Magnetism

Different shapes of magnets

Bar Magnets: A straight, rectangular piece of magnetic material with a North pole (N)
at one end and a South pole (S) at the other.

Horseshoe Magnets: A U-shaped magnet, which effectively brings the North and South
poles closer together to create a stronger, more concentrated magnetic field in the
gap between the poles.

Poles and Forces

• Poles: Every magnet has two poles: a North (N) pole and a South (S) pole.

• Like Poles Repel: Poles that are the same will push each other away (e.g., N-N or S-
S).

• Opposite Poles Attract: Poles that are different will pull toward each other (e.g., N-
S or S-N).

• Magnetic Forces are Non-Contact: They can apply force on each other or on
magnetic materials without touching.

Dr. Basma Samy

Note: Magnetic/Ferrous Materials: Magnets are used to attract specific materials,
which are listed as: Iron, Steel, Cobalt, and Nickel.

Magnetic Field

• Magnetic Field Definition: It is the region around the magnet (or electric current)
in which a magnetic pole or magnetic substance (like iron or steel) will experience a
force.

• Direction of Field Lines (Flux Lines): The magnetic field is always directed from
the N-pole to the S-pole outside the magnet.

• The direction is defined as the direction of the force on an North Pole in the field.

• Field Line Shape: Field lines are curved, originating from the N-pole and entering
the S-pole. They form complete loops, but there are no magnetic field lines inside
the magnet itself shown in the image with iron filings. * Field Strength: The closer
the field lines are to each other, the stronger the field.

Strength of the Magnetic Field

The strength of the magnetic field is determined by the spacing of the magnetic field
lines (also known as flux lines).

• Relationship to Spacing: The closer the field lines are to each other, the
stronger the magnetic field is in that region.

• Near the Magnet: As you move closer to the magnet, the spacing between the
lines decreases, meaning the field gets stronger.

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 • Inside the Magnet: there are no magnetic field lines inside the magnet itself

Iron filings sprinkled

around a magnet

Magnetizing by Induction

• Definition: When a magnetic substance (e.g., iron or steel) is placed in a magnetic

field, it becomes magnetized. This is called magnetization by induction.

Iron vs. Steel

Magnetic materials can be classified based on how easily they are magnetized and
demagnetized:

Behavior when Behavior when the

Material Classification near a permanent permanent magnet is Use
magnet removed

Easily magnetized Easily demagnetized Used for temporary

Soft Magnetic
Iron and attracts more (returns to being magnets
Material
iron filings. demagnetized). (electromagnets).

Steel remains
Hard Magnetic Hardly magnetized for a while Used to make
Steel
Material magnetized. (it is not easily permanent magnets.
demagnetized).

Dr. Basma Samy

 Note: The poles of a rod magnetized by induction are opposite to the poles of the
magnet causing the induction (e.g., an S-pole on the permanent magnet will induce
an N-pole on the adjacent end of the iron or steel rod).

Sources of Magnetic Fields

The three main sources of magnetic fields mentioned are:

1. Earth: The Earth acts as a giant magnet. The North Hemisphere represents the
South Magnetic Pole, while the South Hemisphere represents the North
Magnetic Pole. A freely suspended magnet's N-pole will point towards the Earth's
North Hemisphere.

2. Permanent Magnets: Magnets of different shapes (like bar magnets and horseshoe
magnets) produce a field.

3. Flow of Charge: An electric current flowing in a wire.

Testing Magnet Polarity

The polarity of a magnet can be tested using the following methods:

1. Free Suspension: Suspend the magnet freely using a string; its

North Pole will point towards the North Hemisphere of the
Earth.

Repulsion: Test for repulsion with the same pole of another

magnet, as repulsion is the definitive test for a magnet (a magnet
attracts both poles of an unmagnetized object but only repels a
like pole of another magnet).

2. Compass: A compass will point toward the magnet's South Pole (since a compass
needle's N-pole is attracted to an S-pole).

