Class Note: Irrigation Management- AGRON 603

Irrigation Management- Planned use of water resources

 Irrigation is the artificial application of water to soil to sustain crop growth, supplementing
natural precipitation and groundwater to meet evapotranspiration (ET) demands.
 Management means decision-making sense. Irrigation management means efficient
utilization of water resources.
 Water (H₂O) consists of two hydrogen and one oxygen atoms bonded by covalent bonds
with a 104.5° bond angle. Water molecules are held together by hydrogen bonds (≈10–40 kJ
mol⁻¹). Low temperature stabilizes hydrogen bonding forming ice, while high temperature
breaks hydrogen bonds leading to vapor.
 Plant water supply
1. Rainfall
2. Soil moisture contribution
3. Irrigation source
Rainfall
 Effective rainfall: Effective rainfall is the fraction of total rainfall which is equal to or less
than the ET requirement. non-effective rainfall (Excess)
 Infiltration: Entry of water from one medium to another medium in unsaturated soil.
 Percolation: Vertical downward movement of water in saturated soil through different soil
layers
 Seepage: Lateral movement of water
 Hydraulic conductivity: Capacity of soil to transmit water from one soil layer to another.
 Infiltration rate is the rate of entry of water into soil at a given time (mm/hour, mm/day),
while infiltration capacity is the maximum possible rate. Infiltration coefficient represents
cumulative infiltration over a specified time period (e.g., 24 hours)
 Drainage coefficient is the quantity of water that must be removed in 24 hours. Drainage
coefficient 1 [Link] in 24 hours means 1.157lit/sec

 Infiltration coefficient vs Drainage coefficient

Aspect Infiltration Coefficient Drainage Coefficient
Rate at which water enters soil Rate at which excess water is removed
Meaning
from surface from soil/root zone
Indicates Soil intake capacity Drainage system capacity
Concerned
Soil–water entry Soil–water removal
with
Soil texture & structure, surface Soil permeability, water table depth, crop
Depends on
condition, moisture status tolerance, rainfall/irrigation
Irrigation planning, runoff
Used in Design of surface/subsurface drainage
estimation
Unit mm h⁻¹ (or cm day⁻¹) mm day⁻¹ (or cm day⁻¹)

Soil Water Availability

Soil Water Potential: Soil water potential (Ψw) is the potential energy of water in soil relative to
pure free water that determine the direction and rate of water movement.

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👉 Water moves from higher (less negative) Ψw → lower (more negative) Ψw. Or Soil moisture
control → Low water tension to High water tension. Units: bar, atmosphere (atm), Pascal (Pa), MPa

 Soil water potential is always negative (except saturation).

 Components of Soil Water Potential Ψ w =Ψ m +Ψ g+ Ψ o +Ψ p

Component Symbol Meaning Importance
Matric potential Ψm Attraction of water to soil Most important in unsaturated
particles soil
Gravitational Ψg Effect of gravity Important in vertical movement
potential
Osmotic potential Ψo Effect of dissolved salts Important in saline soils
Pressure potential Ψp Hydrostatic pressure Important in saturated soil

1. Matric Potential (Ψm) 3. Osmotic Potential (Ψo)

 Caused by adhesion & capillarity  Due to salts in soil solution

 Always negative  Always negative

 Increases (more negative) as soil dries  Reduces plant water uptake

 Dominant in field capacity → wilting
point  Important under salinity stress
2. Gravitational Potential (Ψg)
 Depends on height of water above 4. Pressure Potential (Ψp)
reference
 Can be positive or negative  Positive under saturation

 Drives downward percolation  Zero or negligible in unsaturated soil

Soil Moisture Constants & Water Potential

Soil condition Approx. Ψw
Saturation 0 bar
Field capacity (FC) −0.33 bar
Permanent wilting point (PWP) −15 bar
Hygroscopic coefficoent -31 bar
Air-dry soil −1000 bar

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Significance in Agriculture

 Governs water movement in soil

 Controls plant water uptake

 Determines irrigation scheduling

 Influences nutrient availability

 Critical under saline and drought conditions

Soil Water types

 Gravitational Water is that apart on excess of hygroscopic and capillary water which will
move out of the soil if favourable drainage is provided.

 Capillary Water is that part in excess of hygroscopic water which exists in the pore space of
the soil by molecular attraction

 When an Oven-dried sample is kept open in the atmosphere, it absorbs some amount of water
from the atmosphere. This is known as Hygroscopic water and is not capable of movement
by the gravity or capillary forces.
 Available water = FC to PWP
 Capillary water = FC to Hygroscopic coefficient
 Hygroscopic water- Chemically bound water

Field capacity
 Upper limit of available water.
 Movement of water in soil stops.
 Capacity to hold water at a certain pressure.
Field capacity (FC)
 Moisture content on an oven-dry weight basis after complete saturation, when downward
movement of water has practically ceased. It represents the upper limit of plant-available

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 water in soil. SWP at FC is the attractive force between soil particles and water ≈ 1/3 bar (≈
−0.33 atm). Oven-drying standard: Soil is dried at 105 °C to remove hygroscopic water.
Permanent Wilting Point (PWP)
 At this stage, water is available in soil but plants are unable to uptake water. If we apply
water at this stage, plants may or may not recover.
 Moisture: Water present in atmosphere in vapor form.
 Soil moisture: Water/moisture content in soil after FC to PWP. Water present on soil particle
as thin layer within a certain force is called soil moisture / soil water.

Irrigation Requirement
Demand Side calculation Supply side calculation
Water requirement (WR)=T+E+WP+WL+WSP Water requirement (WR)= IW+ER+S
T=Transpiration IW=irrigation water
E=Evaporation ER=Effective rainfall
WP= Plant metabolic needs (<1% water absorbed) S=Soil moisture contribution
WL= Losses by Conveyance, Percolation, runoff etc.
If ET=CU (Consumptive use)
WSP= Water for special purpose like puddling, land
WR= CU+WL+WSP
preparation, tillage
So,
So, WR= ET + application losses+ Water for special
IR=WR-(ER+S)
purpose
Irrigation regime and moisture regime depend on:
Crop factors / characteristics, Soil type, Sowing method, Economic part
 No. of irrigations required to complete crop life cycle
 No. of irrigations in a particular set of treatment
 Water productivity = Total quantity of water applied will transport to mol. e.g., kg/cm

Water Use Efficiency (WUE):

It is the measure of crop yield produced per unit of water used and indicates how efficiently water is
converted into economic yield. Water productivity can be economic or may be non-economic. WP
Production
and FWUE are used synonymously. Water productivity=
Water applied
Types of WUE:
1. Crop Water Use Efficiency (Crop WUE):
Yield
Crop WUE= Unit: kg ha⁻¹ -mm
Evapotranspiration (ET)
Represents efficiency of water actually consumed by the crop through evaporation and transpiration.
2. Field Water Use Efficiency (Field WUE):
Yield
Field WUE= Unit: kg ha⁻¹ -mm
Water Requirement (WR)
Represents efficiency of applied irrigation and rainfall water at field level.
Evaporation × 0.8 = PET/ET. Based on climate conditions. In summer for calculating PET, 0.8 is
used. In winter, 0.6 is used.
3. Physiological WUE
Photosynthesis
Physiological WUE=
Respiration

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Significance: Higher WUE indicates better water management, improved productivity, and
suitability under water-scarce conditions.
 Consumptive use (CU) = E + T + Plant metabolic needs
 Conjunctive use – Using multiple sources and multiple quality of water.

Improving Water Productivity in Irrigated Agriculture

Major Interventions (5 key avenues)
1. Water delivery control
 Aim: Minimize conveyance losses.
 Methods: Canal lining, automated gates, on-demand supply.
 Importance: Ensures reliable delivery, reduces seepage.
2. Optimizing irrigation practices
 Aim: Apply water efficiently at field level.
 Methods: Irrigation scheduling (soil moisture/weather-based), improved surface
methods (basin, surge).
 Importance: Reduces evaporation, deep percolation; enhances “crop per drop.”
3. Micro-irrigation
 Aim: Maximize application efficiency.
 Methods: Drip irrigation, micro-sprinklers.
 Benefits: Saves 30–60% water, precise application, higher yields.
4. Crop diversification / crop shift
 Aim: Reduce agricultural water demand.
 Methods: Replace high-water crops (rice, sugarcane) with low-water, high-value
crops (millets, pulses).
 Importance: Climate adaptation, water sustainability.
5. Conjunctive use of water
 Aim: Integrate surface + groundwater management.
 Methods: Use canals in wet season to recharge aquifers; use groundwater in dry
periods.
 Importance: Prevents over-exploitation, optimizes total water availability.
A. Water Delivery Control - Deficit Irrigation
Deficit Irrigation: Supplying water below full crop water requirement, mainly during non-critical
growth stages. Principle: Prioritize irrigation during drought-sensitive (critical) stages. The
advantages are;
 Increases water productivity (Yield / Water used)
 Reduces non-beneficial water losses
 Decreases nutrient leaching
 Lowers incidence of moisture-related crop diseases
 Improves groundwater quality
Limitation: Risk of soil salinization, especially in arid and semi-arid regions without
proper leaching
Peak Rate of Soil Moisture Removal (mm/day)
Climatic condition Peak rate (mm/day)
Cool & humid 3
Cool & dry 4

