UNIT-3(2) TRACKING RADARThe primary objective all radars is to search a given volume of space and to detect targets without previous knowledge of the targets location or presence. Two basic functions in almost all radars are search/detect and track. Tracking is essential component of many radar systems. The exact position of the target is required for most of the applications of radar technology. Typical area is airport, at small airports, the antennas are much more visible and can be rotating. Most of the antennas at larger airports are protected by doomsTracking radars lock on to a target and track it for a certain distance or for a certain time period. Target tracking is important in military and Airport surveillance Radars (ASRs). Military applications or radar systems include gun control, missile guidance and airspace surveillance linking with spacecraft and or satellites. ASRs play a major role in airports for aircraft traffic control, and they utilize tracking function as means of controlling incoming and departing aircraftsCharacteristically, tracking radars and surveillance radars are different, they are used for long range surveillance and the surveillance can be done with small volume-scanning time. Used for extremely active and small targets Advantageous, as one or more targets can be detected with much greater accuracy with search radars The main aim or tracking radar is to continuously track the target and find out its location or the course in which it is moving. Once the radar detects the target in the given volume of space, it will track the target by estimating the target parameters accurately.To find the path of the target and its destination the radars determine the coordinates of moving targets continuously Three tracking techniques [Link] tracking [Link] tracking [Link] tracking To determine the position of target, radars search the airspace using search radars. Search radars search the airspace with their wide beam width. Once the position of the target is known, then the tracking radars track the desired targets with its narrow beam width which is also known as pencil beam. From moving targets they find azimuth angle, elevation angle, direction and speed.When the course and speed information is known, it also predicts the location of the target in subsequent observations. Generally radar system has perform the following tasks 1. Either search for the target 2. Track the targets once they haven been pinpointed. Some applications the two tasks can be executed by single radar in other they can be performed by two separate radars Search radars uses wide beam antenna patterns and tracking radar uses narrow beam antenna patterns. If single radar is used then narrow beam is used for both searching and tracking purposes.Tracking Radar system Tracking radar system tracks continuously the target and determines the position or direction of a target. Position or direction of target is measured in range, azimuth angle, elevation angle and velocity. Future position and direction of target is also predicted by continuously tracking these measured parameters. To produce future positions of the target continuously, an accurate estimation of following parameters is essential 1. RangeR 2. angle (azimuth (0) and elevation (@) ) 3. Radial velocity 4. RCS[ Mechanical drive and [servo mechanism, [ Amplifier “Tea Comparator | Figure 15.1 Antenna tracking Many tracking radar systems track single target by continuously pointing the antenna beam at the target and controlling the antenna pointing angle and range measurement to coincide with the target positionThe single antenna produces three beams. One beam is produced by the transmitter , the other two beams are produced by the receivers that are symmetrical and their gains are equal. Two receivers track simultaneously and outputs are matched over a dynamic range. Depending upon the signal from the receiver, the location of the target is known. If the signals from the receivers are matched then target is in line with the antenna radiation.The two signals are sent to comparator, zero if the two signals are equal, if receiver 2 is greater than the receiver 1, then the target is in the right of the axis of antenna radiation. Later it passes to the amplifier, where it amplifies the difference level of signal. The amplified signal drives the antenna mechanically to the right or left to reduce the original difference level of signal. These types of radar are used in defense purpose for tracking enemy targets and directing defensive missilesDifferences between search and tracking Radar Search Radar Tracking Radar 1. Search radars search the targets 1. The tracking radar continuously within a given volume of a solid angel and within a given slant range in a specified amount of time . They search the targets with wide beam antenna patterns . Search radar is used in aircrafts and surveillance applications . They track the tracks the target and determines the position or direction of a target in range, azimuth angle, elevation angle and velocity targets with narrow beam antenna patterns . Tracking radar is used in defense for tracking enemy targets, directing defensive missiles and prediction of the target.Tracking Principles A Tracking-radar system -- measures the coordinates of a target and -- provides data which may be used to determine the target path and to predict its future position. All or only part of the available radar data-range, elevation angle, azimuth angle, and Doppler frequency shift may be used in predicting future position; radar might track in range, in angle, in Doppler, or with any combination. Almost any radar can be considered a tracking radar provided its output information is processed properly. In general, it is the method by which angle tracking is accomplished that distinguishes a tracking radar from any other radar. It is also necessary to distinguish between a continuous tracking radar and a track-while-scan (TWS) radar.The continuous tracking radar supplies continuous tracking data on a particular target, while the track-while-scan supplies sampled data on one or more targets. In general, the continuous tracking radar and the TWS radar employ different types of equipment. The antenna beam in the continuous tracking radar is positioned in angle by a servomechanism actuated by an error signal. The various methods for generating the error signal may be classified as sequential lobing, conical scan, and simultaneous lobing or monopulse.Angle Tracking Angle tracking is concerned with generating continuous measurements of the targets angular position in the azimuth and elevation angles. Target tracking is achieved by keeping antenna beam main axis on the target angle. Special antenna is used for tracking the target in angle tracking radar systems. Antenna should be in line of sight with moving target all the time, to predict target position. For this purpose simple lobe switching arrangement and tracking is performed in azimuth angle.Lobe switching arrangement shifts the position of the beam in the horizontal plane, so the antenna position is updated and moved in the direction of target depending on the error signal. The error signal is obtained from the difference in the strength of the returned signals form the position of two lobes. The ability of radar to find the exact angle of target depends on the size of the antenna beam employed. Error signal will be generated if the antennas beam main axis is not exactly on the target. Depending on the sign of error signal, the antenna beams’ main axis is moved right or left to align with the moving target.Three methods for generating the error signals for tracking 1. Sequential lobing 2. Conical scan 3. Monopulse tracking Modern radar systems mostly use monopulse tracking techniques since they use only one pulse to determine targets position and obtain better angular measurements compared to sequential and conical tracking techniques, which require several pulses.Sequential Lobing The antenna pattern commonly employed with tracking radars is the symmetrical pencil beam in which the elevation and azimuth beam widths are approximately equal. However, a simple pencil-beam antenna is not suitable for tracking radars unless means are provided for determining the magnitude and direction of the target's angular position with respect to some reference direction, usually the axis of the antenna. The difference between the target position and the reference direction is the angular error. The tracking radar attempts to position the antenna to make the angular error zero. When the angular error is zero, the target is located along the reference direction.* One method of obtaining the direction and the magnitude of the angular error in one coordinate is by alternately switching the antenna beam between two positions (Fig.). This is called lobe switching, sequential switching, or sequential lobing. Figure (a) is a polar representation of the antenna beam (minus the side lobes) in the two switched positions. + A plot in rectangular coordinates is shown in Fig. (b), and the error signal obtained from a target not on the switching axis (reference direction) shown in Fig (c). + The difference in amplitude between the voltages obtained in the two switched positions is a measure of the angular displacement of the target from the switching axis. The sign of the difference determines the direction the antenna must be moved in order to align the switching axis with the direction of the target. When the voltages in the two switched positions are equal, the target is on axis and, its position may be determined from the axis direction.(c)error signal. Figure 5.1 Lobe-switching antenna patterns and error signal (one dimen- sion). (a) Polar representation of switched antenna patterns; (b) rect- angular representat 2 voursogTwo additional switching positions are needed to obtain the angular error in the orthogonal coordinate. Thus a two-dimensional sequentially lobing radar might consist of a cluster of four feed horns illuminating a single antenna, arranged so that the right-left, up-down sectors are covered by successive antenna positions. Both transmission and reception are accomplished at each position. A cluster of five feeds might also be employed, with the central feed used for transmission while the outer four feeds are used for receiving. High-power RF switches are not needed since only the receiving beams, and not the transmitting beam, are stepped in this five-feed arrangement.One