Exploration Methods

Different types of exploration methods are essential to find out and

estimate volume of a commercially viable mineral concentration as it involves
high capital-intensive operations. The exploration methods are divided into
two main groups, namely:

A) Surface exploration; and

B) Subsurface exploration.

Involvement of different surface and subsurface exploration methods

during various stages of mineral exploration projects is shown. Surface
exploration methods includes: geological, geochemical, geobotanical,
photogeology & remote sensing. Subsurface exploration methods include:
gravity, magnetic, electrical, self-potential, telluric current, magnetotelluric,
resistivity, induced potential, electromagnetic, seismic. We will discuss the
surface and subsurface exploration methods in details in the following
sections.

Types of mineral exploration methods

A) Surface Exploration

The surface exploration method includes preparation of geological maps

based on data collected through field survey (including elevation data).
Incorporation of aerial photos, satellite imagery, geochemical and vegetation
data into these maps provide useful details regarding rock outcrops and their
boundaries, vegetation, geomorphology, lithology and lithological variations
of the area under investigation. Various surface exploration methods viz.
geological, geochemical, geobotanical, photogeology and remote sensing are
carried out during preliminary & detailed survey.
Geological Exploration:-
The occurrence of ore bodies are mainly controlled by geologic setting
with specific structural and tectonic setting and their spatial distribution over
a wide area.
Selection of most prospective area for exploration requires a sound
geological knowledge which includes structure of the area, age of the rocks,
rock types and basin modelling etc. Good acquaintance is required to make
perfect predictions and draw parallels between an established ore deposit and
the unknown potential mineralisation sought after exploration. The broad
activities involved in geological exploration are:
• to prepare a field database from different sources; and
• plot in geological base map.
The detailed activities include:
i) Review of existing data and field work: The exploration begins with the
regional appraisal of large area through available geological information,
review of literature, earlier published maps, survey and reports from different
sources. After preliminary findings from the review, the exploration team
visits the field to gather information related to geological, mineralisation, host
rock and hunting for the surface guides to incorporate and prepare the
geological base map for next phase of exploration.

ii) Geological / Surface Guides: During geological traverse, the exploration

team explores the existence of various types of surface signatures of mineral
deposits called geological or surface guides.

iii) Study of Topographic Maps: A topographical map (toposheets or

topomaps) commonly shows quantitative and precise representation of
physical and cultural features of the Earth’s surface. They represent a
symbolic picture of the natural and man-made features of small areas which
are drawn at relatively large scale. As a result, these maps serve as
indispensable tool for city and regional planners, natural resources
managers, and for engineering, environmental and geological studies. Earlier
a topographic survey is conducted with tape and compass. Now a days, it is
being done using electronic total stations to capture 3D observation data on
the field to prepare digital terrain model that is transformed into a high
quality geological map.
The activities carried out during geological exploration can be
subdivided into three main categories namely regional scale, belt scale and
deposit scale.
• Regional Scale: Surface features, like broad geological contacts, existence
of shear zones and weathering features are regionally plotted in the base map.
Study of aerial photographs, satellite images, airborne geophysical data
acquisition, wide spaced soil sample, grab and chip sampling of surface
exposures for broad geochemical surveys and weathering profiles are
collected and recorded.
• Mineral Belt Scale: Geological base map survey is scaled up to 1:25000 or
1:10000 scales using theodolite and GPS survey instruments. Detailed study
of geological structural setting such as stratigraphy and identification of host
rock, surface shows of mineralisation, existence of ancient mining and
smelting signatures are recorded and plotted in the base map. Additionally,
ground geophysics, geochemistry, pitting, trenching data are acquired for
data integration.
• Mineral Deposit Scale: After integrated study of the area, maximum
information of the mineral deposit is acquired by triangulation station survey.
Thereafter, base map in larger scale of 1:5000 or 1:1000 is prepared.
Additionally, closely spaced surface drilling, trenches, pits and boreholes is
carried out along and across the mineral body to delineate and extension of
the mineral deposit.

iv) River and glacial floating: River float tracing consists of finding and
tracing the ore bearing rock fragments by estimating travel distance of the
float on the basis of degree of wearing along the traverse line of the river. If
the float is absent in the alluvium, and then the search will continue towards
up slope direction. Shallow pits / trenches are dug at the spot where the last
float was traced.
Similarly, in glacial float tracing, a systematic search of ore bearing
boulders along the direction of glacier movement are traced. This is done by
observing the orientation of terminal moraines, eskers and drumlins.

