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Ma Kyi Myint Aye
2. Ma Myat Thinn Khaing
3. Ma Aye Chan Moe
4. Ma Theint Theint Aung
What is Code Variation?
Speakers choose different language varieties (codes) depending on:
• Addresser (speaker)
• Addressee (listener)
• Setting
• Topic
• Social relationship & status
Code Choice in Different Societies
• In Javanese, speakers must choose sub-codes based on relative social status.
• This kind of interdependency between language and social factors exists in:
• Traditional societies
• Modern, urban, industrial societies (e.g. English-speaking communities)
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Language Variation in English
• English also has multiple varieties (formal, informal, prestige, stigmatized).
• Choice of variety depends on the speech situation, not just social class.
Labov’s New York City Study
• Focus: pronunciation of “th” in words like thing
• Three variants:
[θ] - fricative ( prestige / educated )
[tθ] - affricate
[t] - stop ( stigmatized / least prestigious )
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Prestige vs. Stigmatized Forms
Prestige forms are associated with:
• Education
• Higher socio-economic status
• Stigmatized forms are associated with:
• Lower socio-economic status
• Less formal situations
Important Finding
1. No variant is used exclusively by one social class
2. All speakers shift their speech depending on:
Formality
Attention to speech
Audience
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Style-Shifting Behavior
Middle-class speakers:
• Rarely use stigmatized forms in formal settings
• May use them unconsciously in informal speech
Lower-class speakers:
• Attempt more “correct” speech in formal settings
• Use stigmatized forms more frequently in informal contexts
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Language and Registers
1. Language is one system, not separate varieties
2. Speakers choose different styles (registers) based on:
• Formality
• Social status
• Relationship between speakers
Sociolinguistic Variables
Language features that change with context
Examples: Pronunciation
Grammar
Help explain why people speak differently
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Rules in Language
Invariant Rules
• Used by everyone
• Same in all situations
• Form the core grammar
Variable Rules
• Change depending on situation
• Explain social and contextual differences
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Idealization in Linguistics
• Linguists simplify language to study patterns
• Details are ignored to see the bigger picture
• This is normal in all science
Language as a System
• Language is not a patchwork
• Varieties overlap
• Differences depend on level of analysis
• No strict boundaries between groups
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Stereotypes and Behaviour
• People use stereotypes when meeting others
• Based on group assumptions
• Help predict behaviour
• Often inaccurate but useful
Why Stereotypes Persist
• Hard to change
• Contradicting evidence is ignored
• Supporting behaviour is remembered
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What is RP (Received Pronunciation)?
Received Pronunciation (RP) is: a prestige accent of British English
Traditionally associated with: Often associated with negative stereotypes:
• Educated speakers • too formal
• Upper / upper-middle classes • cold
• arrogant
• elitist
Accent signals: A foreigner who speaks RP can be seen as:
• Where you come from • Rejecting his/ her local or regional identity
• Who you belong to • Trying to sound “above others”
• Your social identity • higher social expectations
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An Ongoing debate for Foreign Language Teachers Which accent should be the model?
(e.g. RP as a “standard accent”?)
English Learner
Foreign Accent Native-like Accent (PR)
• More social leniency • Less tolerance
• Seen as "trying" • Judged more strictly
• Errors forgiven • Errors highlighted
With a foreign accent:→ “She’s cute, she’s trying hard.” With perfect RP: “Why is she behaving like us?”
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What Is a Social Role?
Society = system of roles
• Roles are linked to positions
• Roles exist independently of individuals
• Each role has rights and duties
The traditional English nursery rhyme:
“Tinker, tailor, soldier, sailor…
Rich man, poor man, beggar man, thief, …..”
is not merely a children’s rhyme — it is a social document
→ reflecting early British society.
→ Shows traditional social roles & class structure
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Social Roles Shape Behavior
Social roles are not just labels (e.g. doctor, patient).
Each role carries:
• Norms (what is usual)
• Expectations (what is appropriate)
Role behavior only works when at least two people interact.
Roles Change with Relationships
The same role behaves differently depending on who the other person is:
Doctor
Patient Colleague Consultant Authority
(Authoritative, caring) (cooperative, equal) (deferential) (formal, cautious)
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Role Shapes Language (In the Classroom)
• Roles Affect Language Ability in Class
• Language ability is often hidden by role.
• Quiet child ≠ weak language
• When role changes, language changes
Same Child
Pupil Role Teacher Role
(in classroom) (in role-play activity)
Short answers and quiet speech Longer and complex sentences
Polite and patient Clear instructions
Followed rules Confident and authoritative tone
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Language and Social Roles
• Language behaviour is influenced by social roles
• Errors often arise from social appropriateness, not linguistic inability
• Speakers adjust language according to context and role
Stereotypes and Language Norms
• Stereotypes help regulate language behaviour
• Society expects certain groups to speak in certain ways
• These expectations shape regular language patterns
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Social Control in Language Use
• Language norms are enforced in small social groups
• Methods of control include:
• Mockery
• Gossip
• Ridicule
• Ostracism
Prestige and Non-Standard Language
• Prestige groups set “acceptable” language norms
• Non-standard varieties function as identity markers
• Peer groups often resist standard language change
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Reference Groups and Identity
• People adopt language of their reference groups
• Language shows loyalty and belonging
• Peer influence is stronger than teacher influence
Language Differences Beyond Grammar
• Differences are not only grammatical or phonological
• Language also differs in function and purpose
• Groups use language differently in daily life
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Language and Educational Disadvantage
• Schools value expressive and abstract language use
• Some children use language mainly for group identification
• This mismatch leads to academic disadvantage
Motivation and Value Conflict
• Children may not identify with school language norms
• Standard language may represent unwanted social values
• Lack of motivation limits language adoption
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Conclusion
Language learning is socially and culturally shaped
Educational failure is not linguistic deficiency
Teachers must consider identity, motivation, and social context
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Do you have any questions?
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