of the limitations of a simple unswitched nonscanning pencil-beam antenna is that the angle accuracy can be no better than the size of the antenna beamwidth. An important feature of sequential lobing (as well as the other tracking techniques to be discussed) is that the target-position accuracy can be far better than that given by the antenna beamwidth. The accuracy depends on how well equality of the signals in the switched positions can be determined. The fundamental limitation to accuracy is system noise caused either by mechanical or electrical fluctuations. Sequential lobing, or lobe switching, was one of the first tracking-radar techniques to be employed. Early applications were in airborne-interception radar, where it provided directional information for homing on a target, and in ground-based antiaircraft fire-control radars. It is not used as often in modern tracking- radar applicationsConical Scan The logical extension of the sequential lobing technique is to rotate continuously an offset antenna beam rather than discontinuously step the beam between four discrete positions. This is known as conical scanning (Fig 5.2). The angle between the axis of rotation (which is usually, but not always, the axis of the antenna reflector) and the axis of the antenna beam is called the squint angle.rotation Rodor Figure 5.2 Conical-scan tracking.* Consider a target at position A. The echo signal will be modulated at a frequency equal to the rotation frequency of the beam. The amplitude of the echo-signal modulation will depend upon the shape of the antenna pattern, the squint angle and the angle between the target line of sight and the rotation axis. The phase of the modulation depends on the angle between the target and the rotation axis. + The conical scan modulation is extracted from the echo signal and applied to a servo-control system which continually positions the antenna on the target. When the antenna is on target, as in B of Fig.5.2, the line of sight to the target and the rotation axis coincide, and the conical-scan modulation is zero. + A block diagram of the angle-tracking portion of a typical conical-scan tracking radar is shown in Fig. below. The antenna is mounted so that it can be positioned in both azimuth and elevation by separate motors, which might be either electric- or hydraulic-driven. The antenna beam is offset by tilting either the feed or the reflector with respect to one another.1- When the target being on the LOS E(t) A time2. When the target being off the LOS timeTo rotary joint on antenna Arimuth ser¥0 motor Figure 53 Block diagram of conical-scan tracking radar.* One of the simplest conical-scan antennas is a parabola with an offset rear feed rotated about the axis of the reflector. If the feed maintains the plane of polarization fixed as it rotates, it is called a nutating feed. A rotating feed causes the polarization to rotate. The latter type of feed requires a rotary joint. * The nutating feed requires a flexible joint. If the antenna is small, it may be easier to rotate the dish, which is offset, rather than the feed, thus avoiding the problem of a rotary or flexible RF joint in the feed. A typical conical- scan rotation speed might be 30 r/s. The same motor that provides the conical-: rotation of the antenna beam also drives a two phase reference generator with two outputs 90° apart in phase. * These two outputs serve as a reference to extract the elevation and azimuth errors. The received echo signal is fed to the receiver from the antenna via two rotary joints (not shown in the block diagram). One rotary joint permits motion in azimuth, the other, in elevation.The receiver is a conventional super heterodyne except for features peculiar to the conical scan tracking radar. One feature not found in other radar receivers is a means of extracting the conical-scan modulation, or error signal. This is accomplished after the second detector in the video portion of the receiver. The error signal is compared with the elevation and azimuth reference signals in the angle-error detectors, which are phase-sensitive detectors. A phase-sensitive detector is a nonlinear device in which the input signal (in this case the angle-error signal) is mixed with the reference signal. The input and reference signals are of the same frequency. The output d-c voltage reverses polarity as the phase of the input signal changes through 180°. The magnitude of the d-c output from the angle-error detector is proportional to the error, and the sign (polarity) is an indication of the direction of the error. The angle-error-detector outputs are amplified and drive the antenna elevation and azimuth servo motors. The angular position of the target may be determined from the elevation and azimuth o the antenna axis. The position can be read out by means of standard angle transducers such as synchros, potentiometers, or analog-to- digital-data converters.Monopulse Radar Amplitude Comparison Monopulse (_1 Coordinate) : * The amplitude-comparison monopulse employs two overlapping antenna patterns (Fig. 6.5.1 (a)) to obtain the angular error in one coordinate. * The two overlapping antenna beams may be generated with a single reflector or with a lens antenna illuminated by two adjacent feeds. (A cluster of four feeds may be used if both elevation- and azimuth-error signals are wanted.) * The sum of the two antenna patterns of Fig. 6.5.1 (a) is shown in Fig. 6.5.1 (b), and the difference in Fig. 6.5.1 (c). The sum patterns are used for transmission, while both the sum pattern and the difference pattern are used on reception. + The signal received with the difference pattern provides the magnitude of the angle error. The sum signal provides the range measurement and is also used as a reference to extract the sign of the error signal. + Signals received from the sum and the difference patterns are amplified separately and combined in a phase-sensitive detector to produce the error-signal characteristic shown in Fig. 6.5.1 (d).