Photogeology, Remote sensing and Geographic Information System

Geologists has always been fascinated by the bird’s eye view of Earth’s
surface to understand its geomorphology, structures, lithology and vegetation
which are considered as useful guides for mineral exploration. However, the
physical approaches for exploration have been replaced by photogeology and
remote sensing techniques. These techniques are helpful in exploration of
minerals in remote, hazardous terrain at less time and cost.
i) Photogeology
Photogeology is the elementary technique to derive geological
information from the interpretation of aerial photographs during
reconnaissance survey for mineral exploration. The aerial photos are most
commonly panchromatic black and white (B&W), B&W (Infrared), colour and
colour (Infrared) photographs. Infrared photos are extensively used to
differentiate vegetation in dense forested areas for mineral exploration. Aerial
photographs are acquired from a camera above the ground with specific
technique and can be interpreted in the laboratory using certain optical
instrument.
Aerial photographs are generally classified into two types: (a) vertical
and (b) oblique; Vertical photographs are taken by a camera pointing
vertically downward in most of the cases. Whereas oblique photographs are
taken at an angle to obtain permanent record of cliffs and similar features
which are difficult to access.
During acquisition of aerial photographs, a camera mounted airplane
takes a series of photographs in its flying directions on regular parallel lines
over the interested area.

Typical aerial photography survey to obtain full stereo coverage

Broadly two types of optical equipments are used for aerial photo
interpretation, namely:

• Pocket field stereoscope for quick view of the field survey data, and
• Mirror stereoscope

These instruments have binocular eyepieces to get enlarged image view.

These interpreted photo data are transferred into a scale corrected geological
base map for generation of a photogeological map. Now a days, multi-image
interpretation using satellite images with air photos have been carried out in
mineral exploration. Additional equipment, such as image analyser and
colour additive viewers are utilized in the exploration program to analyse
multispectral photos.

a) Pocket Stereoscope; and b) Mirror Stereoscope.

ii) Remote Sensing:-

As discussed in the above section, photogeology is the elementary

technique to derive geological information from the interpretation of aerial
photographs. Photogeology is the use of aerial photographs in geological
studies and is one of the most important techniques used in remote sensing.
Remote sensing implies data acquisition by electromagnetic radiation from
sensors flying on aerial or space platforms and interpretation of physical
attributes of the ground objects (Campbell, 2007). Based on the increasing
wavelength and decreasing frequency, electromagnetic radiation can be
divided into cosmic, gamma, X-ray, ultraviolet, visible, IR, terahertz and,
microwave radiations, and radio waves.

Electromagnetic spectrum

In remote sensing technique, the sensors capture the electromagnetic

radiations that are reflected or emitted by an object. They are in contact with
rays of different ranges of wavelength within the electromagnetic spectrum,
depending on their physicochemical properties. The spectral response of an
object or a pattern is stored which can be analysed for the identification of
the object.
Two types of sensors, namely passive and active sensors have been used
for procuring remote sensing data. They are:
• Passive Sensors: They use reflected or transmitted portion of
electromagnetic spectrum of solar radiation and thermal radiation from the
target area. Some of these sensors are Multispectral Scanner (MSS), Landsat
Thematic Mapper (TM), Advanced Space borne Thermal Emission and
Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) etc.
• Active Sensors: They emit energy and measure the intensity of energy that
gets reflected from the object or area under investigation. A few examples of
active sensors are Radar (microwave) and Lasers.
 Schematic diagram showing active and passive sensor position
with respect to Sun and Earth for data collection.

The digital data is processed and converted into an image with the help
of software, giving rise to imagery for interpretation and decision making.
After acquiring raw satellite images, the processes viz. image restoration,
image enhancement and data extraction are carried out before their
interpretation and integration with other geological data. After digital
processing of satellite images, extraction of geological information is carried
out by two approaches, namely spectral approach and photogeological
approach.

