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14 cm
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Single and Two-Phase Flows on Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, 2014, 3-19 3

Chapter Heading 16 pt. Single Spacing Bold All

Caps
CHAPTER 1
Title Heading 18 pt. Befor/After 12 Single
Spacning Bold All Caps

Mesoscopic Simulation of Rarefied Gas Flow in

Porous Media
Author Names 12 pt Befor/After 12 Single Spacing Bold
Alexandros N. Kalarakis, Eugene D. Skouras and Vasilis N. Burganos*
Address 10 pt Italic Befor/After 12 Single Spacing Italic
Institute of Chemical Engineering and High Temperature Chemical Processes, Foundation for
Research and Technology, Hellas, Greece
Abstract 10 pt. After 12 Single Spacing Indent left to right (.75cm)
Abstract: The accurate description of flow in nano-scale pores or channels is very
important for the reliable design of materials and processes in the areas of MEMS,
mesoporous media, and vacuum technologies. Use of classical flow equations fails in
this regime since the continuum assumption is not valid. This is due to the fact that the
mean free path is comparable to the characteristic dimensions of the system, and
rarefaction effects dominate the process. Such a difficulty arises notably in the
21 intermediate Knudsen number regime (Kn=0.1 to 10), commonly referred to as the 21
cm
“transition” flow regime. To remedy this, slip flow conditions have been adopted in the cm
literature, following the simple first-order approach of the velocity near the walls given
by Maxwell, and extended to higher-order treatments. Alternatively, direct deterministic
or stochastic atomistic and mesoscopic techniques have been employed for the flow
description, which solve the Boltzmann or the Burnett equations and use kinetic theory
approaches pertinent to this flow regime. A description of recent advances in simulation
techniques, namely, the “continuum” slip approaches, and some direct mesoscopic
techniques are presented in this chapter. Illustrative simulation results of permeability
and viscosity coefficients in mesoporous media using the DSMC and LB methods are
also given, followed by comparisons with classical continuum formulations.
Keywords 12 pt. After 12 Single Spacing
Keywords: Rarefied flow, porous media, transition regime, Direct Simulation
Monte Carlo, Lattice-Boltzmann, reconstruction, fractional Brownian motion, slip
flow, nanoscale pores, Knudsen number, mesoscopic methods.
First Heading 12 pt. After 12 Single Spacing Bold All Caps
INTRODUCTION
Chapter Running Text 12 pt. After 12 Exactly 14
Recent advances in microtechnology and, in particular, in microelectromechanical
systems (MEMS) and nano porous media have necessitated the elucidation of
flow and transport processes in small dimensions. This is also the case with
several other industrial applications, which rely on low-pressure conditions, or the
molecular time and length scales are not sufficiently small compared to the
characteristic macroscopic flow scales.
Address correspondence should be 9 Font Before After NIL Single Spacing
*Corresponding author Vasilis N. Burganos: Institute of Chemical Engineering and High Temperature
Chemical Processes, Foundation for Research and Technology, Hellas, Greece; E-mail: vbur@[Link]

Ricardo Dias, Antonio A. Martins, Rui Lima and Teresa M. Mata (Eds)
All rights reserved-© 2014 Bentham Science Publishers
 14
cm

4 STP Flows on Chemical and Biomedical Engineering Kalarakis et al.

Navier-Stokes Equation Burne

Eule No-slip Slip tt
r Equati
 Boltzmann Equation 
on

Continuum Slip Transition Free-

Flow
K 1 1 1 1 1

Figure should be center of the Page Before After 6 Single

Figure 1: Flow regimes and governing equations.

Legend Should be 9 Font Before 0 After 12 Single Spacing
In the context of this work a description of recent advances in simulation
techniques, namely, the “continuum” slip approaches [1, 9], and direct
mesoscopic techniques, such as the Direct Simulation Monte Carlo (DSMC)
method [8, 10-12], the Information Preservation (IP) method [13-16], and the 21
21
cm Lattice Bolzmann (LB) method [17-18], are presented. Illustrative simulation cm
results of permeability and viscosity coefficients in mesoporous media using the

λ = 3μ~  (1)
n~
Equation should be Centeer Before After 12
Single Spacing Tab 14cm right
Following eq. (1), the Knudsen
number can be expressed as

~
Kn λ 3μ~
= ~= ~
(2)
L n~L
Equation should be Centeer Before After 12
Single Spacing Tab 14cm right
~
where L is a characteristic
macroscopic flow dimension.