> Monopulse Antenna Patterns : and Error Signal a Oe a O~ Bm Overlappin: Difference Sum Antenna Patterns Pattern Pattern Error Signal Error Signal = a cos (b; —9,) ‘Adapted from Skolnk Raterence 1 Error Signal vs. Angle IEEE New Hampshi STS me IEEE AES Socie'Sum channel Range signal Amplitude detector Hybrid junction Phase- Angle — sensitive |—e error detector signa! ‘Antenna feeds IF omplifier Difference channel Fig 6.5.2 Block diagram of amplitude-comparison monopulse radar+ A block diagram of the amplitude-comparison-monopulse tracking radar for a single angular coordinate is shown in Fig. 6.5.2. The two adjacent antenna feeds are connected to the two arms of a hybrid junction such as a magic T, a rat race, or a short-slot coupler. + The sum and difference signals appear at the two other arms of the hybrid. On reception, the outputs of the sum arm and the difference arm are each heterodyned to an intermediate frequency and amplified as in any super heterodyne receiver. The transmitter is connected to the sum arm. Range information is also extracted from the sum channel. + A duplexer is included in the sum arm for the protection of the receiver. The output of the phase-sensitive detector is an error signal whose magnitude is proportional to the angular error and whose sign is proportional to the directionThe output of the monopulse radar is used to perform automatic tracking. The angular error signal actuates a servo-control system to position the antenna, and the range output from the sum channel feeds into an automatic-range-tracking unit. The sign of the difference signal (and the direction of the angular error) is determined by comparing the phase of the difference signal with the phase of the sum signal. Tf the sum signal in the IF portion of the receiver were A, cos @, t, the difference signal would be either Ay cos @) t or — Ag cos @ pt (A, > 0, Ay >0), depending on which side of center is the target. Since — Aycos @ t =— Ay Cos @, (t + 2), the sign of the difference signal may be measured by determining whether the difference signal is in phase with the sum or 180° out of phase.Amplitude Monopulse Radar ( 2 Coordinates) A block diagram of a monopulse radar with provision for extracting error signals in both elevation and azimuth is shown in Fig. 6.6. The cluster of four feeds generates four partially overlapping antenna beams. The feeds might be used with a parabolic reflector, Cassegrain antenna, or a lens. All four feeds generate the sum pattern. The difference pattern in one plane is formed by taking the sum of two adjacent feeds and subtracting this from the sum of the other two adjacent feeds. The difference pattern in the orthogonal plane is obtained by adding the differences of the orthogonal adjacent pairs. A total of four hybrid junctions generate the sum channel, the azimuth difference channel, and the elevation difference channel. Three separate mixers and IF amplifiers are shown, one for each channel. All three mixers operate from a single local oscillator in order to maintain the phase relationships between the three channels.Two phase-sensitive detectors extract the angle-error information, one for azimuth, the other for elevation. Range information is extracted from the output of the sum channel after amplitude detection. Since a phase comparison is made between the output of the sum channel and each of the difference channels, it is important that the phase shifts introduced by each of the channels be almost identical. The phase difference between channels must be maintained to within 25° or better for reasonably proper performance. The gains of the channels also must not differ by more than specified amounts.Block Diagram of Two Coordinate Amplitude Comparison Monopulse Radar ‘mut error = (A¥C)(B*D) WA=B=C=D I(AKC)-(BHD)=0, Ten m0 TOF Te yet centered evaion enor =(A*B)-(C*D) (4%) (COD) =0, Then 9 ere Block diagram of two coordinate (Azimuth and Elevation) amplitude camparison monopulse radar The cluster of four feeds generates four partially overlapping antenna beams, The feeds might be used with a parabolic reflector or lens. All four feeds generate the sum pattern.RANGE Veo = PR RANGE ELEVATION AZIMUTH ANGLE ERROR DETECTOR} Fig 6.6 Block diagram of two-coordinate (azimuth and elevation) amplitude-comparison monopulse tracking radarCt Four Horn Monopulse Block Diagram ge oe oo ce Transmitter & Hybrid Junction non Y&R x e Sum etwas as W Antenna Feed Difference RH SF y Aaa ton Si sma clrence Diffe dhaslnd IEEE New Hampshire Section — IEEE AES So iety} Two Dimensional- Four Horn Monopulse Boe Antenna Dish Antenna Feed \ Radar * £=Sum channel signal ifference channel signal fanaa ani * Error signal e= aoe Sum beam Elevation difference beam z a A+B+C+D B+D —(A+c) Note that the lowor feeds generate the upper beams Azimuth difference beam B+A — (C+D) IEEE New Hamps! IEEE AES S.