1) In spectral approach, unique spectral reflectance characteristics of every

identical unit in the image data are used to separate them from each other.
2) In the photogeological approach, different photogeological elements like
topography, erosion, tone, texture, drainage pattern, vegetation, and land use
are captured to infer the presence of topographical expression, geological
structure or lithology.

iii) Geographic Information System (GIS)

Geographic Information System (GIS) is a system that can handle a wide

range of spatial and georeferenced data. It can collect, store, organise,
integrate and analyse geological, geobotanical, geophysical, geochemical,
remote sensing and cultural data of same area. GIS system can model the
acquired data to produce a composite map required for geological
interpretation. Data received from various sources are directly entered into
GIS system using DBMS, RDBMS and SQL software. They can be stored and
can provide ways to modify, revise, refine, update the database. It can also
export the data to other systems in a common (ASCII) format as per
requirement.
• GIS for Mineral Exploration
Geographic Information System (GIS) is a robust technique for
identification of the target of mineralized zones based on the modelling using
overlay analysis.
 This kind of analysis analyzes and interpolate multiple data received
from various sources pertaining to same area or similar object either in vector
or raster mode. They are stored in GIS system as individual data file or a
layer. A new information on the object or area can be created by overlying of
related individual layers one above another with common geo references that
generates a specific model as per project requirement.

GIS application in mineral exploration

The below seen figure is an example of overlay analysis of Rajpura-

Dariba mineral deposit of India. It contains different layers like hydrology,
elevation, surface signature, geology and geochemistry collected from
different sources that have been georeferenced in each cell in the surface grid
of individual layers.

Overlay analysis with multilayer data of Rajpura- Dariba base

metal belt for identification of drill targets by GIS application.
GIS manipulates and overlays the information derived from different data files
simultaneously and interrelate all geocoded source data files during
interpretation. This generates a thematic map for identification of the target
area for exploration of sulphide deposits in Rajpura-Dariba mineral belt.
Geochemical Exploration
Geochemical exploration is employed in the search of economic mineral
deposits. It primarily deals with the unusual concentration or depletion of
certain chemical elements in soil, rocks, streams, lake sediments, water, air
and vegetation in the vicinity of mineral deposits other than barren regions.
The geochemical environments of the Earth can be categorised mainly
into two groups, viz. primary and secondary.
• The primary environment comprises of deep seated igneous and
metamorphic processes.
• The secondary environment involved surface processes, which includes
weathering, transportation, and sedimentation.
Geochemical cycle is partly a closed cycle of the movement of constituents
of the Earth from one environment to another.

Typical geochemical cycle

• Geochemical Prospecting
Prospecting is the first stage of any geological analysis followed by
exploration. Geochemical prospecting is done by systematic measurements of
one or more chemical components of naturally occurring material in the
Earth's crust, usually in traces. We will discuss geochemical prospecting
under the following headings: elemental dispersion, background and
threshold value and pathfinder elements.
a) Elemental dispersion: Elemental dispersion pattern can be due to
distribution of elements disseminated in rocks, which occurred during ore
forming process. This may also occur by migration and redistribution of
elements in solution during oxidation, weathering and erosion of mineral
deposit.
Elemental dispersion can give rise to two types of haloes: primary and
secondary. Halo is a region surrounding an ore deposit in which the ore
concentration is intermediate between that of the ore and that of the country
rock.
• Primary dispersion halo is an expression of alteration and zoning
conditions surrounding metalliferous deposit, which is synchronous to
mineralisation. The halos are either enriched or depleted in several elements
because of introduction or redistribution related to ore forming phenomena.
• Secondary dispersion halo is the dispersed remnants of mineralization
caused by surface processes of chemical and physical weathering and
redistribution of primary patterns. Minerals are often unstable in secondary
environment.

b) Background and Threshold value: Background values are characterized

by the normal range of concentration of elements in regional perspective
rather than localised mineral occurrences. It is significant to establish the
background value of the area against the anomalies due to economic mineral
accumulations, if any, can be identified.

Threshold value is defined as the probable upper or lower limit of the

background value at some statistically precise confidence level. Any sample
that exceeds this threshold is considered as possibly anomalous and belongs
to a separate population. The negative anomalous threshold defines the lower
limit of background fluctuation.

c) Pathfinder elements: Pathfinder or indicator elements/minerals are

characteristic parameters in geochemical prospecting to detect hidden ore
bodies. The pathfinder elements generally form large haloes and are relatively
mobile due to physicochemical conditions of the solutions or may be in a
gaseous state in which they are found. They can be detected easily by simpler
and inexpensive analytical methods. The types of deposit and their pathfinder
elements as per Rose et al. (1979) are given in the table below.