Several methods to simulate rarefied flows have been proposed, which fall into
two main categories, namely macroscopic and microscopic approaches. The
 14
cm
former consist of the direct solution of the Navier-Stokes equation or semi-
empirical equations with appropriate boundary condition to induce the slip effect,
whereas the latter consist of either direct or stochastic particle monitoring methods
using kinetic theory descriptions, such as Molecular Dynamics (MD) and Monte
Carlo (MC) methods. Even though the microscopic approaches are more
 14
cm

Mesoscopic Simulation of Rarefied Gas STP Flows on Chemical and Biomedical Engineering 5

accurate inherently, most processes involving porous media and micro-sized

devices (i.e. MEMS) would require enormous CPU resources to be simulated
effectively. Therefore, in order for the direct methods to be applicable in systems
of micro-size, mesoscopic approaches have been introduced in this area, such as
the Direct Monte Carlo Simulation (DSMC), the Information Preservation (IP),
and, more recently, the Lattice Boltzmann (LB) methods. In the context of this
chapter the discussion will elucidate some aspects of the macroscopic approaches
and will be focused on the DSMC and the LB methods.
Macroscopic Approach Second Heading 12 pt. After 6 Single Spacing Bold Title
Case

Strictly, the continuum condition (Fig. 1) prohibits the use of the Navier-Stokes
equation for non-zero Knudsen numbers. Nevertheless, by introducing slip
boundary conditions, Arkilic and coworkers [9] proposed a two-dimensional
scheme for rarefied flows involving the Navier-Stokes equation and a first order
boundary condition, proposed by Maxwell [2] (Fig. 2), which reads

21
21 u~ − u~
= 2 − σv
λ~ cm
+ 3 γ −1 Pr
cm τ~ (3)
4 P

(−q~ )
s
s
σv μ~ s ~ wall
wall

u~
s

~u

~
w u
 14
cm

0 y

Figure 2: Slip velocity at the wall.

 14
cm

6 STP Flows on Chemical and Biomedical Engineering Kalarakis et al.

2−σ⎡  Kn2 ⎤
u 2u~
u~s = v
⎢Kn ~ + +…⎥ . (4)
σ 2
⎢ ⎥
wall
v ⎣ wall ⎦

The authors [12] further simplified the boundary condition in order to avoid the
calculation of the 2nd order velocity derivatives that may introduce computational
difficulties, to the following slip boundary condition
u~s
= 2 Kn,
v 1
bKn nˆ (5)
wall

where b is a parameter that “incorporates” the 2 nd order derivative term and takes
the value b =-1 for fully developed flow in a channel.

The proposed unified model predicts mass flow rates, pressure distributions and
the well-known Knudsen minimum effect, for flows in channels and tubes with 21
21
cm reasonable accuracy compared with DSMC calculations, linearized Boltzmann cm
equation [21] solutions and experimental data [1].

~ ~ ~
P = ρ~ k T / m~ (19)

Temperature at location y~ :

T ( y~ ) =
~
2m~ ⎛ 1 m~ v~2 ⎞ (20)
1
− ρ~u~ 2

~ ⎜ ⎟
3k ρ~ 2 y
2
⎝ ⎠

~
where m~ is the molecular mass, and k is the Boltzmann constant.

In the DSMC treatment, boundary interactions are treated as collisions of either

purely specular reflection type, purely diffuse reflection type, or a combination of
specular and diffuse reflections, with specific description of the energy and
momentum transfer using accommodation coefficients of the reflection behavior
along the tangential and the normal directions to the walls [32].
 14
cm
Recently, Michalis and co-workers [12] proposed an effective viscosity in order to
account the rarefaction effects present at high Knudsen numbers. Using the Direct
Simulation Monte Carlo method in a wide range of Knudsen number flows along
a channel, they concluded that a Bosanquet-type of approximation describes very
satisfactorily the Knudsen number dependence of the viscosity over the entire
 14
cm

Mesoscopic Simulation of Rarefied Gas STP Flows on Chemical and Biomedical Engineering 7

transition regime, that is, from the slip-flow to the free-molecular flow limit
assuming that the system is not far from thermodynamic equilibrium conditions.
The effective viscosity is obtained by assuming the following Bosanquet-type
expression
1
(21)
μ~e = 1 + 1
μ~ μ~
Bulk Kn

where μBulk is the bulk viscosity (Kn→0) and μKn corresponds to the free molecular
flow (Kn→∞). A simple expression that relates the effective viscosity to the Kn
is given by the expression [12]