Dr. Basma Samy

3. Flow of Charge/Current in a Wire: Generating a Magnetic Field

Any current flowing in a wire will produce a magnetic field. This can occur with a straight
wire or a coiled wire (solenoid).

a- Straight Wire

The magnetic field lines (flux lines) will be concentric circles around the wire.

• The spacing between the circles increases as you move away from the wire,
indicating that the magnetic field becomes weaker.

• The wire is at the center of the circles.

The direction of the magnetic field depends on the direction of the current and can be
determined using the "Right Hand Grip Rule":

• Rule: Put the thumb of your right hand in the direction of the current, and you will
find the rest of your fingers pointing towards the direction of the magnetic field
circles.

• Example:

o If the current is flowing into the paper, the magnetic field lines are
clockwise.

o If the current is flowing out of the paper, the magnetic field lines are
counterclockwise.

Hint: Increasing the current will increase the strength of the magnetic field.

b- Solenoid (Coiled Wire)

If we have a coil connected to a battery, it will create a magnetic field stronger than a
straight wire.

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 • Outside the solenoid: The magnetic field lines are similar to those of a bar magnet
(from North (N) South (S)).

• Inside the solenoid: The magnetic field lines are parallel, equally spaced, and
directed from South (S) North (N).

• We can determine the North and South poles of the solenoid using the "Right Hand
Grip Rule": Pointing the four fingers (other than the thumb) of your right hand in the
direction of the current in the solenoid, your thumb will point towards the N-pole.

• Hint: Reversing the direction of the current will reverse the poles of the magnet and
thus reverse the direction of the magnetic field.

How to Increase the Strength of the Magnetic Field of a Solenoid

The strength of the magnetic field can be increased by:

1. Increasing the current intensity (e.g., by using a battery with a larger electromotive
force, or emf).

2. Increasing the number of turns of the coil.

3. Pushing the turns closer (reducing the spacing).

4. Inserting a ferrous core (a core made of iron or steel).

Hint for Electromagnets: We use an iron core, not a steel core. Iron is preferred because
it is easily magnetized and demagnetized, while steel will be magnetized permanently.

Dr. Basma Samy

 Magnetism by Induction (Iron vs. Steel)

When both an iron rod and a steel rod are approached near a permanent magnet, they
become magnetized by induction and attract iron filings.

• Iron (Soft Magnetic Material) is easily magnetized and easily demagnetized.

• Steel (Hard Magnetic Material) is hardly magnetized and hardly demagnetized.

Conclusion: When the permanent magnet is removed, the iron rod will return to be
demagnetized (losing attraction quickly), while the steel rod will still be magnetized for a
while and retain some iron filings.

• We can make permanent magnets out of steel only and not iron.

• Note: The directions of the poles of the magnetized steel or iron depend on the
poles of the main permanent magnet.

Applications of Electromagnets

1- Electric Bell:

1. When the switch is closed, the circuit is completed, and the current flows.

2. The solenoid becomes magnetized and hence attracts the soft-iron armature
and, at the same time, pulls the hammer to strike the gong.

3. When the hammer moves towards the gong, the contact opens, so the current
stops flowing, and the solenoid loses its magnetism.

4. Spring releases the armature to return back to its original place to close the circuit
again and repeat the operation continuously.

Dr. Basma Samy

 2- Carrying Cars or Heavy Iron Scrap:

Electromagnets are used in industrial cranes to lift and transport large masses of ferrous
materials like cars and iron scrap.

3- Circuit breakers
1) A spring-loaded push switch is held in the closed position by a spring-loaded soft
iron bolt.
2) Electromagnet arranged so it can pull the bolt away from the switch.
3) If current increases beyond set limit, then the electromagnet pulls bolt towards
itself, releasing the push switch and breaking the circuit.

4) Loudspeaker:
• The current in the loudspeaker is AC and so
continually changes direction. This causes
the magnetic field around the electromagnet
to continually change.
• The electromagnet moves back and forth, and
as a result the speaker cone also moves back
and forth, generating sound waves.

Methods of Magnetization

Stroking Method

This method involves using a permanent magnet to

transfer magnetism to a steel bar.

• Stroke the steel bar repeatedly.