} Monopulse Error Pattern oe 1.0 Voltage Pattern Off-Axis Angle IEEE New Hampshire Section —= IEEE AES Society} Three Types of Hybrid Junctions Hybrid Magi Ring Junction or “Rat-Race” ot coanam Sener Systems. 3 dB Directional Port D Coupler IEEE New Hampshire Section IEEE AES SocietyPhase Comparison Monopulse Radar The angle of arrival (in one coordinate) may be determined by comparing the phase difference between the signals from two separate antennas. The individual boresight axes of the antennas are parallel, causing the (far- field) radiation to illuminate the same volume in space. The measurement of angle of arrival by comparison of the phase relationship in the signals from the separated antennas of a radio interferometer is called interferometer radar or simultaneous phase comparison radar or phase comparison monopulse.The two antennas are separated by a distance ‘d’ as shown The distance to the target is R and is assumed large compared with the antenna separation ‘d’. The line of sight to the target makes an angle 0 to the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the two antennas. The distance from antennal to the target is R = R+4sing Wave front phase relationships in phase comparison monopulse radar+ The distance from the antenna 2 to the target is ds R, = R-=sind . 2 % The phase difference between the echo signals in the two antennas is approximately i Ag =—dsind A * For small angles where sin 0 = 0, the phase difference is a linear function of the angular error and may be used to position the antenna via a servo-control loop. % To extract the range and angular error, the commonly used method is to form the sum and difference patterns in the RF and to process the signals as in a conventional amplitude-comparison monopulse radar.In the early versions of the phase-comparison monopulse radar, the angular error was determined by measuring the phase difference between the outputs of receivers connected to each antenna. The output from one of the antennas was used for transmission and for providing the range information. With such an arrangement it was difficult to obtain the desired aperture illuminations and to maintain a stable bore sight. A more satisfactory method of operation is to form the sum and difference patterns in the RF and to process the signals as in a conventional amplitude-comparison monopulse radar.Target-Reflection Characteristics and Angular Accuracy * The angular accuracy of a tracking radar is influenced by reflection characteristics of the target in addition to other factors like the mechanical properties of the radar antenna, the method by which the angular position of the antenna is measured, the quality of the servo system, the stability of the electronic circuits, the noise level of the receiver, the antenna beam width, atmospheric fluctuations Asimple radar target like smooth sphere will not cause degradation of the angular-tracking accuracy. * factors can degrade the tracking accuracy by causing the antenna beam to fluctuate in a random manner about the true target path. These noise like fluctuations are sometimes called “Tracking Noise” or “Jitter”.Most radar targets are of complex in nature than the sphere. * The amplitude of the echo signal from a complex target may vary over wide limits as the aspect changes with respect to the radar. In addition to this, the effective center of radar reflection may also change. Along with amplitude fluctuations and wandering of the radar center of reflection, the limitation imposed by receiver noise can limit the tracking accuracy. Complex radar target - Aircraft* Main limitations to tracking accuracy of radar are, + Amplitude fluctuations. + Angle fluctuations. a ; : + Receiver and servo noiseAmplitude Fluctuations A complex target like aircraft or ship may be considered as a number of independent scattering elements. The echo signal can be represented as the vector sum of the contributions from the individual scatterers. Tf the target aspect changes with respect to the radar because of motion of the target or turbulence in the case of aircraft targets, the relative phase and amplitude relationships of the contributions from the individual scatterers also change. Amplitude fluctuations of the echo signal are important in the design of lobe switching radar and the conical scan radar. However this does not influence to the monopulse tracker.To reduce the effect of amplitude noise on tracking, the conical scan frequency should be chosen to correspond to a low value of amplitude noise. The percentage modulation of the echo signal due to cross section amplitude fluctuations is independent of range if automatic gain control (AGC) is used. The function of the automatic gain control (AGC) is to maintain the d-c level of the receiver output constant and to smooth or eliminate as much of the noise like amplitude fluctuations as possible without disturbing the