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 Moderate & humid 4
Moderate & dry 5
Hot & humid 5
Hot & dry 8
👉 Use: Helps in irrigation scheduling and design of irrigation systems
Crop Evapotranspiration (ETc) & Crop Coefficient (Kc)
Basic Formula E T c =K c × E T 0
Meaning of terms
 ETc: Water actually used by the crop
 ET₀: Evapotranspiration from a reference ET of alpha-alpha grass
 Kc: Crop factor that converts ET₀ to crop water use
1. Single Crop Coefficient Approach
Concept: Uses one Kc value
 Combines: Crop transpiration (T) and Soil evaporation (E)
When used
 Fields are well irrigated
 Crop canopy fully covers soil
 Surface or sprinkler irrigation
Kc values (easy to remember)
 Initial stage: 0.3 – 0.5
 Mid-season: 1.0 – 1.2
 Late season: 0.6 – 0.8
👉 Simple method but less accurate
2. Dual Crop Coefficient Approach (FAO-56)
Concept: Separates plant use and soil evaporation
Components
1. Kcb (Basal crop coefficient)
o Only plant transpiration
o Soil surface assumed dry
2. Ke (Soil evaporation coefficient)
o Evaporation from wet soil
o Important after rainfall or irrigation
Formula E T c =(K cb + K e )× E T 0
Why better?
 More accurate
 Reflects actual field conditions
 Best for drip & sprinkler irrigation
Feature Single Kc Dual Kc
Soil evaporation Included together Separate (Ke)
Accuracy Moderate High

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 Feature Single Kc Dual Kc
Micro-irrigation Not suitable Most suitable
FAO method Simple FAO-56 (advanced)
One-Line Exam Answers
 Single Kc method is simple but less accurate.
 Dual Kc method is preferred for micro-irrigation.
 ETc depends on crop type and climatic demand.

Quality of Irrigation Water

Dr. Sudhir Rajpoot, 11 Sept, 2025
 Irrigation water always contains dissolved salts (Ca, Mg, Na, K, chloride, sulphate, bicarbonate,
carbonate, boron, etc.).
 Normally the concentration ranges from 200 to 2000 ppm from surface to ground water
 Surface and ground water have more than 10-100 times of salt concentration than rain water
 Medium quality of soil water with 1000 mm/ha/season contain> 5 ton/ha/season salt deposition
Effect of poor-quality soil
Soil effect Effect on Crop
Physical: Deflocculating, hard pan formation, Germination impaired
decreased aeration and infiltration
↓Water uptake
H
Chemical: P Nutrient imbalance, salt toxicity Physiological drought
Nutrient Uptake altered
Biological: Mineralization halted, N-fixation Stunted growth
halted
Salt toxicity↑
Factor Affecting the Quality of irrigation water
Suitability of irrigation water=f {QC DSP}, Where, Q=Quality of irrigation water S=Soil
properties P=Plant characteristic C=Climate D=Drainage
Classification of Poor-Quality Irrigation water-2 classifications
Based on CSSRI (Central Soil Salinity Research Institute) EC, SAR and B and Based On USSL-
United states salinity laboratory-1954> EC and SAR
Based on EC- USSL Classification
Class Salinity m S m-1 EC
Class-1 Low salinity water Below 0.25
Class-2 Medium Salinity Water 0.25-0.75
Class-3 High Salinity water 0.75-2.25
Class-4 Very high Salinity Water >2.25
Based on SAR (Sodium Absorption Rate): USSL classification
Sodium class SAR

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S-1 Low sodium water Below 10
S-2 Medium sodium water 10-18
S-3 High sodium water 18-23
S-4 Very high Sodium water >23
Based on CSSRI (Central Soil Salinity Research Institute) EC, SAR and B
Based on Salinity/EC-CSSRI
SN Salinity Class EC Suitability
(m S m-1) (ds/m)
1 Normal water <1.5 Suitable for most crops and almost all soil
2 Low salinity 1.5-3 Can be used in most of the crops on light and medium
water textured soil; Semi tolerant in heavy textured soil
3 Medium Salinity 3-5 Can be used in semi-tolerant crops on light and medium
water textured soil; tolerant in heavy textured soil
4 Saline water 5-10 Can be used in tolerant crops on light and medium
textured soil; not suitable for heavy textured soil
5 High Salinity >10 Water is not suitable for irrigation under normal
water condition
Based on SAR
Class SAR Suitability
meq/lit
Normal water <10 Suitable for most crops and almost all soil
Low sodium water 10-20 Problem in black and heavy soil (>30% clay)
Medium Sodium water 20-40 Not suitable for normal soil
Sodium Water 30-40 Creates problem in heavy soil
High Sodium water >40 Not ideal for irrigation
Based on Boron Concentration
Class Boron Conc. Suitability
(ppm)
Normal water <3 Ideal for tolerant and semi tolerant crop for all soil
Low Boron water 3-4 All crop on Heavy and medium soil with irrigation
Medium Boron 4-5 Most crop on heavy soil, creates problem in light soil
water
Boron Water 5-10 Semi-tolerant and tolerant crop in heavy soil with
irrigation
High Boron water >10 Not suitable for irrigation
Fertigation
Fertilizer Use Efficiency (%)

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Nutrient Soil application Fertigation
N 30–50 95
P₂O₅ 25 45
K₂O 50 80
Micronutrients 5–10 30
 Application of fertilizers through the irrigation system.
 Efficiency of fertilizers: 80–90%
 Nutrient saving: about 25% (at least)
 Most advanced and efficient system
 Most effective method of irrigation & fertilizer use
 Improves productivity and quality (e.g., vegetable crops)
 Uses liquid and water-soluble fertilizers
Important Points
 Urea and potash are highly water soluble and commonly used in fertigation.
 SSP (Single Super Phosphate) application through fertigation must be avoided due to
phosphate precipitation.
 Phosphoric acid is the most common liquid phosphorus fertilizer.
 Special fertilizers: Mono-ammonium phosphate (MAP), polyfeed (NPK).
 Specialty fertilizers: 100% water soluble.
Micronutrients in Fertigation
 Fe, Cu, Zn, Mn, Mo, B
 Iron, Zinc, Copper, Molybdenum can be applied along with spray fertilization.
Fertilizers Commonly Used in Fertigation
Fertilizer Nutrient content Solubility (g/L at 20°C)
Ammonium nitrate 34% N 1830
Ammonium sulphate 21% N 760
Urea 46% N 1100
Phosphoric acid 52% P₂O₅ 457
DAP 18% N, 46% P₂O₅ 575
Potassium chloride (MOP) 60% K₂O 347
Potassium nitrate 13% N, 44% K₂O 316

Why Urea is Most Preferred/Used Fertilizer in Fertigation?

1. Highly water soluble and fast dissolving.

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2. Dissolves in non-ionic form, so it does not react with other ionic fertilizers during tank
mixing.
3. Does not cause precipitation.
4. Has highest N content among common fertilizers.
5. Highly concentrated and cheapest fertilizer.
o Can dissolve up to 1100 g per litre of water.
o Cost comparison:
 1 kg P₂O₅ → Rs 56–60
 1 kg N → Rs 13
1. Capillary Fringe
 Vertical distance immediately above the water table along which water rises vis
capillarity and soil water content ranges or varies from saturated to field
capacity.
 The zone above the water table where water rises due to capillary forces and
soil pores remain nearly saturated. Varies with soil texture (greater in fine-
textured soils). Moisture status: Ranges from saturation near the water table to
approximately field capacity upward.
 Zones (top to bottom):
o Soil surface
o Unsaturated (vadose) zone
o Capillary fringe
o Saturated zone (groundwater)

2. Capillary Rise
 Upward movement of water above the hydrostatic surface through fine pores
due to capillarity.
 Causes:
 Adhesion between soil particles and water
 Cohesion among water molecules
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  Surface tension
 Higher rise: Fine-textured soils (clay, silt)
 Lower rise: Coarse-textured soils (sand)
3. Capillary Potential (Matric Potential)
 Matric (capillary) potential (Ψm) is the potential energy of soil water due to
adsorption and capillary forces exerted by the soil matrix, and it is always
negative in unsaturated soils, becoming zero at saturation.
4. Infiltration Capacity
 Maximum rate at which soil can absorb water when water supply is not limiting.
Controlled by: Soil texture, structure, initial moisture, surface condition.
5. Moisture Equivalent
 Water retained by soil after being subjected to a centrifugal force of 1000
gravity (≈ moisture at ~−0.33 bar).
 Lab measurement indicating how much water a saturated soil sample retains
after being spun at 1000 times the force of gravity for 30 minutes
 Closely related to Field Capacity, but not exactly equal.
6. Drainage Coefficient
 It is the quantity of water that must be removed in 24 hrs period.
 Depth of water (mm) to be removed from an area in 24 hours.
 Drainage of 1 [Link] in 24 hr=1.157 lit/sec (100,000 l/86400sec)
 Typical range: 3–25 mm/day, depending on rainfall, soil, and crop.
 Use: Determines design capacity and spacing of drains.
 Design basis:
 Rainfall amount and frequency (return period: 5–10 years)
 Crop tolerance to waterlogging
 Time allowed for removal (usually 24–72 h)
7. Manning’s Equation (for Drainage Design): Manning’s equation relates
velocity of flow in open channels to roughness, hydraulic radius, and slope, and
is widely used in agricultural drainage design
1 2/ 3 1/ 2
 Velocity (V): V = n R S
Discharge (Q): Q= A × V Where:
 n = Manning’s roughness coefficient
 R = Hydraulic radius

