CHAPTER-3
SYSTEMS AND CONTROL
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Introduction
System – An interconnection of elements and devices for a
desired purpose.
Control System – An interconnection of components forming a
system configuration that will provide a desired response.
Process – The device, plant, or system under control. The input
and output relationship represents the cause-and-effect relationship
of the process.
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Introduction…
Open-Loop Control Systems utilize a controller or
control actuator to obtain the desired response.
Closed-Loop Control Systems utilizes feedback to
compare the actual output to the desired output response.
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Digital Control
• Control systems in continuous-time setting are usually
implemented using analogue devices such resistors, capacitors,
inductors and operational amplifiers together with some necessary
mechanical components. These devices are neither economical nor
durable.
• The advances in computer technologies make the implementation
of control systems in discrete-time setting (i.e., digital controllers)
much more efficiently and economically possible.
• Most of control systems nowadays are implemented using either
computers such as PCs or Digital Signal Processes (DSP), which are
specially designed to carry out computations related to control
algorithm realizations. The advantages of digital controllers using
PC or DSP are obvious — it is fast, reliable, reusable and can be
modified thru simple recoding whenever needed.
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Introduction…
Multivariable Control System
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Examples of Modern Control Systems
(a) Automobile steering
control system.
(b) The driver uses the
difference between the
actual and the desired
direction of travel to
generate a controlled
adjustment of the
steering wheel.
(c) Typical direction-of-
travel response.
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Examples of Modern Control Systems…
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Examples of Modern Control Systems…
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Examples of Modern Control Systems…
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Examples of Modern Control Systems…
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Dynamic system properties (in time domain and
frequency domain)
Definition
• Dynamical system is a system that changes over time according to
a set of fixed rules that determine how one state of the system
moves to another state.
• Dynamical system is a phase space together with a transformation
of that space.
A dynamical system has two parts
a) a state vector, which describes exactly the state of some real or
hypothetical system
b) a function, which tells us, given the current state, what the state
of the system will be in the next instant of time
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A state vector can be described by
x (t ) [ x1 (t ), x2 (t ),......, xn (t )]
A function can be described by a single function or by a set of
functions.
f1 ( x1 , x2 ,...., xn ), f 2 ( x1 , x2 ,...., xn ),...., f n ( x1 , x2 ,...., xn )
Entire system can be then described by a set of differential
equations – equations of motion.
dx1
x1 f1 ( x1 , x2 ,...., xn )
dt
dx2
x 2 f 2 ( x1 , x2 ,...., xn )
dt
.
.
dxn
x n f n ( x1 , x2 ,...., xn )
dt 13
Classification of Dynamical Systems
Linear Nonlinear
Autonomous Nonautonomous
Conservative Nonconservative
Discrete Continous
One-dimensional Multidimensional
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Linear system – a function describing the system behavior must satisfy
two basic properties
• additivity f ( x y ) f ( x) f ( y )
• homogeneity f ( x) f ( x)
For example f(x) = 3x; f(y) = 3y;
• additivity f(x+y) = 3(x+y) = 3x + 3y = f(x) + f(y)
• homogeneity 5 * f(x) = 5* 3x = 15x = f(5x)
Nonlinear system - is described by a nonlinear function. It does not satisfy
previous basic properties
For example f(x) = x2; f(y) = y2;
f ( x y) ( x y) 2 x 2 2 xy y 2 f ( x) f ( y) x 2 y 2
f (5 x) (5 x) 2 25 x 2 5 f ( x) 5 x 2
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Autonomous system is a system of ordinary differential equations, which do not
depend on the independent variable. If the independent variable is time, we call it
time-invariant system.
Condition: If the input signal x(t) produces an output y(t) then any time shifted input,
x(t + δ), results in a time-shifted output y(t + δ)
Example: we have two systems
System A: System B: y(t ) 10 x(t )
System A:
Start with a delay of the input
Now we delay the output by δ
Clearly , therefore the system is not time-invariant or is
nonautonomous.
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System B:
Start with a delay of the input
Now delay the output by δ
Clearly therefore the system is time-invariant or autonomous.
Conservative system - the total mechanical energy remains constant, there are
no dissipations present, e.g. simple harmonic oscillator
Nonconservative (dissipative) system – the total mechanical energy changes due
to dissipations like friction or damping, e.g. damped harmonic oscillator
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Discrete system – is described be a difference equation or set of equations. In case of a
single equation we are also talking about one-dimensional map. We denote time by k,
and the system is typically specified by the equations
x(0) x0
x(k 1) f ( x(k ))
x(k ) f k ( x0 )
The system can be solved by iteration calculation. Typical example is annual progress of
a bank account. If the initial deposit is 100000 crowns and annual interest is 3%, then
we can describe the system by
x(0) 100000
x(k 1) 1.03x(k )
x(k ) 1.03k *100000
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Continous system – is described by a differential equation or a set of
equations.
x(0) x0
x´ f ( x)
For example, vertical throw is described by initial conditions h(0), v(0) and
equations
h(t )´ v(t )
v(t )´ g
where h is height and v is velocity of a body.
Definition from the Mathematica: When the reals are acting, the system is
called a continuous dynamical system, and when the integers are acting, the
system is called a discrete dynamical system.
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One-dimensional system is described by a single function like
x(k 1) ax(k ) b
x´(t ) ax(t ) b
where a,b are constants.
Multidimensional system is described by a vector of functions like
x (k 1) Ax (k ) B
x´(t ) Ax (t ) B
where x is a vector with n components, A is n x n matrix and B is a constant
vector
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