extraction of the desired error signal at the conical-scan frequency, This is shown in the figure. AGC ina receiver also prevents saturation by large signals.Amplitude Fluctuations | i ud —~—SCO AGC Amplifier Brown Input Signal__ Blue - Output Signal Therefore, the angular error as a result of amplitude fluctuations will also be independent of range.A typical scan frequency might be of the order of 30 Hz. Higher frequencies might also be used since target amplitude noise generally decreases with increasing frequency. It has been found experimentally that the tracking accuracy of radars operating with pulse repetition frequencies from 1000 to 4000 Hz and a lobing or scan rate one-quarter of the PRF are not limited by echo amplitude fluctuations.e fluctuations The changes in the target aspect with respect to the radar causes the apparent center of radar reflections to wander from one point to another. The random wandering of the apparent radar reflecting center gives rise to noisy or jittered angle tracking. This form of tracking noise is called “angle noise” or “angle scintillations” or “angle fluctuations” or “target glint”. Angle fluctuations affect all tracking radars whether conical scan, sequential lobing or monopulse. Consider a simplified model of a complex radar target consisting of two independent isotropic scatterers separated by an angular distance @, as measured from the radar. The qualitative effects of the target fluctuations can be can be assessed from this model. The relative amplitude of the two scatterers is assumed to be ‘a’, and the relative phase difference is a. The ratio ‘a’ is defined as a number less than unity. The angular error A@ as measured from the larger of two targets is A@_ a’ +acosa ; (1 6, 1+a° +2acosa 2The angular error is plotted in the figure shown. The position of the two scatterers corresponds to A0/0,, = 0 and AQ/0, = 1, where the former is the larger of the two scatterers and the latter is the smallest scatterer. The positive values of AQ lies between the two scatterers and the negative values lies outside the target. When the echo signals from both scatterers are in phase i.e. when a=0 , the error reduces to al(atl) Which is called “center of gravity” of the two scatterers.Angle fluctuations are due to random changes in the relative distance from the radar to the scatterers i.e. varying values of a, Theses changes may result from turbulence in the aircraft flight path or from the changing aspect caused by target motion. The equation | indicates the tracking error A@ due to glint for the two scatterer target is directly proportional to the angular extent of the target @,. Since @, varies inversely with the distance for a fixed target size, the tracking error due to glint also varies inversely with distance. Angle fluctuations are reduced by increasing the time constant of the AGC system, which is accompanied by a new component of noise caused by amplitude fluctuations, Hence a wide bandwidth AGC should be used to minimize the overall tracking noise.Receiver and Servo Noise Receiver noise power is another limitation for Receiver noise tracking accuracy, The accuracy of angle measurement is inversely proportional to the square root of the signal-to- Noise power ratio, Since the signal-to-noise power ratio is proportional to 1/R* (from the radar equation), the angular error due to receiver noise is proportional Ee ee to the square of the target distance, Servo noise results from backlash and compliance in the gears, shafts and structures of the mount. The magnitude of servo noise is independent of target echo and will be independent of range.ibutions of the various factors affecting the tracking error are summarizedAngle Tracking : + A radar that tracks a target at a low elevation angle, near the surface of the earth, can receive two echo signals from the target, Fig. 6.11. One signal is reflected directly from the target, and the other arrives via the earth's surface. « The direct and the surface-reflected signals combine at the radar to yield angle measurement that differs from the true measurement that would have been made with a single target in the absence of surface reflections. The result is an error in the measurement of elevation. + The surface-reflected signal may be thought of as originating from the image of the target mirrored by the earth's surface. Thus, the effect on tracking is similar to the two-target model used to describe glint. The surface-reflected signal is sometimes called a multipath signal.Antenna beom Rador ——— - ee —= Torget Bee ae Surfoce ~ reflected poth net Fig 6.11 Low-angle tracking ‘The surface-teflected signal travels a longer path than the direct signal so that it may be possible in some cases to separate the two in time (range). Tracking on the direct signal avoids the angle errors introduced by the multipath. The range-resolution required to separate the direct from the ground-reflected signal is hgh, AR = RWhere, radar antenna height, i h, = target height, R =range to the target. For a radar height of 30 m, a target height of 100 m and a range of 10 km, the range-resolution must be 0.6 m, corresponding to a pulse width of 4 ns. This is a much shorter pulse than is commonly employed in radar. Although the