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  S= Hydraulic gradient/slope
 A = Cross-sectional area
 V = Mean velocity
8. Drainage Classification Based on Water Table Depth (Including capillary
fringe)
Grade Water table depth
Good > 200 cm
Fair 120–200 cm
Poor 90–120 cm
Very poor < 90 cm
9. Plant Adaptation to Excess Water (Waterlogging)
 Problems: Oxygen deficiency → root respiration inhibited.
 Susceptible crops: Tobacco, tomato
 Tolerant crops: Rice, sugarcane, sorghum
 Most sensitive stage: Flowering
 Less sensitive stage: Seedling stage
Adaptive Features
 Development of aerenchyma tissue in roots and stems
 Thin cell walls and intercellular spaces
 Enhanced internal oxygen transport
 Rice roots function under submerged conditions

Water Conservation Mechanism (3 Pillars Concept)

Pillar 1: Water Collection (Capture): Key idea: Harvest every drop
Mechanism: Convert rainfall/runoff into stored water or soil-profile moisture.
Key practices:
 In-situ harvesting: Contour cultivation, conservation furrows, BBF, ridges–furrows, pits,
micro-basins, Zing terracing → ↑ infiltration
 Interrow and intrarow water harvesting
 Compartmental Bunding: 0–6-degree slope
 Bunding, check basin, broad bed, ridge and furrow- 1% slope
 Up to 33-degree slope- Contour terracing, ring basin for fruits
 Levelled bench terracing: Use: Crop cultivation on steep slopes
Water behaviour: Holds rainwater on the terrace. Suitable for: Low–
moderate rainfall areas

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  Outward bench terracing: Use: Drain excess rainwater safely
Water behaviour: Terrace slopes outward (away from hill)
Suitable for: High rainfall areas, erosion control
 Inward bench terracing
Use: Conserve soil moisture, Water behaviour: Terrace slopes inward
(towards hill) Suitable for: Low rainfall areas, dryland crops,
 Irrigation bench terracing Use: Efficient irrigated crop production on
slopes Water behaviour: Controlled irrigation flow from one terrace to next
Suitable for: Rice and irrigated crops in hilly regions
 Catch pits in hilly areas: Local term Khadim 1m3 pits in different slopes, China afforested
100% in desert by these techniques
 Scooping is a soil and water conservation practice involving small ditches or depressions
made on the soil surface. It captures surface runoff, slows water movement, and enhances
infiltration into the soil. Common forms include semi-circular, helical, and trapezoidal
scoops. It is mainly practiced in arid and semi-arid regions
Scoops/Furrows: Rainwater harvesting
Dead furrow: Water collection + drainage
 Ex-situ harvesting: Farm ponds, percolation tanks, check dams, gully plugs, community
reservoirs
 Groundwater recharge: Recharge pits, trenches, wells
 Catchment treatment: Bunds, terraces, vegetative barriers to slow runoff
 Harvested water = Rainfall × Catchment area × Runoff coefficient (0.4–0.8)
Aim
 Enhances life-saving irrigation during dry spells
 Improves microclimate around cropped fields
Exam line: Water collection converts erratic rainfall into usable surface or subsurface storage.

Pillar 2: Water Conservation (Reduce Losses)

Key idea: Save water where it falls
Mechanism: Reduce non-productive losses (evaporation, runoff, deep drainage, excess
transpiration).
Key practices:
 Mulching: Organic, plastic, residue retention, Mulch ↓ evaporation by 30–70%; 1% ↑
organic matter → 1.5–2% ↑ WHC. Works mainly on interception, insulation, and reflection
of radiation. Reduces evaporation by lowering soil temperature and wind speed at surface.
Reflective mulches (e.g., silver/white) reflect solar radiation; organic mulches act more by
insulation. Mulches help on weed control and Moisture conservation.
 Conservation/minimum tillage: ↓ disturbance, ↑ infiltration- Conservation Tillage: residue
retention → 30 to 35% residue on; Conservation Agriculture: residue retention is at least 30
 Mechanical intervention: Happy Seeder / Turbo Happy Seeder: Performs two functions
simultaneously, one is Residue management – cuts, lifts, and manages standing stubble.

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 Another is Zero/minimum till sowing – direct drilling of seed in one pass. → Results in
reduced tillage operations, lower cost, timely sowing.
 Sowing Techniques: FIRB & BBF: FIRB method saves 30 to 50% water in wheat
 Weeding: Weeds may consume 25–50% soil moisture
 Mid-season correction
 Intercultural operations/Hoeing: Hand hoe, Spud Intercultural operations are also
done for breaking capillaries. Weeds compete for water and also increase
transpiration. Spud is used for intercultural operations (for controlling weeds and
breaking capillaries), called spudding.
 Maintenance of plant population: Inversely proportional in cereals except plant
population in mustard increases, its negative impact on yield will be
negligible/minimum due to indeterminate growth habit.
 Remove excess leaves/ Leaf stripping
 Soil organic matter/Use of soil amendments.: FYM, compost, green manuring, biochar etc.
Organic matter acts as good cementing agent (good binding capacity). O.M > Al > Fe >
Mn>K> Na (Flocculating agent to Dispersing agent)
 Crop & cultivar choice: Early, drought-tolerant varieties, Dwarf nature crop, Deep-rooted
Generally a smaller number of leaves
 Seed priming & Aqua seeding: Faster emergence, lower water need, Aqua seeding means
the direct sowing of pre-germinated seeds in standing water, mainly practiced in lowland
rice cultivation.
 Agroforestry: Windbreaks, erosion control, microclimate moderation
 Root-zone management: Sub-soiling to break plough pan
 Nutrient–water interaction: Balanced N & P
 Anti-transpirants:
 Stomatal-closing: Atrazine, carbon dioxide, ABA, PMA
 film-forming, Hexadecanol, Mobileaf
 Reflective type: 5% Kaoline
 Growth retardants: Cycocel (CCC)
Exam line: Water conservation minimizes losses and stabilizes yield under moisture stress.

Pillar 3: Efficient Water Use (Productive Use) Key idea: More crop per drop
Mechanism: Maximize yield per unit of water consumed (↑ WUE).
 Micro-irrigation: Drip, micro-sprinkler (For undulated surface due to pressure gradient) e.g.
Drip efficiency: 90–95%
 Deficit irrigation: CDI, RDI, sequenced deficit. Deficit irrigation: 50–70% ET → ~85–
90% yield
 Life-saving irrigation: Small doses at critical stages
 Critical stage irrigation: Jointing, flowering, grain filling

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  Hydrogels & nano-clays: Slow release of water. Superabsorbent – Applied with coating of
seed or in-furrow near the seed, point placement, post-emergence (soil application). Nano
clay polymers – Pusa Hydrogel, Jalshakti, Agargel, Hydrogel Aquasorb, Hydrosorb, Skygel,
Kavach, Pusa Hydrogel. They have 250–300 times more water absorption capacity than
normal soils.
 Precision scheduling: Sensors, climate-based tools
 Water recycling & reuse: Treated wastewater for irrigation

 Bubbler irrigation works on the principle of applying water at low pressure as small
continuous streams near the plant base. It is used mainly in orchards and widely spaced
crops. Its merits include simple operation, low energy requirement, and reduced evaporation
loss, though uniformity is poor on slopes.

 Pitcher pot irrigation alternative for ring basin irrigation is based on the principle of
slow seepage of water through porous earthen pots buried in the soil. It is used for vegetables
and fruit plants in arid areas. The main merits are very high water-use efficiency and direct
root-zone watering, but it is labour-intensive.

 Typhon (siphon) irrigation in surface irrigation operates on the principle of siphon

action using gravity to transfer water from channels to fields. It is used in border and furrow
irrigation. Its merits are uniform water application, no need to cut bunds, and easy control of
flow.
Exam line: Efficient use strategies translate saved water into higher water productivity.
One-Line Flowchart (Memory Aid)
Rainfall → Collection → Conservation → Efficient Use → Higher Water Productivity

Duty and Delta

 Duty (D) is the area of land (hectares) irrigated by one cubic meter per second (cumec) of
water continuously over the crop's base period, while
 Delta (∆) is the total depth (cm or m) of water needed for a crop to mature during that base
period;
 They are inversely related by the formula D = 8.64B/∆, where B is the base period in days,
showing that more efficient water use (higher duty) means less water depth (lower delta) for
the same base period

IRRIGATION SCHEDULING
Irrigation scheduling may be defined as scientific management technique of allocating irrigation
water based on the individual crop water requirement (ETc) under different soil and climatic
condition, with an aim to achieve maximum crop production per unit of water applied over a unit
area in unit time. Based on the above definition, the concept made is: “If we provide irrigation
facility, the agricultural production and productivity will go up automatically”.

