by their hardness, brittleness, and resistance to heat
and chemical corrosion.
➢ Ceramics are primarily composed of inorganic compounds, including
oxides, carbides, nitrides, and silicates.
➢ They are formed through processes that involve shaping and firing
raw materials such as clay and minerals at high temperature.
Classification of Ceramics by Composition
➢ Silicate Ceramics: are materials generally having a composition of
silicon and oxygen. The main types of silicate ceramics are based
either on alumosilicates or magnesium silicates.
➢ Silicate ceramics are traditionally categorized into coarse or fine and,
according to water absorption, into dense (< 2 % for fine and < 6 %
for coarse) or porous ceramics (> 2% and > 6 %, respectively).
➢ Oxide Ceramic: include alumina, zirconia, silica, magnesia, and
other metal oxide-based materials. These are non-metallic and
inorganic compounds by nature that include oxygen, carbon, or
nitrogen.
➢ Oxide ceramics possess the following properties:
(a) High melting points
(b) Low wear resistance
(c) An extensive collection of electrical properties
➢ Oxide ceramics are used in a wide range of applications, which
include materials and chemical processing, radiofrequency and
microwave applications, electrical and high voltage power
applications, and foundry and metal processing.
➢ Non-Oxide Ceramics: include materials such as carbides, nitrides,
and borides.
➢The use of non-oxide ceramics has enabled extreme wear and
corrosion problems to be overcome, even at high temperatures and
severe thermal shock conditions.
➢ These types of ceramics find their application in different spheres
such as pharmaceuticals, the oil and gas industry, valves, seals,
rotating parts, wear plates, location pins for projection welding, cutting
tooltips, abrasive powder blast nozzles, metal forming tooling, etc
➢ Glass-ceramics: These are basically polycrystalline materials
manufactured through the controlled crystallization of base glass.
➢They share many common characteristics with both glass and
ceramics and possess an amorphous phase and more than one
crystalline phase.
➢ Glass ceramics hold the processing advantage of glass and have
special characteristics of ceramics.
• Examples: Lithium Aluminosilicate (LAS), Mica Glass Ceramics,
Leucite Glass Ceramics.
Classification of Ceramics by Application
 Introduction to Polymer
➢ The term "polymer" derives from the Greek words "poly," meaning
"many," and "mer," meaning "unit.“
➢ Polymers are large macromolecules composed of repeating structural
units called monomers.
➢ The backbone of most polymers is primarily made up of carbon
atoms, forming long chains that can be linear, branched, or cross-
linked. The arrangement and type of monomers dictate the polymer's
properties
➢ Thermoplastics: these polymers can be melted and reshaped
multiple times without undergoing significant chemical change.
• Examples: Polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) are commonly used in packaging, containers, and
construction materials.
➢ Thermosetting Polymers: these undergo a chemical reaction during
curing, resulting in a rigid structure that cannot be remelted.
• Examples: Epoxy resins, phenolic resins, and polyurethane are used in
adhesives, coatings, and composite material
➢ Elastomers: Rubber-like materials that can undergo large
deformations and return to their original shape.
Examples: Natural rubber, silicone rubber, and neoprene are utilized in
tires, seals, and flexible components.
➢ Fibers: High aspect ratio polymers used for their strength and
flexibility.
Examples: Nylon, polyester, and aramid fibers (e.g., Kevlar) are
employed in textiles and reinforced composites.
➢ Conductive Polymers: Polymers that conduct electricity, useful in
electronics.
• Examples: Polyaniline and polypyrrole are utilized in sensors and
electronic device