μ~ e = μ~ 1
(22)
Bulk
1+aKn
which was also suggested by Beskok and Karniadakis [1]. The parameter a is a
numerical factor, which is not constant but depends on the Kn value. However,
this dependence is rather weak over the majority of the transition regime,
suggesting an “effective” value close to 2, as shown in [12].
Mesoscopic Methods: The LB Third Heading 12 pt. After 6 Single Spacing Bold Title Case
Approach
The lattice Boltzmann method (LBM) statistically monitors the evolution of
described by the discrete Boltzmann equation, whose simplest form looks as
follows [33, 34],

fi (x + ei ,t +1) = fi (x,t) + ; i = 0,...,8 (23)

Ωi

where fi is the single particle distribution function, Ωi is the collision operator, x

and t the spatial and time variables, respectively, and {ei}is the discrete velocity
set on the lattice.

For a two dimensional 9 speed LB model the nine unit-velocity vectors (D2Q9) are
depicted in Fig. 3, and are defined below [33, 34]:

e0 = (0, 0)
 14
cm
(24)

⎛ i −1 i −1 ⎞ i = 1,..., 4 (25)
e = cos π , sin π
;
i ⎜ 2 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠

21 21
cm cm
 14
cm

8 STP Flows on Chemical and Biomedical Engineering Kalarakis et al.

⎛ i−5 π i = 5,...,8 (26)

e= 2 cos π+ ,

i−5 π⎞
sin π+

;
⎜ ⎟
i
2 4 2 4
⎝ ⎠

6 3 5

0
2 1

7 4 8

Figure 3: Velocity vectors on a lattice cell.

Introducing the single relaxation parameter τ [35] the collision operator can be
approximated by the following expression [33, 34]:

f − f eq
; i = 0,...,8
(27)
Ω=− i i

i
τ

where f eq is i the equilibrium distribution function (EDF). The EDF is expanded

around the local velocity [35-38] as follows:

⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞
f eq = w ρ 1+ (e ⋅ υ) + (e ⋅ υ)2 − υ 2 ;

i i ⎜ 2c4 i
⎟
c2 i
2c2
 14
cm

⎝ s s s ⎠
4
w=
1
; wi
; wi = 36 , i = 5,..,8 (28)

= , i = 1,.., 4
1
0 9 9

In the above equilibrium distribution function the speed of sound is

cs = 1 (29)

The local density and velocity of the LB particles are given by the following
summations:

(30)
i i
ρ (x, t) =
∑ f (x, t)

21 21
cm cm

= eq
∑f (x, t)

i i
 14
cm

Mesoscopic Simulation of Rarefied Gas STP Flows on Chemical and Biomedical Engineering 9

ρυ(x, t) = ∑ f (x, t)e = ∑ f eq (x, t)e (31)

i i i
ii i

The Navier-Stokes equation can be recovered from the LB equations using the
Chapman-Enskog expansion [30, 39, 40]. The mass and momentum balance
equations derived from equations (23)-(31) are:

∂ρ
+∇ ⋅ ( ρυ) = 0 (32)

(33)
∂t

∂( ρ υ )

+∇⋅( ρυυ) =

−∇P + μ∇2υ + O υ3

∂t

In the LB method the dimensionless mean free path and relaxation parameter are
related to their dimensional quantities through
~ ~
λ = λδ x , t~ =τδt
~ (35)
r

~ ~
where δ x is a reference (if more than one) lattice spacing and δ t is the time that
is required for a fluid particle to travel this distance.

During a time interval equal to the relaxation time, t~ , the particles with mean
r
~ ~
speed c travel a distance equal to the mean free path λ . Therefore, a way to
express the mean free path is [48]:
 14
cm
~ ~
λ =c t~ = c τδ x
~ (36)
r

The speed of sound ( c~s )

through the fluid is given from

~
c~2 = ⎛ ∂P ⎞ (37)
s ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠S

that is,
k c~s
~ = (38)

Combination of equations (37) and (38) gives for the mean thermal speed:

21 21
cm cm
 14
cm

10 STP Flows on Chemical and Biomedical Engineering Kalarakis et al.

~
s
(39)
c

Using the node-to-node particle speed as reference speed, we get
~
c~ = c δx (40)

s s
δ t~
The dimensionless speed of sound is a known quantity that depends on the
prescribed spatial discretization and the specific lattice that is used. For instance,

boundary condition can be altered according to the value of ξ (ξ=1 corresponds

to no-slip boundary condition and ξ=0 to free slip and, eventually, to plug flow).
In what follows the 1st order value presented in the previous paragraph ( ξ=0.4658)
is used.