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Response of Nutrients to Irrigation Practices/Fertilizing in relation to irrigation
practices
The complex relationship between irrigation methods and the movement, availability, and
efficiency of fertilizers in agricultural systems. Water is the primary medium through which
nutrients are transported to plant roots, and thus, the method of its application fundamentally
controls nutrient dynamics, leading to significant impacts on crop productivity, resource use
efficiency, and environmental sustainability.
1. Fundamental Concept: The Water-Nutrient Nexus
The core principle is that water and nutrients are inextricably linked in the soil-plant system.
Irrigation does more than just supply water; it governs:
 Soil Nutrient Dynamics: How fertilizers move to plant via
o Mass flow- nitrogen (N), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulfate (S)
o Diffusion: phosphorus (P), potassium (K), copper (Cu), and zinc (Zn)
o Root interception: 1-2%.
o Once they get to at the root surface, nutrients must cross the cell membrane to
enter the plant. This occurs through two main methods; Passive Absorption
and Active absorption
 Nutrient Availability: The ease with which plant roots can access essential elements.
 Nutrient Use Efficiency (NUE): The proportion of applied fertilizer that is actually
taken up and used by the crop, versus what is lost to the environment. Optimizing this
relationship is therefore critical for achieving high yields while minimizing input
costs and environmental footprint.
2. Detailed Analysis of Irrigation Methods and Their Impacts
2.1 Flood Irrigation (Surface Irrigation)
 Mechanism: Involves applying large volumes of water to flood or flow over the
entire soil surface.
 Impact on Nutrients:
 Distribution: While it spreads water broadly, it often results in highly uneven
nutrient distribution. On sloped land, water runoff can carry fertilizers
downhill, creating nutrient-rich areas at the bottom and deficient areas at the
top.
 Leaching: This method poses a very high risk of nutrient leaching,
particularly for soluble nitrogen (N) fertilizers. Excess water percolates
downward, washing nutrients away from the root zone, a problem exacerbated
in sandy, well-drained soils.
 Efficiency: It is water-intensive and nutrient-inefficient. Significant
amounts of fertilizer can be lost through deep percolation or surface runoff
before plants can absorb them.
 Suitability: Primarily used in traditional settings for flood-tolerant crops like rice. It
is generally unsuitable for high-value crops or situations where precise nutrient
management and conservation are priorities.
2.2 Sprinkler Irrigation

16
  Mechanism: Simulates rainfall by distributing water through the air as droplets over
the crop canopy.
 Impact on Nutrients:
 Distribution & Evaporation: Application is more uniform than flood
irrigation. However, significant water loss occurs through evaporation from
droplets in the air and on leaf surfaces, especially under hot or windy
conditions. This reduces the volume of water (and dissolved nutrients) that
actually reaches the soil.
 Volatilization Loss: A major concern is the volatilization loss of nitrogen.
When water droplets containing urea or ammonium-based fertilizers land on
the soil surface, nitrogen can be lost as ammonia gas (NH₃), particularly in
alkaline soils (pH > 7).
 Movement: Nutrients move into the soil with the infiltrating water but may
not penetrate deeply if irrigation sessions are light and frequent.
 Suitability: Works well for crops requiring light, frequent watering and can be
adapted for fertigation (applying fertilizer through the irrigation system). However, it
is less efficient than drip systems due to evaporation and volatilization losses.
2.3 Drip Irrigation
 Mechanism: Delivers water and dissolved fertilizers slowly and directly to the base
of each plant or into the root zone via a network of tubes and emitters.
 Impact on Nutrients:
 Precision Delivery: This is the most efficient method for both water and
fertilizer. It places nutrients exactly where they are needed.
 Fertigation Excellence: It is the ideal system for fertigation. Fertilizers are
dissolved in the irrigation water and delivered in small, frequent, and
controlled doses, matching plant demand.
 Minimized Losses: Direct root-zone application drastically reduces
losses from leaching, runoff, and volatilization. The soil moisture front moves
nutrients via capillary action and mass flow, keeping them concentrated in the
active root zone for optimal uptake.
 Uniformity: Ensures even nutrient distribution across the field, promoting
uniform crop growth.
 Suitability: Ideal for high-value crops (vegetables, fruits), orchards, vineyards,
greenhouses, and regions with severe water scarcity. It is the benchmark for precision
nutrient and water management.
2.4 Subsurface Drip Irrigation (SDI)
 Mechanism: A variant of drip irrigation where the lateral tubes are buried
permanently below the soil surface (typically 10-30 cm deep).
 Impact on Nutrients:
 Enhanced Efficiency: All benefits of surface drip are maintained, with added
advantages: elimination of evaporation loss from the soil surface and zero
surface runoff.

17
  Optimal Retention: Water and nutrients are released directly into the root
zone, leading to superior soil absorption and retention of nutrients.
 Weed Suppression: By keeping the soil surface dry, it severely limits water
and nutrient availability to weed seeds, reducing weed pressure.
 Suitability: Excellent for field row crops (corn, cotton), orchards, and vineyards,
particularly in arid and semi-arid regions where every drop of water and unit of
nutrient must be conserved.
2.5 Furrow Irrigation
 Mechanism: Water is channelled through small parallel ditches (furrows) between
crop rows.
 Impact on Nutrients:
 Variable Distribution: Nutrient distribution depends on water advance down
the furrow, soil texture, and field slope. It can be uneven, with more water and
nutrients at the top of the field.
 Leaching Risk: If water is applied too quickly or in excess, nutrients can be
leached beyond the root zone, especially in permeable soils.
 Suitability: Used in areas with more abundant water supplies. It is more efficient than
flood irrigation but less precise and efficient than drip systems for fertilizer delivery.
2.6 Furrow Irrigation with Fertilizer Application (Fertilizer in Flood Waters)
 Mechanism: Water-soluble fertilizers are added directly to the irrigation water
flowing in furrows or basins.
 Impact on Nutrients:
 High Variability: Nutrient distribution is completely dependent on the
uniformity of water flow. Ponding or uneven advance leads to patchy nutrient
availability.
 High Loss Potential: The risk of nutrient loss via runoff and leaching is
very high, as large volumes of water move rapidly across and through the soil.
 Suitability: Common in traditional farming of paddy rice and similar crops. It is
highly inefficient for nutrient management due to substantial losses.
3. Key Nutrient-Specific Responses to Irrigation
 Nitrogen (N): Highly mobile and soluble. Most susceptible to leaching loss under
over-irrigation (flood, furrow) and volatilization loss under sprinkler irrigation on
hot/dry/windy days or alkaline soils.
 Phosphorus (P): Immobile in soil. Its availability is enhanced in consistently moist
soils (like under drip), as it moves mainly by diffusion, which is very slow in dry soil.
It can be fixed and become unavailable in waterlogged conditions.
 Potassium (K): Has intermediate mobility. It moves with soil water (mass flow) but
not as readily as N. Adequate and consistent soil moisture under drip or SDI optimizes
its uptake.
 Micronutrients (Fe, Mn, Zn, etc.): Generally, more available in moist, well-aerated
soils. However, in waterlogged, anaerobic conditions (common in poor flood
irrigation), their availability can plummet as they change into insoluble forms.

18
4. Critical Role of Soil Moisture in Nutrient Transport
The document emphasizes that dry soil severely limits nutrient availability. Here’s how:
1. Fragmentation of Water Films: In dry soil, the continuous film of water around soil
particles breaks into disconnected droplets.
2. Impaired Diffusion: Diffusion—the movement of nutrients from high to low
concentration—requires a continuous water pathway. Fragmentation increases the
distance nutrients must travel and reduces the pathways, slowing diffusion
dramatically.
3. Reduced Mass Flow: Mass flow—the movement of nutrients with water flowing
toward roots—is negligible when the soil is dry and plants are not transpiring much
water.
Result: Plant roots in dry soil become nutrient-starved not because nutrients aren't
present, but because they cannot move to the roots. This stresses the importance
of maintaining optimal soil moisture (as done with drip/SDI) for efficient nutrient
uptake.
5. Synergistic Role of Soil Microorganisms
Irrigation management that maintains favourable soil moisture also supports beneficial soil
biology. Microorganisms enhance nutrient availability by:
 Solubilizing Minerals: Secreting organic acids that release locked-up nutrients like
phosphorus.
 Mineralizing Organic Matter: Producing enzymes (e.g., phosphatases) that break
down organic compounds, converting them into plant-available inorganic forms.
6. Best Practices for Integrated Irrigation and Nutrient Management
To optimize the system, the following practices are recommended:
1. System-Fertilizer Matching: Use readily water-soluble fertilizers with drip and SDI
systems. Avoid highly leachable fertilizers (like nitrates) with inefficient systems like
flood irrigation.
2. Precision Water Application: Avoid over-irrigation at all costs to control leaching.
Use soil moisture sensors to guide timing and volume.
3. Adopt Fertigation: Especially with drip and SDI, fertigation allows for spoon-
feeding nutrients aligned with crop growth stages, maximizing uptake and
minimizing loss.
4. Implement Regular Soil Testing: Essential for understanding baseline nutrient status
and pH, allowing for tailored fertilizer recommendations that complement the chosen
irrigation method.
5. Select the Appropriate Irrigation Method: Where feasible and economically viable,
transitioning to drip or subsurface drip irrigation represents the most effective
single step for enhancing both water and nutrient use efficiency, particularly for
nutrient-sensitive and high-value crops.
Conclusion: The choice of irrigation method is a decisive factor in nutrient management.
While traditional methods like flood and furrow irrigation are often associated with high
nutrient losses and inefficiency, modern micro-irrigation techniques (drip and SDI) offer a
pathway to precision agriculture. By delivering water and nutrients directly to the root zone

19
in controlled amounts, they synchronize supply with plant demand, dramatically improving
uptake, reducing environmental impact, and ensuring sustainable crop productivity

Response of Nutrients to Irrigation Practices / Fertilization in Relation to Irrigation

1. Fundamental Concept: Water–Nutrient Nexus
 Water is the main carrier of nutrients to plant roots.
 Irrigation controls:
 Soil nutrient dynamics (movement, transformation, retention)
 Nutrient availability
 Nutrient Use Efficiency (NUE)
 Proper irrigation–fertilizer synchronization increases yield, resource use efficiency,
and environmental sustainability.
2. Effect of Irrigation Methods on Nutrient Behaviour
2.1 Flood (Surface) Irrigation
 Mechanism: Entire soil surface flooded.
 Nutrient response:
 Uneven nutrient distribution
 High leaching loss (especially Nitrogen)
 Low NUE
 Suitable for: Rice, traditional systems.
 Exam point: Causes maximum nutrient loss.
2.2 Sprinkler Irrigation
 Mechanism: Water applied as artificial rainfall.
 Nutrient response:
 Moderate uniformity
 Evaporation loss
 Nitrogen volatilization (NH₃ loss in alkaline soils)
 Exam point: Better than flood, poorer than drip.
2.3 Drip Irrigation
 Mechanism: Water and nutrients applied directly to root zone.
 Nutrient response:
 Highest NUE
 Ideal for fertigation
 Minimum leaching, runoff, volatilization
 Suitable for: Vegetables, fruits, orchards
 Exam point: Best method for precision nutrient management.