Diagram shows: a) concealed copper deposit with primary dispersion halos;

b) geochemical profile of soil samples viewing background, threshold values,
and anomalous zone; and c) histogram of Cu values.
 Pathfinder elements and type of deposits.

Geochemical Exploration Methods are broadly divided into two subgroups,

viz. conventional and non-conventional.

A) Conventional Methods
Systematic measurement of one or more key or path finder elements in
different sample media (like soil, rock, stream sediments, glacial debris,
water, plants etc.) is conducted under conventional technique.
Different conventional geochemical exploration techniques i.e.,
pedogeochemical, stream sediment, lithogeochemical glacial drift,
hydrogeochemical surveys are described below:
i. Pedogeochemical (soil) survey: You have read about soil in unit 5 of
BGYCT-131 course. The soil is the unconsolidated weathering product that
lies over or close to the parent material from which it was is derived is called
residual soil or may be transported over a long distance forming alluvial soil.
Soil sampling is carried out at regular intervals following straight traverse
lines, along topographic, cultural features, or ridge tops/roads. Samples are
taken from the “B” horizon of soil profile is enriched with trace elements.
Samples are collected from small pits, generally 70-80 cm from the surface,
laid in a grid pattern.

ii. Stream sediment surveys: Stream sediment sampling is the most widely
used tool in reconnaissance geochemical survey. The survey is based on the
chemical analysis of samples of stream sediments from drainage course that
led to discover mineral bodies at a greater distance. The stream sediments
comprise of clays, detrital fine grained rocks, organic matter, inorganic
colloidal and clast with iron and manganese coatings. All these components
of the sediments exhibit different mobility (ability to move freely). The detrital
grains enriched in ore(s) and indicator elements are deposited downstream.
However, following the path of increasing the elemental concentration(s)
upstream lead to locate the mineralisation target. This is the simple technique
that allows rapid evaluation of areas at relatively low cost.

iii. Lithogeochemical survey: This survey is conducted to collect samples

from unweathered host rock to identify primary dispersion and trace
elements, association which are different from country rock. Samples are
collected from fresh outcrops, wall rocks and drill holes.

iv. Glacial drift survey: The drift survey is conducted to collect samples of
debris deposited by moving ice in a glaciated terrain. The drift sequence is
examined for the presence of heavy minerals, mineralised clasts, relative
abundance of major, minor and trace elements. This is helpful in tracing back
to the original place of the source by estimating the distance travelled from
the sampling point.

v. Hydrogeochemical survey: Sampling of ground water, surface water and

hot spring water are conducted in this method. Ground water provides
information about occurrence of Cu, Zn, Pb, S, Mo, Sn, Ni and Co caused by
chemical weathering, oxidation and leaching of overburden. Hot spring water
are characterised by probable locations of B, Li and Hg mineralisation.
Changes of elemental values of acquired water sample depend on time and
season.

B) Non-conventional Methods

Non-conventional geochemical exploration techniques are used in areas

where the conventional exploration techniques are not applicable especially
for deeply buried deposits covered by transported soil, desert sands, talus or
debris etc. Some of the non-conventional geochemical exploration techniques
are:

1) Vapour or gas survey,

2) Electrogeochemical,
3) Radiogenic isotope geochemistry,
4) Polymetallic poly nodule survey,
5) Hydrocarbon geochemical survey, etc.

Following are the major components of the geochemical survey:

• Sampling and preparation of samples: The field procedure covers the

collection of various types of samples (solid, liquid and gas) for geochemical
analysis with accurate location data. Different geological materials like rocks,
ores and minerals differs in their constitution, weathering features, size etc.
Therefore, their sample preparation method employed must have the
flexibility to get good results. The samples are collected from stream
sediments, soils, rocks, groundwater, and volatile matter (gas). During field
survey, unconsolidated soil sample of fine size (-80 mesh), weighing between
250 and 1000 gm., is collected by hand, or with a plastic or aluminium scoop.
Rock chips are collected by chisel and hammer at specified grid intervals. The
unconsolidated soil samples are kept in plastic bags. The rock chips are kept
in cloth bags with code numbers indicating project name, location, and
sample type with description. Geological observations and sketches are
recorded in a field notebook. The sample is further reduced to 50g by drying,
screening, grinding, coning, and quartering at the camp site. Each sample of
quantity of 1-5 gm. is sent to laboratory for chemical analysis and remaining
sample is preserved for future reference. Water is collected in a specialised
clean, hard, polyethylene sampling bottle. The quantity of surface water and
groundwater sample varies between 100 and 1000ml depending upon the
number of elements and type of analysis (as per requirement).