21 1.1 21
cm Kn = cm
1.0 0.194

0.9

0.8

v
0.7
/
0.6

0.5

0.4
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
y
Figure 4: Gas flow velocity profile at a cross section inside a tube LB method for Kn=0.194 (bottom
line), and Kn=0.388 (top line).

In Fig. 4 the cross-section velocity profiles and the slip length are presented for
two Knudesn numbers, namely, Kn=0.194 and Kn=0.388. The slip length appears
 14
cm

Mesoscopic Simulation of Rarefied Gas STP Flows on Chemical and Biomedical Engineering 11

to increase by 50% upon doubling the Kn value. The cross-section velocity

profiles in a channel are depicted in Fig. 5 for Kn=0.388, using the DSMC
method, the LB method with Kn-dependent gas viscosity, and a standard
numerical solution to the NS equation assuming no-slip at the wall. Fig. 6 presents
the dimensionless relative pressure along the tube, i.e., its deviation from linearity,
defined as:

(
p* =
p−p p p− ⎡p − p − (46)
= ⎣ inlet inlet

)( )
linear outlet

p xL ⎤
outlet ⎦

p
outlet

Even though the rarefied LB model results compare satisfactorily with the DSMC
ones for low Knudsen numbers (Kn<0.2), the LBM seems to fail to reproduce the
DSMC data at intermediate or higher Knudsen numbers. In order to extend the
validity of the rarefied LBM to intermediate and higher Kn a modification that
21 relates the fluid viscosity to the Knudsen number has to be employed. To this end 21
cm cm
the effective viscosity that was recently proposed [12], and presented previously
can be adopted in the LBM. Therefore, a modified Kn can be obtained that will
render the LB more accurate as it takes into account the rarefaction effect over the
entire flow regime. The correct prescription of the viscosity in the LB model is of
tremendous importance in cases of flow in porous media, where more than one
flow regime may be present across different subregions of the medium (Table 1).

1.2

1.0

0.8
V
/
0.6
V
m
25
0.4 %
a

D Ho
0.2
S llo
NS (no
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
y/H

Figure 5: Gas (N2) flow velocity profiles at characteristic cross-sections inside a tube (at L/4, L/2,
3L/4 from the entrance) obtained using the mesoscopic DSMC and LB methods, and the
 14
cm
“macroscopic” NS (with no-slip BC) method, for Knout = 0.388. The magnitude of the velocity at
the middle of the tube (L/2, H/2) was used for reduction.
 14
cm

12 STP Flows on Chemical and Biomedical Engineering Kalarakis et al.

Table 1: Negative styles of management (SO) (Lapidus, 2002)

Attributes Repressive SOM Distrusting SOM Indifferent SOM

Method of work Aggressiveness. Accent on People are like
control. mechanisms.
Motto Find guilty people and I do not Follow orders and
punish them! Do not enter trust instructions.
without an order! people,
even
myself.
Dominating Expose weaknesses of Mania of Lack of empathy.
characteristics employees. Suppress their searching for
of emotional will. enemies.
intellect
Optimal conditions for Catastrophes, wars. Special Preparing
work organizations. enterprise
for
bankruptc
y.
Influence on Destructive. Destructive. Marsh-creating.
organizational
climate

Flow in a Porous Medium Forth Heading 12 pt. After 6 Single Spacing Bold Italic
21 Underlined Title Case 21
cm cm
The porous structures examined here were reconstructed with the Fractional
Brownian Motion method [56], in which the Hurst exponent allows the
adjustment of the degree of the local correlation of the structure. Figs 7-8 present
indicative calculation results in a porous medium with porosity ε=0.7 and Hurst
exponent H=4, obtained using the DSMC and LBM mesoscopic techniques, and
the conventional NS solution in the same locations. More specifically, indicative
streamlines in a typical part of the porous sample are displayed at several Knudsen
numbers in Fig. 7, while comparison of the mean field values is given in Fig. 8,
where the dependence of the superficial velocity on the rarefaction effects is
apparent.