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2.4 Subsurface Drip Irrigation (SDI)
 Mechanism: Buried drip lines (10–30 cm).
 Nutrient response:
o Zero evaporation loss
o Maximum nutrient retention
o Weed suppression
 Exam point: Most efficient irrigation–fertilizer system.
2.5 Furrow Irrigation
 Mechanism: Water flows through furrows between rows.
 Nutrient response:
o Uneven nutrient distribution
o Moderate leaching risk
 Exam point: Intermediate efficiency.
2.6 Fertilizer Applied with Irrigation Water
 Mechanism: Fertilizer mixed in flood/furrow water.
 Nutrient response:
o Very high nutrient loss
o Patchy availability
 Exam point: Highly inefficient fertilization method.
3. Nutrient-Specific Response to Irrigation
Nitrogen (N)
 Highly mobile
 Losses:
o Leaching → flood/furrow
o Volatilization → sprinkler, alkaline soils
Phosphorus (P)
 Immobile
 Moves by diffusion
 Best availability under continuous soil moisture (drip)
Potassium (K)
 Moderately mobile
 Moves by mass flow
 Requires uniform soil moisture
Micronutrients (Fe, Mn, Zn)
 Available in moist, aerated soils

21
  Deficiency under waterlogging
4. Role of Soil Moisture in Nutrient Transport
 Dry soil → poor nutrient uptake.
 Causes:
1. Breakage of water films
2. Reduced diffusion
3. Negligible mass flow
 Exam point: Nutrients may be present but unavailable.
5. Role of Soil Microorganisms
 Favoured by optimum moisture
 Functions:
o Mineral solubilization
o Organic matter mineralization
 Improves nutrient availability and soil fertility.
6. Best Practices (Very Important for Exams)
1. Match irrigation system with fertilizer type
2. Avoid over-irrigation
3. Adopt fertigation
4. Regular soil testing
5. Prefer drip/SDI for high NUE

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 Land suitability for irrigation
Land suitability for irrigation refers to the evaluation of land to determine how appropriate it
is for irrigated agriculture. Helps farmers, planners.
FAO/UNEP Land Suitability Classification (with Sub-classes)
Main classes
 S – Suitable
 N – Not suitable
Suitability classes and sub-classes
Class Description Typical sub-classes (limitations)
S1 Highly suitable No or minor limitations; No significant limitations
Moderately Land having moderate limitations S2s (soil), S2t (topography),
S2
suitable S2w (water/drainage), S2c (climate), S2f (fertility)
Marginally
S3 Land having Severe limitations S3s, S3t, S3w, S3c, S3f
suitable
Land not suitable but could have rooms for improvements. N1s,
Currently not
N1 N1t, N1w, N1c (limitations correctable with major improvement
suitable
or reclamation)
Permanently not Can’t made suitable from feasible means, eg excess slope, rocky
N2
suitable cliffs, saline etc N2s, N2t, N2w, N2c (limitations not correctable)
Meaning of sub-class symbols
 s – soil limitations (depth, texture, salinity, sodicity)
 t – topography limitations (slope, relief)
 w – water availability / drainage / flooding
 c – climate limitations (temperature, rainfall)
 f – fertility constraints; (Class Note: I= infrastructure or Socioeconomic limitations)
Example:
 S2w → Moderately suitable land limited mainly by water/drainage
 N1s → Currently not suitable due to soil problems (reclaimable)
Subclasses of limitations – Limitations are indicated by lowercase letters that affect the
suitability class, specifying the type of condition.

Evaluation process
 Data collection – Soil: texture, depth, pH, drainage, etc.; Water: quality, availability;
Topography: slope, elevation; Climate: rainfall, temp., humidity; Socio-economic:
land tenure, market access.
 Comparison with crop/region – Determine which limitations exist relative to crop
irrigation needs.
 Classification – Assign land to a class (S1, S2, S3, N) and subclass if needed.

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 Recommendations – Suggest management practices to overcome moderate
limitations, e.g., drainage, gypsum application, land levelling.
 Importance of classification – Resource optimization, planning policy, sustainable
agriculture, economic decision-making.

24
 Prof. S.K. Prasad
Water Resources of India
Physical Divisions of India
1. The Northern Mountain Region (Himalayas)
2. Northern Indian Plains (Indus–Ganga–Brahmaputra plains)
3. Thar Desert
4. Peninsular Plateau
 North Peninsular Plateau
 South Peninsular Plateau
5. Coastal Plains
 Western Coastal Plain
 Eastern Coastal Plain
6. Islands of India (Andaman–Nicobar, Lakshadweep)

Hydrologic Unit (HU)

A hydrologic unit is an area of land draining runoff to a common outlet, bounded by natural
hydrologic divides. Synonyms: basin, river basin, drainage basin, catchment, watershed.
Commonly used terms: basin, catchment, watershed.
Classification basis: area, slope, drainage density, sediment yield, land use.
All India Soil and Land Use Survey (AISLUS) identified:
Level Number Approx. Area (×10³ ha)

Water Resource Regions 6 21,800 – 112,000

Basins 37 1,300 – 31,200

Catchments 117 410 – 1,600

Sub-catchments 588 150 – 1,600

Watersheds 3,851 20 – 350

Water Resource Regions of India

(Proposed by A.N. Khosla, 1949, numbering later standardized clockwise)
1. Indus drainage
2. Ganga drainage
3. Brahmaputra drainage
4. East-flowing rivers draining into Bay of Bengal (excluding 2 & 3)

25
 5. West-flowing rivers draining into Arabian Sea (excluding Indus)
6. Western Rajasthan (mostly ephemeral drainage)
Watershed Size Classification (NRSA, 1985)
Category Area (×10³ ha)

Sub-watershed 3–5

Mini-watershed 1–3

Micro-watershed 0.5 – 1

Global Water Resources

 Total water on Earth: ~1,400 million km³
 Saline water: 97.3%
 Freshwater: 2.7%
 Glaciers & permanent ice: ~68–69%
 Groundwater: ~30%
 Surface water (lakes, rivers): ~0.7%
 Readily extractable freshwater: ~1.1%
Per Capita Water Availability
 Global renewable supply: ~7,000 m³/person/year
 Water stress threshold: <1,700 m³/person/year
 High living standard benchmark: ~2,000 m³/person/year
Factors affecting water requirement
1. Climate factors
2. Plant factors
3. Soil factors
4. Management factors
Temperature – Type of crop – Soil texture
Wind velocity – Variety – Soil structure
Relative humidity – Leaf surface area – Soil organic matter
Rainfall – Duration – Soil moisture
Sunshine hours – Stomatal behaviour – Soil temperature
Root system – Water retention capacity
Irrigation Projects (Planned development of irrigation)
 Major irrigation project – > 10,000 ha
 Medium – 2,000 to 10,000 ha
 Minor – < 2,000 ha