• The stroking must be done in the same

direction each time.

• Use the same pole of the magnet for all strokes

Dr. Basma Samy

Electrical Method:

This method uses an electric current to create a strong

magnetic field for magnetization.

• Insert the steel bar inside a solenoid (a coil of wire).

• Allow Direct Current (d.c.) to flow through the solenoid.

• The current in the solenoid produces a magnetic field,

which will magnetize the steel bar.

• Leave the steel bar inside the energized solenoid for a while to be magnetized.

Demagnetization

To demagnetize a steel bar or remove the remnant magnetism, you can:

1. Heat the steel bar until it loses its magnetism.

2. Hammer the steel bar.

3. AC Supply: Put the magnet in a solenoid connected to an Alternating Current (a.c.)

supply, which will produce an alternating magnetic field. Then, pull the magnet
slowly out of the solenoid or reduce the current gradually to zero to make sure the
magnet is totally demagnetized.

Electromagnetic Forces
(Forces experienced by Current in Magnetic Fields)

Here we have three factors to be considered:

1. Force (Motion)

2. Moving Charge (Current)

3. Magnetic Field (caused by a magnet)

Principle: Combining the Current with the Magnetic Field perpendicularly can result in
Motion (Force), as stated by Fleming.

Dr. Basma Samy

 I+M=F

• Observation: A wire with current will move when placed in a magnetic field.

• Why this happen? This motion is due to the interaction between two magnetic
fields:

1. The one caused by the current (in the wire).

2. The other one is caused by the magnet (external field).

How to increase the value of this force or the speed of the resulting motion?

1. By increasing the current in the wire.

2. By increasing the strength of the magnetic field (using a stronger magnet).

Dr. Basma Samy

Example:

Find the direction of motion (Force) of

the part of the circuit inside the
magnet.
Force: out of the page

‘Hint:

If we have a positive change moving inside a magnetic field, it will experience a force
like that of the current.

If we have a negative charge moving inside a magnetic field, it will experience a force
opposite that of the current.

If we have a positive or negative charge stationary inside a magnetic field, it will not
experience a force as it is not moving.

Hint:

If we have a wire with a current as shown in "Case a" and this wire is put inside a
magnetic field as shown, it will experience an upwards force.

• If we reverse the direction of the current only, the direction of the force will be
reversed (as shown in "Case b").

• If we reverse the direction of the Magnetic Field only, the direction of the force
will be reversed.

Dr. Basma Samy

 • If we change both the directions of the current and the Magnetic Field, the
direction of the force will not change and will stay the same as it is!!

D.C Motor

• It is a device that converts Electric energy to Kinetic energy.

• It applies Fleming's Left-hand rule.

• Electricity (current) + Magnetic Field → Motion (Kinetic energy)

D.C. power supply: Provides the direct current (DC) required to flow through the coil.

Coil: A loop of wire, often wound around an iron core, which carries the current. The
magnetic force exerted on this current-carrying wire by the external magnet causes
the coil to rotate.

Magnet: Provides a magnetic field (N and S poles) that interacts with the magnetic
field created by the current in the coil, resulting in the turning force (torque).

Carbon brush: Stationary contacts that conduct current from the external circuit (D.C.
power supply) to the rotating commutator. They are typically made of carbon to
minimize wear.

Commutator (split rings): It connects the coil to the brushes. Its essential function is
to reverse the direction of the current in the coil every half rotation, ensuring the
turning force is always in the same direction, allowing the motor to spin continuously.

Hint :

Coil is made from insulated copper wire and is free to rotate between the poles of the
magnet. The commutator (or split ring) is fixed to the coil and is in contact with the
brushes from the DC supply.

Dr. Basma Samy

The concept of the DC motor:

• First, the circuit is horizontal and there is no current in the coil as the switch is
opened so there will be no motion.

• Once the current from the battery starts flowing, the two sides of the (coil) will
experience two forces in opposite directions, so the coil will start rotation
(experiences Moment).