required range-resolutions for a ground-based radar are achievable in principle, it is usually not applicable in practice. The use of frequency diversity can also reduce the multipath tracking error.Tracking in Range In many tracking radars such as Approach survellance Radar (ASR), the target is continuously track in range as well as angel. Range tracking is defined as tracking the moving target range continuously. The range of the target is measured by calculating the round trip delay of the transmitted pulses. The position of the moving target keeps on changing with time; so the range tracking radar should be continuously updated with the new position of the target so that target is not missed. Range tracking is implemented using a split gate system, in which two range gates (early and late) are used.Range tracking is implemented similar to dual beam angle tracking. After measuring the range of the target, the tracking radar predicts the range of the target on the next pulse. The range on first pulse is compared with the predicted range on next pulse using two range windows called the early and late range gates. The early gate pulse starts when the radar echo starts and closes at half of radar echo signal duration. The late gate pulse starts at the center of the radar echo signal and ends at the end of the echo signal. So the echo signal duration and center of the pulse signal should be sent to the range tracker to start the early and late gates at the start and center of the expected echo. This process is commonly known as the designation process.During the positive voltage of the radar echo signal, the early gate pulse exists and during the negative voltage of the radar echo signal, the late gate pulse exists. The difference signal, obtained from comparing the early gate pulse and late gate pulse, is sent to an integrator to produce an error signal. The error signal will not be produced if the pulse of early gate starts when the radar echo starts and pulse of late gate starts at the center of the radar echo signal. Similarly if the gates are not started as discussed above, the integrator produces an error signal. Then pulses of the gates are moved to right or left based on the sign of the error signal.Echo! pulse (a) I Time —> Early | Lote (0) wate gote Time —» Early gate - (r) signal Figure §.17 Split-range-gate tracking. +}——. - (a) Echo pulse: (h) early-tate range Loteqate T°“ gates; (c) difference. signal between signal early and late range gates.Acquisition Radar and Scanning Patterns + An Acquisition radar acquires a target and designate its Coordinates. + Acquisition target is one of the functions of a Tracking radar. + ATracking Radar detects acquires and then tracks a target sequentially. + These radars use narrow beams for accurate acquisition. * The Acquisition radars are also called Designation radar or survelliance radar. + These are useful for large volume search. Operation of Acquisition Radar: + The Acquisition radar provides the target coordinates to the tracking radar. + Searching in Azimuth and elevation angles is done for findings the target.Scanning Methods in Acquisition Radar : + In Acquisition radars, the following Scanning methods are used to find the target. Phased Array Scan. Raster Scan or TV Scan. Nodding Scan. Spiral Scan. Palmer Scan. Helical Scan. 4b 4b db 4b dh tdPhased Array Scan : The Phased Array scan is achieved by a phased array associated with a phased array used for air defense. In this , Scanning is very fast to acquire even fast moving targets. Raster Scan: The raster scan is useful to paint a rectangular search area uniformly. This uses pencil beam with small beam width and is useful for scanning limited angular section. Nodding Scan : The nodding Scan is a method of scanning in which the antenna beam is rotated in azimuth slowly and in elevation rapidly. This scanning is useful for finding height. It is useful to cover hemispherical area.Spiral Scan : It is a method of scanning which scan sector has a circular symmetry. The scan signal intensity is non-uniform in the scan sector for varied scanning speeds. Palmer Scan : It is a method of scanning in which the search is large in one dimension and small in another dimension. The scanning covers conical sector around the axis of rotation. Helical Scan : It is a method of scanning in which the scanning is continuous in azimuth while it raises or lowers in elevation, Here, the tracking is basically helical.MD © (a) (a) (ec) Fig. 6.9 Examples of acquisition search patterns. (a) Trace of helical scanning beam: (b) Palmer scan; (c) spiral scan; (d) raster, or TV, scan; (e) nodding scanComparison of trackers: % So far we have discussed four continuous tracking radar techniques-sequential lobing, conical scan, amplitude comparison monopulse and phase comparison monopulse. But the most widely used techniques are conical scan and amplitude comparison monopulse. The phase comparison monopulse is not in much use due to its relatively difficult technology. (i.e. four separate antennas mounted to point their individual beams in the same direction). Even though sequential lobing is similar to conical scan, the latter one is preferred because of its less loss and the antenna and feed systems are less complex.