26
Prior to 1978, Culturable Command Area (CCA) was based on irrigation project
classification. From 1978, price was included, but now only CCA is based.
Command Area Development Project (CADP) – 1974
 GOI initiated a centrally sponsored command area development programme, CADP in
December 1974.
 Initially, 60 major and medium irrigation projects were taken under CADP covering a
CCA of about 15 mha.
 From 1974 till now, 314 projects with CCA of 28.95 mha have been included.
 After inclusion of new projects and deletion of completed ones, there are now 150
projects under the programme, restructured and renamed as Command Area
Development & Water Management Programme, effective from April 2004.
Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP) – 1996
 Central govt. gives to state govt. to complete incomplete projects.
 Central govt. launched AIBP to provide central loan assistance to major/medium
irrigation projects to accelerate implementation of projects beyond resource capability
of states.
Bharat Nirman (2004–05) – Includes irrigation projects.
Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) – 2015
 Har Khet Ko Pani, AIBP, Watershed Management, Per Drop More Crop – maximum
utilization of water.
 Launched during 2015–16 to enhance physical access of water on farm, expand
cultivable area under assured irrigation, improve water use efficiency, introduce
sustainable water conservation practices.
This programme is launched by three ministries:
1. Ministry of Water Resources
2. Ministry of Ganga Rejuvenation & River Development
3. Department of Land Resources
4. Department of Agriculture, Cooperation and Farmers Welfare
PMKSY launched with the motto of providing “Har Khet Ko Pani” and end-to-end solution
in irrigation supply chain, i.e., water source, distribution network, and farm-level application.
It comprises four components: AIBP, Har Khet Ko Pani, Watershed Development, and Per
Drop More Crop.
PMKSY is an umbrella scheme consisting of two major components: AIBP & Har Khet Ko
Pani.
Har Khet Ko Pani consists of four components:
A. Command Area Development & Water Management
B. Surface Minor Irrigation (SMI)
C. Repair, Renovation & Restoration (RRR) of Water Bodies
D. Groundwater Development
AIBP – Provides central assistance to states to help complete ongoing major/medium
irrigation projects at an advanced stage, thus accelerating execution.
27
In 2016–17, 99 ongoing major/medium irrigation projects across 19 states were identified as
priority projects under AIBP component of PMKSY. Out of these, 54 projects have been
completed. Further, out of the balance, 21 projects have physical progress between 80–90%.
During 2021–22 & 2022–23, 3.68 lakh ha irrigation potential created along with CAD of 3.67
lakh ha. 62 major/medium irrigation projects completed under PMKSY-AIBP with creation
of 25.80 lakh ha irrigation potential. As of March 2023, an additional irrigation potential of
0.25 lakh ha created.
Har Khet Ko Pani is one component of PMKSY, under which financial assistance is
provided by Ministry of Jal Shakti for CADWM, SMI, RRR, and groundwater components.
Command Area Development and Water Management (CADWM) Programme
Aims at improving water use efficiency in irrigation, providing assured supply of water to
every farm field, and transferring control and management of irrigation system to water users
associations.
SMI and RRR of water bodies aim at expanding cultivable area under assured irrigation,
improving water use efficiency, groundwater recharge, and restoration of water bodies.
Irrigation potential of 4.64 lakh ha created under PMKSY – Har Khet Ko Pani.
SMI & RRR created potential of 88.55 thousand ha under PMKSY-HKKP groundwater
during 2016–17 to 2023–24.
Groundwater scheme under PMKSY-HKKP aims to provide financial assistance to states for
assured groundwater irrigation to small & marginal farmers.
PMKSY: Watershed Development – Focuses on utilization of water and land resources
through soil erosion prevention, increasing crop production, rainwater harvesting, etc.
Implemented by Department of Land Resources (Ministry of Rural Development).
Per Drop More Crop – Earlier a component of PMKSY, now implemented separately by
DAC&FW under Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana.
Status of irrigation potential created under different components of PMKSY (2016–23)
in thousand ha:
Component Irrigation Potential Created (2016–23)
(thousand ha)
PMKSY – AIBP with CAD 2536.05
PMKSY – HKKP – SMI 262.53
Capacity Restoration under PMKSY – HKKP – RRR 338.66
PMKSY – HKKP – GW Development 87.24

Source-wise Net Irrigated Area (Million ha) – 2023-24

 Government canals: 17.257 m ha
 Private canals: 0.163 m ha
 Total canals (Govt + Private): 17.420 m ha
 Tanks: 3.136 m ha
 Tube-wells: 39.405 m ha

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  Other wells: 12.468 m ha
 Other sources: 9.987 m ha
 Net irrigated area (total): 82.416 m ha

 Net Irrigated Area (NIA): 82.416 million ha

 Gross Irrigated Area (GIA): 130.548 million ha
 % of GIA over Gross Cropped Area (GCA): ≈ 59.9%
 % of NIA over Net Sown Area (NSA): ≈ 59.3%

Rank COntinebt Area (Mha)

1 Asia 248
2 America 56.7
3 Europe 27
4 Africa 17
5 Australia 3.3
*Total world’s irrigated area = 370 mha*
Irrigation Projects in India
1. Command Area Development Programme (CADP)
 Launched: 1974–75
 Objective (Motto): Construction of new major and medium irrigation projects and
efficient utilization of created potential.
 Initial coverage: ~60 major & medium projects
 CCA ≈ 15 million ha
 Present status:
 ~314 projects
 CCA ≈ 28.25 million ha
 Major components:
 Field channels & field drains
 Land levelling & on-farm development
 Warabandi (rotational water supply)
 Renamed (2004): CADWM – Command Area Development & Water Management
Programme
 Now merged under: PMKSY
2. Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP)
 Launched: 1996–97
 Objective: Completion of ongoing irrigation projects stalled due to financial
constraints
 Funding pattern: Central Loan Assistance (CLA)
 Coverage: Projects in 18 states with ~99 projects (up to 2016–17)
 Focus: Early creation of irrigation potential

29
  Present status: Merged into PMKSY
3. Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana (PMKSY)
 Launched: 2015–16
 Ministries involved:
1. Ministry of Jal Shakti
2. Ministry of Rural Development
3. Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers’ Welfare
Objectives: 1. Enhance physical access of water on farms, 2. Expand cultivable area under
assured irrigation, 3. Improve water use efficiency
4. Components of PMKSY
(i) AIBP
 Completion of priority irrigation projects
 Accelerated creation of irrigation potential
(ii) Har Khet Ko Pani
 Command Area Development & Water Management
 Surface minor irrigation
 Repair, Renovation & Restoration (RRR) of water bodies
 Groundwater development
(iii) Watershed Development
 Rainwater harvesting
 Soil & water conservation
 Efficient utilization of water resources
(iv) Per Drop More Crop
 Promotion of micro-irrigation (drip & sprinkler)
 Emphasis on water use efficiency
Programme Key Focus
CADP Command area efficiency & on-farm development
AIBP Fast completion of pending irrigation projects
PMKSY Integrated water resource & irrigation management
Synopsis: CADP (1974–75) → CADWM (2004) → merged into PMKSY (2015–16). AIBP
(1996–97) focuses on completing stalled projects and is now a component of PMKSY.

Transpiration
Transpiration is a part of the hydrological cycle and is the process by which water
absorbed by roots is transported through the plant and lost as water vapour from aerial

30
parts, mainly through leaves. It occurs predominantly when stomata are open for gaseous
exchange (CO₂ uptake and O₂ release) during photosynthesis and respiration.
Mechanism of Transpiration
Transpiration is essentially a two-step physical process:
1. Evaporation of water from the moist cell walls of mesophyll cells into the sub-
stomatal cavity.
2. Diffusion of water vapour from the sub-stomatal cavity to the external atmosphere
through stomatal pores along a vapour pressure gradient.
Magnitude of Water Loss
During a growing season, about 98–99% of the absorbed water is lost through
transpiration, and only 1–2% is retained by the plant. Of this retained fraction, most
remains as free water in tissues, while less than 1% of the total absorbed water is
actually utilized in metabolic processes (e.g., photosynthesis).
Types of Transpiration
Most transpiration occurs through leaves (foliar transpiration) and includes:
Stomatal Transpiration
 Accounts for 90–95% of total transpiration.
 Occurs through stomata and is the principal route of water loss.
Cuticular Transpiration
 Contributes about 5–10% of total water loss.
 Depends on thickness and composition of the cuticle.
Lenticular Transpiration
 Contributes <1% (≈0.1%) of total water loss.
 Occurs through lenticels in woody stems and bark.
Loss of Water in Liquid Form
Guttation
Guttation (term coined by A. Burgerstein, from Latin gutta = drop) is the exudation of
liquid water droplets from the tips or margins of leaves, usually at the termination of veins.
It occurs under conditions of high soil moisture, high root pressure, and low
transpiration, typically during night or early morning before sunrise.
Guttation water contains dissolved solutes such as sugars, amino acids, organic acids, and
mineral salts. After evaporation, solutes may accumulate at leaf margins and may cause leaf
injury.
Guttation occurs through hydathodes (water stomata), which are permanently open
structures connected to xylem endings and function due to root pressure.

Bleeding

31
Bleeding is the exudation of sap from injured or cut plant parts. The amount and duration
vary among species.
Examples:
 Sugar-rich sap in sugar maple (Acer saccharum).
 Toddy from palm trees.
 Latex exudation in rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis).
Differences between Transpiration and Guttation
Transpiration Guttation
Loss of water as vapour Loss of water as liquid
Generally solute-free Contains dissolved solutes
Occurs through stomata, cuticle, lenticels Occurs through hydathodes
Mainly during daytime Usually at night or early morning
Driven by vapour pressure gradient & solar energy Driven by root pressure
Relatively rapid Relatively slow

Stomata
Stomata are microscopic pores present on aerial parts of higher plants (leaves, stems,
floral parts, fruits). True stomata are not present in fungi or algae. Average density: ~10,000
stomata per cm² (varies with species). Stomatal pore size (open state): ~20 µm long and 10–
20 µm wide. Total stomatal pore area usually <1–2% of leaf surface, yet accounts for most
water loss.
Distribution Types
 Amphistomatous – stomata on both leaf surfaces.
 Epistomatous – stomata only on upper surface.
 Hypostomatous – stomata only on lower surface.
David Seckler – More Crop Per Drop concept (1995): International Water Management
Institute (IWMI). Dr. Seckler Sir – Water productivity / wastewater use
How to enhance water use efficiency
Agrotechniques for enhancing water productivity of field crops:
1. Tillage – Conservation tillage, Crop selection
2. Planting methods – DSR (Direct Seeded Rice), Aerobic Rice
3. Planting time – non-monetary inputs
o Sowing crop from high evaporative time to low evaporative time.
o Aerobic Rice – Water levels maintained at field capacity.
o Advanced version of DSR, especially high-yielding varieties grown under
ensured irrigation with special characters: high tillering, less lodging, drought
tolerance.