• Geochemical data interpretation: Geochemical samples yield a huge

volume of analytical data in ppm level, seldomly at percentage level. The
location coordinates and analytical data of each sample with other geological
parameters are stored and conducted for different statistical analysis as per
requirement. The population of data undergoes statistical evaluation and
varying types of graphical plots are prepared for the assessment of threshold.
In exploration geochemistry, other statistical analysis tool like principal
component analysis (PCA) and factor analysis (FA) are also adopted to
separate the element associations inherent to number of groups from the
acquired survey database. PCA is variance oriented, while FA is correlation
oriented. For geochemical data, PCA works in situations in which the range
of variation of the elements is characteristics of the geochemical environment
(Fig. 14.16), whereas FA is favourable in situations in which element
associations characterise the geochemical environment.

• Anomaly enhancement technique: It is one of the major techniques used

for deep seated mineral deposits, particularly showing weak anomalies.
Physical, chemical and statistical methods are employed for anomaly
enhancement. The physical method includes enrichment of metallic,
magnetic, and heavy minerals by panning, magnetic, and heavy media
separation. The chemical method employs dilute acid leaches of iron and
manganese oxides in the host environment.

• Generation of Geochemical maps: Geochemical maps are generated from

both regional and local surveys which can be subdivided into two broad
categories viz.:
i. the point symbol maps showing the concentration of elements at the
sample locations; and
ii. the maps emphasise the regional elemental distribution pattern at local or
regional scale.

The regional maps generally show distribution of individual elements by point

symbol map, smoothed grey level map using filters or principal component
map with colour combination.
Geobotanical Exploration

The use of plants in mineral prospecting is very useful tool which aid as
a guide to the nature. The changes found in the vegetation in mineralised
area indicate that distinct plant species, either there appear or vanish. These
plant species are called indicator plants. The morphological changes in the
plants are possibly due to excesses or paucity of certain elements in the soil.
Geobotanical mapping is employed after ground and aero-visualisation on the
characteristics of vegetation. This is done to demarcate the mineralised zone
from the non-mineralised zone. Though, this method is not directly helpful to
locate ore bodies, but successful results come out by integration with other
exploration methods. Various nickel, copper, iron, manganese, uranium, lead
and zinc deposits in India have been located by geobotanical prospecting
method. Common indicator plants available in India are listed as under.

Common indicator plants

Geobotanical survey in a Zinc deposit accumulation

Biogeochemical Survey

This technique is adopted under vegetation survey by sampling of leaf,

bark and root of the trees in areas with thick laterite overburden or where the
overburden is too deep. The samples are dried and burnt to ashes. Ashes are
sent to laboratory for analysis of different trace elements. Different plant
samples are taken in one particular season and the age of the plant is also
taken into account during sampling of its parts.
B) Subsurface Exploration

After preliminary or reconnaissance survey by applying surface

exploration techniques, the study area is narrowed down and the target area
is focused for subsurface exploration. There are two methods such as direct
and indirect.

i. The direct methods involve collection of samples from subsurface rock

strata by digging drill holes, trenches, pits, exploratory tunnels and the rock
samples are examined and tested in the laboratory.

ii. The indirect methods are extensively used in the subsurface exploration
by applying different geophysical techniques to locate mineral ore bodies.

1. Gravity Method
Gravimetric method implies the techniques of measuring the
gravitational fields at different points on the surface using gravimeters,
expressed in milligals. They can detect minute changes in gravity caused by
crustal density differences. The anomalous gravity readings are calculated by
deducting the regional gravity field from the measured fields on the basis of
anomalous densities of the subsurface materials. Shallow high density
materials like barite, chromite, hematite shows positive gravity anomalies
while shallow low density bodies like halite, weathered kimberlite etc. yield
gravity lows. Different types of gravity surveys like airborne, gradiometry are
conducted as per requirement. Airborne gravity survey is more appropriate to
map deep seated rock masses, whereas, gravity gradiometry survey is used
to map the subsurface closer to the ground surface.