The need to describe rarefied flows in a variety of applications that involve micro,
and nanoscale pores or channels has stimulated the development of a multitude of
theoretical and numerical methodologies. A comparison of the predictions of the
mesoscopic approaches with those of the Navier-Stokes formulation
complemented by a non-slip flow condition revealed that the latter can be safely
employed for very small Knudsen number obtained using the DSMC and LBM
mesoscopic techniques, and the conventional NS solution in the same locations.
More specifically, indicative streamlines in a typical part of the porous sample are
displayed at several Knudsen numbers in Fig. 7, while comparison values only.
The DSMC method was used to determine the flow field in different types of
porous media and processes.
 14
cm

Mesoscopic Simulation of Rarefied Gas STP Flows on Chemical and Biomedical Engineering 13

Figure 7: Gas (N2) flow patterns in a tortuous reconstructed (FBM) porous medium (ε=0.7,
Η=0.4) for (a) Knout=0.5, (b) Knout=5, and (c) Knout=10, using DSCM methods. Streamlines end at
equidistant positions along the exit face.

21 21
cm cm
Mesoscopic Simulation of Rarefied Gas STP Flows on Chemical and Biomedical Engineering 15

3.0

NS
2.5 DS
M
M
e2.0
a
n
1.5

S
u1.0
p
e
0.5
r

0.0
0.1 1 10

K
out

Figure 8: Mean superficial velocity at elevated Kn numbers at the outlet of a porous medium
(reconstructed with FBM, ε=0.7, Η=0.4).

CONCLUDING REMARKS

The need to describe rarefied flows in a variety of applications that involve micro,
and nanoscale pores or channels has stimulated the development of a multitude of
theoretical and numerical methodologies. A comparison of the predictions of the
mesoscopic approaches with those of the Navier-Stokes formulation
complemented by a non-slip flow condition revealed that the latter can be safely
employed for very small Knudsen number values only. The DSMC method was
used to determine the flow field in different types of porous media and processes.

CONSENT FOR PUBLICATON

None Declare

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

None Declare

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

None Declare
 14
cm

Mesoscopic Simulation of Rarefied Gas STP Flows on Chemical and Biomedical Engineering 15

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Mesoscopic Simulation of Rarefied Gas STP Flows on Chemical and Biomedical Engineering 17

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References Font Size 9 pt. Before/After (NIL) Single Spacing
Books:
Bernstein, D. K., & Tiegerman, E. (1989). Language and communication disorders in children (2nd ed.).
Columbus, OH: Merill.
Rosenthal, R. (1987). Meta-analytical procedures for social research (Rev. ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Pressley, M. & Brainerd, C. J. (Eds.). (1985). Cognitivelearning and memory in children. New York:
Springer-Verlag.
DOCTORAL AND MASTER'S THESES (UNPUBLISHED)
Swinton, M. A. (1984). Family stress in [Link] master’s thesis, University of
Auckland, N.Z.
Bergmann, I. (1997). Attention Deficit Disorder. In The new encyclopedia Britannica (Vol. 26, pp. 501-508).
Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica.
Rice, D. N., Houston, I. B. & Lyon, I. C. T. (1983). Transient neonatal tyrosinemia. In H. Naruse & M. Irie
(Eds.), Proceedings of the International Symposium on Neonatal Screening for Inborn Errors of
Metabolism (pp. 306-310). Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica.
Schatz, B. R. (1998). Learning to learn. [Review of the book The learner’s guide]. Magpies, 23 (3), p. 12.
American Psychological Association. (2008). HIV Office on Psychology Education (HOPE). Retrieved June
24, 2008, from [Link]
Kawasaki, J. L. & Raven, M.R. (1995, May 2). Computer- administered surveys in extension Journal of
Extension, 33(3), 252-255. Retrieved November 20, 2000, from
[Link]
Beulig, A. & Fowler, J. (2008, April). Fish on prozac: Effect of serotonin reuptake inhibitors on cognition in
goldfish [Electronic version]. Behavioral Neuroscience, 122(2), 426-432.
Burton, R. (1832). The anatomy of melancholy. Retrieved from
[Link]
21 McClain, M. & Roth. J. D. (1999). Schaum's quick guide to writing great essays. Retrieved from ebrary 21
cm database. cm
Book reviews:
Morris, S. (2008). Henry Giroux - urgently necessary and necessarily urgent: An essay review [Review of the
book Against the terror of neoliberalism: politics beyond the age of greed]. Education Review, 11(3).
Retrieved from