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 o Aerobic variety MAS 946-1 (in Punjab).
Constraints of Aerobic Rice – Weed problems, Nematode problem.
SRI method (System of Rice Intensification) –
 Spacing: 25 × 25 cm²
 Seed rate: 5 kg/ha
 Developed by Henri de Laulanié in Madagascar
Terminologies
1. Drainage: Removal of excess surface and subsurface water from the soil profile to
maintain favourable conditions for crop growth.
2. Agricultural Drainage: Planned removal of excess water from agricultural land by
surface or subsurface means to control waterlogging and salinity.
3. Drainage Coefficient: The depth of water (mm or cm) to be removed from a field in 24
hours to prevent crop damage.
Excess water to be removed
Drainage coefficient=
Time (day)
4. Surface Drainage: Removal of excess water present on the soil surface through open
ditches, land grading, or field drains.
5. Subsurface Drainage: Removal of excess water from below the soil surface using buried
drains or tiles to control water table depth.
6. Waterlogging: Condition when soil pores are saturated, restricting aeration and root
respiration.
7. Capillary Fringe: Zone above the water table where soil pores remain nearly saturated
due to capillary rise.
8. Height of Capillary Rise: Maximum vertical rise of water above the water table due to
1
capillary forces, inversely proportional to pore size. Relation:h ∝
r
9. Water Table: Upper surface of the zone of saturation where soil pores are fully filled
with water.
10. Irrigation Regime: Planned pattern of irrigation timing, frequency, and depth applied
during the crop growth period.
11. Irrigation Interval: Time gap between two successive irrigations
12. Depth of Irrigation: Amount of water applied in one irrigation to replenish soil moisture
in the root zone.
13. Moisture Regime: Seasonal pattern of soil water availability within the root zone under
natural or managed conditions.
14. Field Capacity (FC): Soil moisture content after free drainage has ceased and downward
movement is negligible.
15. Permanent Wilting Point (PWP): Soil moisture content at which plants cannot recover
from wilting even in a saturated atmosphere.
16. Available Water: Water held between FC and PWP, available for plant uptake.
AW=FC −PWP
A. Drainage – Short Notes
 Drainage: Removal of excess surface/subsurface water to maintain proper aeration
and root growth.

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  Agricultural drainage: Planned removal of excess water to prevent waterlogging
and salinity.
 Drainage coefficient: Depth of excess water (mm or cm) to be removed from land in
24 hours.
 Surface drainage: Removal of excess surface water by field grading, ditches.
 Subsurface drainage: Removal of excess subsoil water using buried drains.
 Waterlogging: Soil saturation causing poor aeration and restricted root respiration.
B. Drainage & Groundwater
Term Definition (short) Key point

Drainage Removal of excess water from soil Improves aeration

Drainage coefficient Water depth removed in 24 h mm or cm/day

Surface drainage Removes surface water Open drains

Subsurface drainage Controls water table Tile/pipe drains

Water table Upper limit of saturation Dynamic

Capillary fringe Nearly saturated zone above water table Capillary rise
D. Irrigation Regime – Short Notes
 Irrigation regime: Planned timing + frequency + depth of irrigation during crop
growth.
 Irrigation interval: Time gap between two irrigations.
 Depth of irrigation: Water applied to refill root zone moisture deficit.
E. Moisture Regime – Tabular Form
Term Definition Exam keyword
Moisture regime Seasonal soil water pattern Natural/managed
Field Capacity (FC) Moisture after free drainage Upper limit
Permanent Wilting Point (PWP) Moisture where plant wilts permanently Lower limit
Available Water (AW) FC − PWP Plant usable

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1. Water Scarcity & Need for Smart Irrigation
 Agriculture uses ~70% of global freshwater.
 Climate change → erratic rainfall, droughts, over-extraction.
 Conventional irrigation → low efficiency, soil degradation.
 Smart irrigation improves water productivity and sustainability.
2. Precision Irrigation
Definition:
Site-specific application of water based on crop need, soil, and climate variability.
Key Features:
 Right amount of water
 Right time
 Right place
 Reduces runoff, evaporation, and energy loss
3. Role of AI in Precision Irrigation
 Replaces manual decision-making.
 Uses real-time data from sensors.
 Improves irrigation scheduling and yield.
 Supports sustainable water use.
4. AI Techniques in Water Management
Major Techniques:
 Machine Learning (ML): Predict crop water demand.
 Predictive Analytics: Forecast future water needs.
 Optimization Algorithms: Improve irrigation efficiency.
 Anomaly Detection: Detect leaks/sensor failure.
 Digital Twins: Virtual models of irrigation systems.
 Real-time Monitoring: Continuous quality & quantity control.
5. Machine Learning Models for Predicting Water Needs
(a) Linear Models
 ARIMA, time-series models
 Simple, low cost
 Limitation: Low accuracy for complex systems
(b) Non-Linear Models
 ANN, Random Forest, Fuzzy Logic
 Handle complex, non-linear data
 High accuracy but costly and complex
6. AI-Based Decision-Making Algorithms
 Combine soil, weather, and crop data.
 Enable:
 Crop water requirement estimation

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  Optimized irrigation timing
 Hybrid AI models → higher prediction accuracy.
7. Automated Decision-Making Systems
Components:
 Automated valves & pumps
 Sensor feedback loops
 Real-time adjustments
Benefits:
 Reduced labor
 Faster response
 Higher efficiency
8. AI Applications in Irrigation
 Soil moisture prediction
 Weather forecast integration
 Crop growth modelling
 Decision support systems
 Precision irrigation optimization
9. IoT Integration in Precision Irrigation
IoT Paradigms:
 Thing-oriented (sensors)
 Internet-oriented (connectivity)
 Semantic-oriented (knowledge)
Benefits:
 Real-time monitoring
 Interoperability
 Improved productivity & efficiency
10. Challenges & Limitations
Technical:
 Sensor accuracy & calibration
 Data integration issues
 Lack of standard protocols
Economic & Social:
 High initial cost
 Low farmer awareness
 Training requirements

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Environmental:
 High energy consumption
 Possible ecological side effects
11. Future Trends
 Deep learning for water prediction
 5G & LPWAN for faster data transfer
 Integration with drones & robotics
 Government subsidies & policy support
 Standardization of smart irrigation systems
12. Conclusion (2–3 Mark Answer)
AI- and IoT-based smart irrigation systems enhance water use efficiency, crop yield, and
sustainability. Despite challenges of cost, energy use, and data integration, supportive policies
and technological advancements can make precision irrigation a key solution for future water
scarcity.
Q1. Why is smart irrigation needed in modern agriculture?
Agriculture consumes about 70% of global freshwater, and climate change has increased
water scarcity. Conventional irrigation causes over-extraction, runoff, and soil degradation.
Smart irrigation uses AI and IoT to apply water precisely, improving water use efficiency,
crop yield, and sustainability.
Q2. Define precision irrigation.
Precision irrigation is a site-specific water management approach that supplies the right
amount of water at the right time and place based on crop needs, soil moisture, and climatic
conditions, thereby minimizing water loss and maximizing productivity.
Q3. Explain the role of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in precision irrigation.
AI analyzes real-time data from soil, crop, and weather sensors to predict crop water
requirements and optimize irrigation schedules. It replaces manual decisions, improves
accuracy, conserves water, and enhances crop yield and sustainability.
Q4. What are the major AI techniques used in water management?
Major AI techniques include machine learning for water demand prediction, predictive
analytics for future planning, optimization algorithms for efficient irrigation, anomaly
detection for leak identification, and digital twins for simulating irrigation systems.
Q5. Differentiate between linear and nonlinear models used for predicting water needs.
Linear models (e.g., ARIMA) are simple and low-cost but have limited accuracy for complex
systems. Nonlinear models (e.g., ANN, Random Forest, Fuzzy Logic) handle complex
relationships effectively and provide higher accuracy but are costly and computationally
intensive.
Q6. What is the role of machine learning in predicting crop water requirements?
Machine learning models analyze historical weather data, soil moisture, crop type, and
growth stages to accurately estimate crop water needs. This helps in optimizing irrigation
timing and quantity, reducing water wastage.