2. Magnetic Method

Magnetic method employs the natural magnetic field of the Earth.

Magnetic surveys not only detect changes in magnetic concentration of near
surface mineral bodies, but also help to estimate the size, shape, strike and
depth of the ore bodies. The magnetic elements composing the Earth’s
magnetic field are declination angle (d), dip angle of the resultant field (v) due
to horizontal (H) and vertical components (Z) of the magnetic field.

Sketch showing an excess mass in the crust that locally enhance the
gravity field producing gravity high (positive anomaly).
 Schematic diagram of geomagnetic elements showing the
declination (d) and inclination (i) of the total field vector F

The magnetic survey uses high precision magnetometer that measures

the dip and the declination, which is operable in air (airborne), sea (marine)
and land (ground). Different types of magnetometers like, fluxgate, proton-
precision, overhauser are used in exploration survey. Airborne is cost effective
and is applicable to cover large area. Marine magnetic survey is used for
investigation of ocean floor polymetallic nodules and the ground magnetic
survey is suitable for small area coverage.

Gravity and magnetic profiles over

Rampura-Agucha mineral belt, India.
3. Electrical Method

All electrical methods are dependent primarily on the properties of

resistivity and conductivity of subsurface rock masses to propagate electric
current. Wide variety of method includes either due to naturally occurring
electrical field within the earth or by inducing artificially generated current
through the ground. Different techniques of electrical methods are available
that employ different instruments and procedures as shown

Different techniques of Electrical Methods

4. Self-Potential Method (SP)

Self-potential method is also known as spontaneous potential method.

It involves measurement of natural electrical potential due to electrochemical
reactions between the solutions and the surrounding subsurface rocks. These
reactions take place in a different order throughout the body of rock masses.
Thereby creating a potential difference which source flow of current from one
end to the other end. This method is useful in locating elongated magnetite
and sulphide ore deposits. The sulphide ores are very good conductors of
electricity.

Self-potential method showing anomalous zone.

5. Telluric Current Method

Telluric current is an alternating electrical current with available

frequency of 1Hz or less, flowing horizontally in the upper part of the Earth’s
crust. It is generated due to induction effect owing to the electric current in
the ionosphere formed mainly by solar magnetic storms.

The basic idea of telluric current survey is to measure difference in

potential at a base station where thickness and resistivity of the sedimentary
basin are known.

(A) Telluric Current flow lines in a lava of low resistivity resting on a

zone of high density; and (B) the potential difference produced by
these currents L= Electrode spacing, Zs = thickness at satellite station,
Z0= thickness at base station.

The above figures illustrates that the change in the thickness (ΔZ) is
approximately proportional to the change of current density (Δμ) between the
base station and the satellite station. The telluric current survey is done in
the initial stage of oil exploration in areas where there is less information
known about thickness of the sedimentary rock strata.

6. Magnetotelluric Method

According to the principle of electromagnetic induction, an alternating

electric current has an associated alternating magnetic field. Measurement of
the intensity of components of this field in the same direction as the
component of voltage provides another means of determining the thickness
and apparent resistivity of a layered sequence of rocks. Magnetotelluric
surveying combines these measurements. The depth of investigation is from
300 m below the ground down to the 10,000 m or much deeper by detecting
higher frequencies with long period soundings. This method is useful to know
basement structures for oil & gas prospecting.
 Typical layout for a standard magnetotelluric recording station,
indicating relative electrode line and induction magnetometer
positions.

7. Resistivity Method

Resistivity surveys are conducted by putting electric current directly

into the ground and measure the resistance of the rocks through which the
current passes by means of arrays of receiver electrodes. For example,
metallic sulphides can conduct electric current by movement of charged ions
and these ions can be easily detected by an anomalous low resistance zone.
The conventional practice in this survey is to use source and sink
electrodes connected to an electric power source to compel current to flow
into the ground. An ammeter is placed in this circuit to measure the input
current. Two other electrodes connected to a voltmeter are placed in other
positions to measure the difference in potentials. This depends on the
resistivity in the zone bounded by the two equipotential surfaces that reach
to the land surface at potential electrodes. Usually, four electrodes, i.e.,
current electrodes (A & B) and potential electrodes (M & N) are placed in a
line.

Electrical properties of naturally occurring minerals.