• When the coil is vertical, there will be no contact with the split rings, so there is
no current in the circuit at this moment, which means that there is no force to
push the coil at this instant. However, the coil will continue rotating by inertia
(or as it has Momentum).

commutator

brush

Inducing electromotive force e.m.f:

When charge flows through a cell it is given energy by the cell. The number of joules of
energy given to each coulomb of charge that passes through the cell is the e.m.f. of the
cell

The production of an e.m.f. by moving a wire in a magnetic field is known as

electromagnetic induction.

Dr. Basma Samy

 1- Moving the wire downwards through the magnetic field induces an e.m.f. as
shown on the galvanometer.
2- Moving the wire upwards through the magnetic field induces an e.m.f. in the
opposite direction.

The induced e.m.f. (and current) can be increased by:

• Moving the wire faster

• Using a stronger magnet

• Increasing the length of wire in the magnetic field (eg. By looping the wire several
times)

• Increasing the number of turns on the coil

Inducing an e.m.f. with two options:

1- Move the wire in a magnetic field.

2- Move the magnet in or out of a coil of wire

Dr. Basma Samy

Experiments with magnet and coil also give the following results

• If the magnet is pulled out of the coil, as shown above right, the direction of the induced
e.m.f. (and current) is reversed.

• If the S pole of the magnet, rather than the N pole, is pushed into the coil, this also
reverses the current direction.

• If the magnet is held still, no field lines are cut, so there is no induced e.m.f. or current.

Lenz’s law
The direction of an induced current always opposes the magnetic field that
produces it.
Hint:
The coil of the wire tries to stop the magnet from coming in by producing an
equal and opposite force.

Dr. Basma Samy

Also, on the way out the coil of wire tries to stop it from leaving

Fleming’s right-hand rule

When a current is induced in a wire, motion, field and current are at right angles to each
other, the rule is used to work out the direction of the induced current

When the force is applied to a magnetic field

Generators:
A generator is a device that converts mechanical (kinetic) energy into
electrical energy for use in an external circuit
AC generators are also called alternators.

To build a generator we need two things:

1. A magnetic field
2. A moving wire

Dr. Basma Samy

 1- Magnets, producing a magnetic field
2- Coil, made of insulated copper wire, rotated in the magnetic field
by turning the shaft.
3- Slip rings are fixed to the coil and rotate with it.
4- Brushes (normally carbon keep the coil connected to the outside
part of the circuit.

How do generators work?

As the coil rotates, it cuts magnetic field lines, so an EMF is generated, and
a current flows.
The slip rings keep the coil in contact with the brushes throughout the
rotation, and as a result the current flows in alternate directions, producing
an alternating current (AC).

Dr. Basma Samy

 1

1= maximum forward current

2= maximum reverse current
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
The e.m.f. induced in a conductor is proportional to the rate at which the
magnetic field lines are cut by the conductor.”

Relay

Normally Open (N.O.) Reed Switch

• Contains two iron reeds inside a glass envelope.

Normal State (No Magnet):

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 o The two iron reeds are normally not connected (separated).
o The circuit is open, so no current flows and the lamp is off.

Activated State (Magnet Present):

o A bar magnet is brought close to the reeds.

o The reeds become magnetized by induction with opposite poles
facing each other.
o The iron reeds attract each other, closing the circuit.
o Current flows, and the lamp lights up.

Normally Closed (N.C.) Reed Switch

Contains two iron reeds and a third non-magnetic conductor (like

copper).

Dr. Basma Samy

 Normal State (No Magnet):
o One iron reed and the non-magnetic reed are normally
connected.
o The circuit is closed, so current flows and the lamp is on.
o

Activated State (Magnet Present):

o A bar magnet is brought close to the reeds.

o The reeds become magnetized by induction.
o The iron reeds attract each other. This pull opens the
connection between the iron reed and the non-magnetic
conductor.
o The circuit opens (stops flowing), and the bulb turns off.

Hint:
Solenoid can be used in stead of bar of magnet.
Relay can be used to control large current in a large circuit, from small
current in a small circuit

Dr. Basma Samy

Mutual induction

When coils are magnetically linked, as above, so that a changing current in one causes
an induced e.m.f. in the other, this is called mutual induction.