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Q7. Explain AI-based decision-making algorithms in irrigation.
AI-based decision-making algorithms integrate data from sensors and weather forecasts to
recommend or automatically execute irrigation actions. They improve accuracy, ensure
equitable water distribution, and support efficient water resource planning.
Q8. What are automated decision-making systems in smart irrigation?
Automated decision-making systems use AI outputs to control valves and pumps without
human intervention. Real-time sensor feedback allows continuous adjustment of irrigation,
reducing labor costs and improving water use efficiency.
Q9. Mention major applications of AI in irrigation.
AI is used for soil moisture prediction, weather forecast integration, crop growth modeling,
irrigation scheduling, decision support systems, and precision water application to improve
yield and conserve water.
Q10. Explain the role of IoT in precision irrigation.
IoT enables real-time data collection through sensors measuring soil moisture, temperature,
and water flow. This data is analyzed by AI systems to support timely irrigation decisions,
improve efficiency, and reduce water and energy losses.
Q11. List the major benefits of IoT-based smart irrigation systems.
Key benefits include real-time monitoring, improved productivity, efficient resource
utilization, reduced water loss, better decision-making, and support for scalable and
sustainable irrigation systems.
Q12. What are the main technical challenges of smart irrigation systems?
Technical challenges include sensor inaccuracy, calibration issues, unreliable data under
extreme conditions, poor data integration, and lack of interoperability among different
devices and platforms.
Q13. Discuss economic and social barriers to adoption of smart irrigation.
High initial investment costs, limited access to technology, lack of technical knowledge, and
inadequate farmer training restrict adoption, especially among smallholder farmers.
Q14. Mention environmental concerns associated with smart irrigation.
Smart irrigation systems consume significant energy for sensors, data processing, and
communication. Increased energy use, especially from fossil fuels, and possible unintended
ecological impacts are key concerns.
Q15. Write short notes on future trends in smart irrigation.
Future trends include advanced AI and deep learning models, next-generation sensors, 5G
and LPWAN connectivity, integration with drones and robotics, and supportive government
policies for wider adoption.
Q16. How can government policy support smart irrigation adoption?
Government support through subsidies, incentives, training programs, and development of
standards and best practices can reduce costs, improve interoperability, and encourage
farmers to adopt smart irrigation technologies.

1. IRRIGATION SCHEDULULING

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Definition & Objective
 Definition: Fixing the time and quantity of irrigation based on crop requirements and
irrigation principles.
 Objective under assured water supply: Enhance productivity (without considering
water productivity).
 Objective under limited water supply: Utilize water more efficiently.
When to Irrigate – Methods
1. Feel and appearance method – Visual/field assessment.
2. Available soil moisture depletion approach – Irrigate when available soil moisture
is depleted to a specific level (e.g., Sugarcane: 75%, Tobacco: 25%, Sorghum: 80%,
Potato: 40%).
3. Plant characteristics
o Leaf water potential
o Leaf curling/rolling (indicates reduced turgor pressure)
4. Climatological approach
o IW/CPE ratio (Irrigation Water/Cumulative Pan Evaporation)
o Based on ET/PET (Evapotranspiration/Potential Evapotranspiration)
5. Simple techniques
o Sowing with high seed rate (typically +25%)
o Soil cum sand mini-plot technique
o Drum culture technique
o Lysimeter
6. Instrumental techniques
o Tensiometers
o Gypsum blocks
o TDR (Time Domain Reflectometry)
o Neutron scattering method
How Much to Irrigate
 Gross Water Requirement (GWR) = Net Irrigation Requirement (NIR) +
Application losses + Effective Rainfall (ER) + Soil Moisture contribution.
 NIR = GWR – (ER + Soil Moisture + Application Losses).
How to Irrigate
 Includes methods of water application (surface, sprinkler, drip, etc.).
 Under limited water supply: Micro-irrigation methods are preferred.
Critical Concepts
 Life-saving irrigation: Applying water at critical stages to save the crop from
permanent wilting.

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  Supplemental irrigation: Applying water to obtain additional yield when rainfall is
insufficient.
 Critical stage approach: Irrigating at the most water-sensitive growth stages (e.g.,
flowering in pulses can be critical; ABA hormone can cause flower/pod drop if
stressed).

2. WATER USE EFFICIENCY (WUE) & WATER PRODUCTIVITY (WP)

Water Use Efficiency (WUE)
 Definition: Ratio of water beneficially used to total water applied.
Output
Efficiency = ×100
Input
 Types:
1. Crop WUE (CWUE): Yield / ET
2. Field WUE (FWUE): Yield / (ET + Deep Percolation)
3. Physiological WUE (PWUE): Dry Weight Accumulation / ET
Water Productivity (WP)
 Definition: The value (yield, profit, nutrition) generated per unit of water consumed.
Yield (kg)
Water Productivity=
Water Used (m³)
 Types: Physical WP, Economic WP, Crop WP.
 Key Principles for Improvement:
1. Increase marketable yield per unit of water transpired.
2. Reduce all water outflows (seepage, percolation, evaporation).
3. Increase effective use of rainfall, stored water, and marginal quality water.
Factors Influencing WUE & WP
 High-yielding cultivars
 Favorable climate during the growing season
 Efficient agronomic practices (tillage, fertilizer, weed management)
 Irrigation scheduling, conjunctive water use, micro-irrigation

3. CROP WATER REQUIREMENTS & RELATED TERMS

Crop Water Requirement (WR)
 Quantity of water required by a crop in a given period for normal growth under field
conditions.
 WR = ET + unavoidable losses.
 If supplied entirely by irrigation, then WR = Irrigation Requirement.
Consumptive Use (CU)

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  CU = Evaporation + Transpiration + Metabolic needs (metabolic needs <1%, so
CU ≈ ET).
Net Irrigation Requirement (NIR)
 Amount of water needed for optimum crop production, exclusive of effective rainfall
and stored soil moisture.
 Formula:
NIR=(Consumptive Use−Effective Rainfall)+Application Losses
Gross Irrigation Requirement (GIR)
 GIR = NIR / Irrigation Efficiency (accounts for conveyance and application losses).
Water Requirement Satisfaction Index (WRSI)
 WRSI = (Actual ET / Crop Water Requirement) × 100 – Indicator of crop
performance.
Duty & Delta
 Duty: Area irrigated per unit discharge (ha/cumec).
 Delta: Total depth of water required by a crop (cm).
 Relation: Δ (cm) = (8.64 × B) / D, where B = base period (days), D = duty
(ha/cumec).
Determination Methods
 Transpiration ratio method
 Soil moisture depletion studies
 Lysimeter experiments
 Water balance method

4. DRAINAGE
Need for Drainage
 To control flooding, waterlogging, and salinization.
Surface Drainage
 Removal of excess surface water by shaping land and using drains.
Subsurface Drainage
 Removal of excess groundwater and salts via drains.
Drainage Coefficient
 3–5 mm/day in humid areas – used to design drain size/depth.
Classification of Drainage

Grade Water Table Depth (cm)

Good >200

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Grade Water Table Depth (cm)

Fair 120–200

Poor 90–120

Very Poor <90

Crop Adaptation to Waterlogging

 Development of adventitious roots (sugarcane, maize)
 Aerenchyma tissue formation (rice)
 Increased tolerance over time

5. WATER DEFICIT & CROP GROWTH

Plant Water Deficit (Stress)
 Occurs when plant water status is reduced enough to affect normal function.
 Causes: Limited water absorption (dry/cool/poorly aerated soil) + High evaporative
demand (low RH, high temp, wind, radiation).
Plant Responses to Water Stress
 Decreased leaf area, leaf abscission
 Stomatal closure (mediated by ABA)
 Root extension into deeper moist soil
 Wax deposition on leaves
 Altered gene expression
Drought Resistance Mechanisms
1. Drought Escape – Shortening lifecycle (early flowering).
2. Drought Avoidance – Balancing water uptake & loss (e.g., deep roots, reduced
transpiration).
3. Drought Tolerance – Withstanding low tissue water content (osmotic adjustment,
hardening).
Crop Growth
 Growth: Irreversible increase in size/volume with dry matter accumulation.
 Growth Analysis Parameters: CGR (Crop Growth Rate), RGR (Relative Growth
Rate), NAR (Net Assimilation Rate), LAI (Leaf Area Index), LAD (Leaf Area
Duration).

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  Growth Curve: Sigmoid shape with three phases – Lag, Log (exponential),
Senescence.

6. SOIL-PLANT-WATER RELATIONSHIPS
Soil-Plant-Atmosphere Continuum (SPAC)
 Continuous water movement from soil → plant → atmosphere along a water potential
gradient.
 Typical Potentials: Soil: -0.33 to -15 bars; Plant: -2 to -15 bars; Atmosphere: -100 to
-1000 bars.
Soil Water
 Types: Gravitational, Capillary, Hygroscopic (unavailable).
 Movement: Saturated flow, Unsaturated flow, Vapor flow.
Soil Water Potential (ψ)
 Total ψ = ψ_g (Gravitational) + ψ_m (Matric) + ψ_o (Osmotic) + ψ_p (Pressure)
1. ψ_g: Due to gravity (+ve in saturated soil).
2. ψ_m: Due to matric forces (capillarity/adsorption) – always negative in
unsaturated soil.
3. ψ_o: Due to solutes – negative.
4. ψ_p: Due to external pressure (+ve in saturated soil, 0 in unsaturated).
Soil Moisture Constants
 Saturation, Field Capacity (-0.33 bar), Permanent Wilting Point (-15 bar),
Hygroscopic Coefficient, Air Dry, Oven Dry.
Soil Moisture Characteristic Curve
 Graph between soil moisture content (%) and soil moisture potential (bars).
 Clay holds more water at a given potential than sand.

7. ECOHYDROLOGY
Definition
 Study of interactions between water (hydrology) and ecosystems.
Key Concepts
 Water influences ecosystems (plant growth, nutrient cycles).
 Ecosystems influence water (infiltration, ET, groundwater recharge).
Applications
 Water resource management, ecosystem restoration, agriculture, climate change
studies, pollution control, disaster risk reduction.

8. CONVERSION FACTORS & FORMULAS

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  1 m³ = 1000 liters
 1 ha-cm = 100 m³
 1 cusec = 1 ft³/sec ≈ 28.3 liters/sec
 Manning’s formula for flow velocity:
1 2/ 3 1/ 2
V= R S
n
where n = roughness coefficient, R = hydraulic radius, S = slope.

44