 Array of electrodes & equipotential surfaces

8. Induced Potential Method

Induced potential (IP) or polarisation method is an imaging technique

used to identify electrical chargeability of subsurface ore bodies. Like
resistivity survey, IP method is also applied on the ground using four
electrodes which measures capacitive properties of the subsurface materials
in addition to resistivity. It provides additional information about the spatial
variation in the lithology and grain surface chemistry measurement. Two
different modes of survey being conducted, i.e., time domain and frequency
domain IP. In the former, the measurement of decaying voltage over a certain
time period is measured after injection of current into the ground. In the later
mode, apparent resistivity of subsurface bodies is measured when a variable
low frequency alternating current is injected into the ground.

Schematic sketch map how Induced Polarisation works.

9. Electromagnetic Method

This method directly measures the magnetic field associated with the
low frequency alternating current flow, generated in a loop of wire called
transmitter suspended either on or above the ground surface.

Electromagnetic method

The primary alternating magnetic field, created by the current flow from
transmitter coil can be detected with minor deflection in amplitude by means
of a receiver coil in a homogeneous subsurface material. However, if there is
a conductor material below the ground, the primary magnetic field will induce
a set of alternating current called eddy current to flow within it. It will
generate its own secondary electromagnetic field which distorts the primary
field. The receiver will detect the response from both arrivals of primary and
secondary fields. It differs in amplitude, phase and direction that reveal the
presence and geometry of subsurface conductive materials associated with
the sulphide ore bodies.

Aeromagnetic survey configuration

10. Seismic Method

Seismic method is based on the difference in the propagation velocity of

artificially induced elastic or seismic waves through various strata in the
subsurface. The source generates shock waves by means of explosives,
mechanical vibrators or compressed air gun, which travel down into
subsurface. Primary (P) and Secondary (S) seismic waves move uniformly
from the source to the subsurface and reflect and refract simultaneously on
the boundary of a second medium with different elastic properties.
Accordingly, the travel time of reflected or refracted wave is recorded on
sensitive instrument called geophone placed on the surface. In the refraction
technique, the waves travel along a boundary between rocks of different
elastic properties. While the reflection technique uses the waves reflected
from such boundaries. Seismic methods are comparatively less used in
mineral exploration due to high cost. More especially because most ore bodies
associated with igneous or metamorphic rocks lack coherent layering like
sedimentary rocks. In general, the reflected seismic data is used for
exploration of coal, oil & gas. Refracted data is used in mineral investigation
to map low velocity alluvial deposits that may contain gold, tin, sand or gravel.

Method of seismic reflection and refraction

profiling by time versus distance curve.

Pitting, Trenching, Drilling and Borehole Logging

Quantitative information at various points of the confirmed

mineralisation as indicated by indirect methods can be obtained by pitting,
trenching, boring and drilling.

Pitting is employed to test shallow flat lying extensive ore bodies. Samples
are taken from single wall, opposite wall or all the four walls of the pit based
on the type and nature of the mineralisation and obtain a representative
sample for examination.
Trenching: Trenches are conducted by excavation across the strike of host
rocks to look into the exposure of steep dipping mineralisation buried below
the overburden. In some cases, cross trenching is required to expose
mineralized zones. Trenches usually have a dimension of 10 m width and 3
to 5 m depth.
Channel samples are taken along the floor of trenches.
If the depth of ore bodies is too large for pitting and trenching, then it
is tested by boring and drilling. Making a hole in the soil is referred to as
boring where as in the solid rock is referred to drilling, which can be done
with the help of light weight portable drilling machine. Drilling is the most
effective means of exploration of mineral deposit of all types and also for other
geological activities like rock types, stratigraphy, structure, wall rock
alteration, geochemical zoning, ore guides and control.

Several types of drilling techniques are available. Percussion drilling,

Rotary drilling, Diamond drilling (Fig. 14.31) and Auger drilling are the
commonly used drilling methods in mineral exploration. The choice of drilling
method normally depends upon the depth of the drill hole, location of drill
site, geometry of ore target, and the kind of sample needed.

Logging also known as well logging/ borehole logging is a technique for

systematic recording of rock properties including its fluid contents down the
drill hole. Some of the rock properties which can be logged are electrical
resistivity, self-potential, gamma ray emission, density, magnetic
susceptibility, and acoustic velocity.

Schematic diagram of surface diamond drilling unit.