The electromagnet above is switched on, an e.m.f. is induced in the other coil, but only
for a fraction of a second. The effect is equivalent to pushing a magnet towards the
coil very fast.

With a steady current in the electromagnet, no e.m.f. is induced because the magnetic
field is not changing.

As the electromagnet is switched off, an e.m.f. is induced in the opposite direction.

The effect is equivalent to pulling a magnet away from the coil very fast.

The induced e.m.f. at switch-on or switch-off is increased if:

• The core of the electromagnet goes right through the second coil

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• The number of turns on the second coil is increased.

Transformers:
Transformers are used to increase or decrease voltages.
Transformers will not work with DC.

A simple transformer composed of three parts

A primary coil: the incoming voltage Vp is connected across this coil.
A secondary coil: this provides the voltage Vs to the external circuit.
An iron core: this links the two coils.
Secondary
Primary input
output coil 10
coil 5 turns n1
turns n2

12V 24V

AC Input AC Output Voltage

Voltage (Secondary) V2
(Primary) V1
This is an example of a STEP-UP transformer – the voltage is increased
between the primary and secondary coils.
In a STEP-DOWN transformer, the voltage is decreased.

How does it work?

When AC flows through the primary coil, it sets up an alternating magnetic
field in the soft iron core and, therefore, in the secondary coil. This changing
field induces an alternating voltage in the secondary coil.

Dr. Basma Samy

Example:

A transformer has 20 turns on the primary coil (input) and 10 turns on the secondary coil
(output). If the input voltage is 50 volts, what is the output voltage?

Answer

V1 = 50, n1 = 20, n2 = 10

V2 = 10 x 50 = 25 V

20

The voltage has been reduced from 50V to 25V. This is an example of a STEP-DOWN
transformer.

Step-up transformers have more turns on the output coil than on the input coil, so their
output voltage is more than the input voltage.

Hint: Large step- up transformers are used in power stations to increase the voltage to the
levels needed for overhead power lines.

Dr. Basma Samy

Step-down transformers have fewer turns on the output coil than on the input coil, so the
output voltage is less than the input voltage.

Hint: In battery chargers, computers, and other electronic equipment, they reduce the
voltage of the a.c. mains to the much lower levels needed for other circuits.

Both types of transformer work on a.c., but not on d.c, Why ?

➢ If there is no change in current in the input coil, no voltage is induced in the

output coil.

➢ Connecting a transformer to a d.c. supply can damage it.

➢ Ahigh current flows in the input coil, which can make it overheat.

Power lines:

Cables used to carry electricity from power stations to consumers

National Grid:

The network of pylons and cables that carry electricity across the country

Power across the country:

▪ Power for the a.c. mains is generated in power stations, transmitted (sent)
through long-distance cables, and then distributed to consumers.

▪ Typically, a large power station might contain four generators, each producing a
current of 20 000 amperes at a voltage of 33 000 volts.

▪ The current from each generator is fed to a huge step-up transformer which
transfers power to overhead cables at a greatly increased voltage

Dr. Basma Samy

 ▪ Power from the grid is distributed by a series of substations. These contain
step-down transformers which reduce the voltage in stages to the level needed
by consumers. Depending on the country, this might be between 110 V and 230
V for home consumers, although industry normally uses a higher voltage.

Power through a transformer

If no energy is wasted in a transformer, the power delivered by the output coil will be the
same as the power supplied to the input coil .

P (in) =P (out)

Vp Ip = VsIs

Dr. Basma Samy

Hint: When current flows in a cable, the resistance causes a
drop in voltage along cable.

Power is transmitted through the cables at high voltage,

why????
In order to reduce the loss of energy due to the cables
heating up, this heating happens much more when the
same power is transmitted at a lower voltage

Assume that provided all field lines pass through both coils,
and there is no heat loss, the following equation applies:

Output voltage = turns on output coil

Input voltage turns on input coil

V 2 = n2
V1 n1

Dr. Basma Samy